A Vigilance Model for Latent Learning G. W. BOGUSLAVSKY Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute AbstractwThe author proposes a heuristic model for latent learning. It is concluded that to regard academic learning as qualitatively different from other forms of learning is to deny evolutionary continuity. Academic learning is not a unitary process governed by a single set of parameters. In addition, it is observed that the problem of student motivation may very well turn out to be purely academic. The instructional technique for a captive audience of a class may be so structured as to make the direction of attention irresistible, the performance of a response, when needed, compelling, and the acquisition of knowledge inevitable. Vigilance is an instance of innate foundation. Its most striking characteristics are its universality in the animal world, its ready evocation by a wide range of stimuli, and its apparent behavioral and physiological manifestations. The last two are the natural resources for objective investigation, and the first may well be the basis of broad and valid generalizations. LATENT LEARNINGis a phenomenon of acquisition that occurs without overt responding or reinforcement. It is common in everyday life, and it is the dominant pattern in many forms of classroom learning. Because it does not depend on performance or rewards, it presents a challenge to the explanatory principles of S - R formula. Among the alternative explanatory concepts the more promising are the orienting reflex (PavIov, 1928) and vigilance (Head, 1923). Though these had independent origins, their current interpretations are similar: both refer to the state of alertness induced by environmental changes. The salient features of such attention are the receptor orientation and neurophysioiogical a r o u s a l - both behavioral events. Some years ago I had postulated that the level of arousal that accompanies active attention may be represented by the mathematical function y =ce -kx, where x is the time variable in the exposure to stimulation (Boguslavsky, 1951). 1 had further assumed that retention of the experience was directly proportional to the cumulative effect of arousal, the latter represented by the integral of the function. The experimental data supported the hypothesis, but only when the subject's orientation was directed to the relevant aspects of the situation. In o t h e r w o r d s , the r e c e p t o r orientation component of vigilance operated as an all-or-none determinant of retention. Unfortunately, attention to relevant features is not always present inasmuch as fluctuation of attention is an attribute of most learning. In my work with classical conditioning 1 observed that individual instances of vigilance differed in pat-
tern as well as in direction. All were recognizable as vigilance by their components of orientation and arousal, and some were sufficiently alike to be classified as belonging to a stereotype. This observation, coupled with an assumption that specific vigilance reactions served as mediating processes, led to the development of a model in which the reactions, abbreviated SVR, are treated as random variables from a finite population N. The progress of learning is assumed to depend on enlisting the several SVR's as cues. Estimates of the progress are obtainable from the formulas of the classical occupancy problem, with the obvious result: the larger the N the longer the learning (Boguslavsky, 1955). In a test of the model, selective manipulation of the environment, intended to reduce the animal's field of orientation, led to a significant decrease in the time required to learn to an established criterion (Boguslavsky, 1958). The effect of such manipulation is intuitively understandable, and the transition to other forms of learning is straightforward. Acquisition of knowledge, particularly in the classroom, is enchanced by eliminating irrelevant stimuli competing for the learner's attention, or, in the language of the model, by reducing the value ofN. Competition for the learner' s'atte ntion is particularly severe when a specific detail is to be isolated from a mass of details in a visual display. The common classroom practice is to indicate the detail with a pointer or a beam of light. The technique is generally effective in directing receptor-orientation, but it does little to enhance the level of arousal. Both objectives, however, may be attained by
0093-2213/78/0100/0236/$00.80 9 J. B. Lippincott Company
236
Volarac 13
237
VIGILANCE MODEL
Number 4
sequential changes in figure-ground relation. As the instruction progresses, the contrast between figure and ground may be arranged to change in the same order. The very fact of change is sufficient to maintain the excitatory aspect of vigilance, and the figure-ground effect gives direction to orientation. In line with this reasoning I postulated that orientation accompanied by arousal is more conducive to acquisition than orientation alone. This proposition was tested under a grant from the U.S. Office of Education, and the present paper is a report on that project (Boguslavsky, 1967).
Test of Hypothesis Method The foregoing proposition was tested by controlled comparisons of two instructional methods consisting of tape-recorded lectures and photographic slides. In both methods the lectures were identical, but the slides differed.
Control Slides: These were black-and-white reproductions of conventional textbook illustrations. The various components of each illustration were properly labeled. As the taped narrative described a particular component, the teacher directed a pointer to the corresponding detail in the picture. Experimental Slides: These, too, were reproductions of textbook illustrations, but done in black, white, and a shade of gray. There was no teacher with a pointer: instead, the detail under discussion appeared with maximal contrast of white against black, while other details remained in lesser contrast of gray against black. As the narrative progressed from one component to another, the maximal contrast shifted accordingly. This basic approach was occasionally varied by the introduction of coloration in order to maximize contrast. Materials The materials were prepared with the help of the faculty in Troy High School and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, who had volunteered to take part in the project. The areas of study and the topics selected to test the hypothesis are summarized below: I. High School Biology--two lectures: a. Cell Division b. The Reproductive Process 2. High School Chemistry--two lectures: a. Oxidation-Reduction b. Balancing of Equations 3. High School Physics--two lectures:
a. Wave Motion b. Reflection and Refraction 4. High School Geometry--one lecture: a. Simple and Compound Loci Two other topics, statistics and mechanics, had been tested on RPI students. These, however, had not been replicated on other college populations and are not included in the present discussion.
Procedure Each lecture was about 40 minutes long, recorded on tape by a professional radio announcer. A script was keyed numerically to the narrative for manual changing of the slides. These were presented by Bell and Howell projectors: The #750 specialist projector for the control group and the lap-dissolve tandematic projector for the experimental group. The latter allowed for a gradual shift in figure-ground contrast without affecting topographic relation. The hypothesis was tested by specially prepared objective examinations administered upon completion of the lecture or lectures. When comparison between treatments was based on only one lecture, the examination was administered on the following day. In courses with two lectures the examination was given on the third day, except as noted hereafter.
Subjects The subjects were students regularly enrolled in the respective courses. The breakdown is summarized below. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Biology: 4 classes, total N = Chemistry: 3 classes, total N Physics: 2 classes, total N = Geometry: 2 classes, total N
107. = 67. 56. = 38.
Each class was divided at random into approximately equal control and experimental groups, and the treatments were administered simultaneously in separate rooms. Though the several classes in an area of study met at different hours, the examination for all classes in the area was given at the same time. The results are summarized in Table 1. The results support the hypothesis for biology and geometry but contradict it for chemistry and physics, a nonparametric analysis, the rankorder test, shows only one significant difference at the 5% level: the reflection-refraction test difference, contradicting the hypothesis. The lowest level of significance, approaching pure chance, was for the test difference in geometry. Although the data were inconsistent between areas of study, they were relatively consistent between classes within an area. This suggests
238
BOGUSLAVSKY
Pay.J. tool Sci.
October-December 1978
T A B L E 1.
Subject
Topic
Ne
Nc
Test Maximum
Med,
Medc Med~ - Medr
56
51
60
40.5
39
+ 1.5
25
15
15.5
- 0.5
33
34 70
50
50.5
- 0.5
Cell Division Biology*
Reproduction Oxidation-Reduction
Chemistry Balancing of Equations Wave Motion
29
28
43
24
24.5
- 0.5
Reflection-Refraction
27
29
27
13
15
- 2.0
Locus
19
19
16
14
13
+ 1.0
Physics
Geometry
N = number of students; e = experimental; c = control; Med = median score. * The two lectures in biology were combined in a single test.
the possibility of interaction between treatment and area of study. It is quite likely that areas of study differ in levels of arousal which are optimal for acquisition. Thus, a high level of arousal may be beneficial to the learning of localization and naming of concrete details, as in high school biology. On the other hand, the same level may be detrimental to problem-solving, as in chemistry and physics. As Hebb has suggested, the summation form arousal is not selective and can break into the train of thought (Hebb, 1972). The validity o f these conclusions was examined by replication of the comparisons with new populations.
Test Replication Subjects The subjects and classroom space were provided by five schools in New York State Capital District in the summer of 1965. The list of schools follows. I. Albany Academy: private, nonparochial high school. 2. East G r e e n b u s h High School: public school. 3. Lansingburgh High School: public school. 4. Milne School: experimental school of the State College of Education, combining high school with lower grades. 5. Vincentian Academy: parochial high school. Students in the MiMe School were 7th, 8th and 9th graders taking an advanced experimental course in biology; students in the other four schools were repeating courses they had failed in the previous academic year or in which they had
received a low mark. A total of 227 students took part in the project.
Materials Three areas of study were selected for the replication: (1) biology, as maximally favoring the hypothesis; (2) physics, as most contradictory to the hypothesis; and (3) geometry, as failing to show differentiation between treatments. By eliminating reiteration and summaries, the two lectures in biology and the two lectures in physics were condensed into single 45-minute lectures. Procedure The presentation dates were established by the teachers, coinciding with the periods scheduled for teaching the materials. As in the original experiment, the classes were randomly divided into experimental and control groups. Because most students had some acquaintance with the subject matter, a test was administered before as well as after the presentation. This was a 15-item multiple-choice test, with ample time to answer the items. The entire procedure required about 75 minutes. Results The results of the replication are presented in Table 2. Although the differences between improvement scores in the experimental and control groups failed to achieve statistical significance at the 5% level, the mean improvement scores in the experimental groups were generally larger than those in the control groups. To determine whether the frequency of this occurrence (8 of 11
Volume 13 Number 4
VIGILANCE MODEL
239
TABLE 2. Biology
Geometry
School
De
Dc
D e-c
D~
Dc
Milne Albany Vincen E. Gr. Lans.
5.40 4.00 1.75 3.55 2.11
4.63 2.00 1.66 3.00 2.00
0.77 2.00 0.09 0.55 0.11
2.71 2.94 2.16 2.61
2.89 1.81 1.79 2.70
ALL
3.09
2.68
0.41
2.52
2.25
Physics
D~-c
D~
D~
D~_~
-0.18 1.13 0.37 -0.09
3.67 1.62
2.50 1.69
1.17 -0.07
0.27
2.00
1.80
0.20
e = experimental; c = control. Under each discipline, the first two columns show the differences between posttreatment and pretreatment scores; i.e., they show improvements resulting from exposure to instruction. The third column shows differences between improvements, attributable to the differential effects of the experimental and the control treatments.
samples) deviated significantly from chance, the probability values were computed by binomial expansion. The probability of obtaining 8 or more samples in which the experimental group's mean improvement score exceeded that of the control group was 11.3% for a one-tailed test. The value for biology, however, lends substantial credibility to the hypothesis. The probability of five successes in five trials is .03. This is also a one-tailed test; but when the data are pooled with those of the original experiment, the probability value holds for a two-tailed test. Discussion The confirmation of original results in biology provides grounds for accepting the hypothesis of the efficacy of the experimental treatment in this area of study. The equivocal data from other classes are insufficient to reject the hypothesis of interaction between treatment and area of study. If such interaction does in fact exist, the relation lends itself to mathematical interpretation as a probability surface shown in Figure 1. The algebraic expression is p r o p o s e d tentatively as a point of departure for empirical tests of differences in rates of acquisition among disciplines and instructional methods. The three variables are defined as follows: x = level of arousal; y = population of specific vigilance reactions; z = probability of acquisition on any specific trial. The parameter k is expected to vary with instructional method, and the parameter u with area of study. The parameter c defines the value o f z along the Y-axis, where the level of arousal is minimal.
Concluding
Observations
The following observations were not the aim of the original design, but they were inescapable. They are presented here as intuitive generalizations rather than as experimentally supported verities. I. To regard academic learning as qualitatively different from other forms of learning is to deny evolutionary continuity. Academic learning is not a unitary process governed by asingle set of parameters. It includes latent or associative learning, such as occurs in straightforward exposition. It also includes learning of the application of principles, which is most certainly dependent on response evocation and, possibly, on reinforcement9 Both forms of learning have been demonstrated in lower organisms, and the difference between phylogenetic levels is very probably one of the degree of refinement in discrimination. 2. The problem of student motivation may very well turn out to be purely academic. The instructional technique for a captive audience of a class may be so structured as to make the direction of attention irresistible, the performance of a response, when needed, compelling, and the acquisition of knowledge inevitable. 3. It is tempting to regard academic learning as a purely rational process and to ignore the learner's biological tendencies, which may facilitate as well as handicap the learning process. This aspect of the phenomenon of learning has been aptly described by Tinbergen (1951): 9 . . disregard of innate behavior is due to the fact that it is not generally understood that learning and many other higher processes are secondary modifications of innate mecha-
240
BOGUSLAVSKY
Pa,. J. Biol.Sei.
Octobcr-Dccernl~r 1978
IZ
!
k y
Z=~e
i
-c(x-]~) z
!
level of arousal y: number of SVR's z: probability of ocquisition x.:
X /
/
I I,"
I
i/
FIG. 1.
nisms, and that therefore a study of learning processes has to be preceded b~, a study of the innate foundations o f behavior. My thesis is that vigilance is an instance of such innate foundation. Its most striking characteristics are its universality in the animal world, its ready evocation by a wide range o f stimuli, and its apparent behavioral and physiological manifestations. The last two are the natural resources for objective investigation, and the first m a y well be the basis o f b r o a d and valid generalizations. References
Boguslavsky, G. W.: Interruption and learning. Psychol. Rev. 58, 248-255, 1951.
Boguslavsky, G. W.: A mathematical model for conditioning. Psychometrika 20, 125-138, 1955. Boguslavsky, G. W.: The effect of vigilance on the rate of conditioning. In Gantt, W. H. (ed.), Physiological Bases o f Psychiatry. Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas, 1958. Boguslavsky, G. W.: Study of characteristics contributing to the effectiveness of visual demonstrations. HEW Report, Project No. 5-0458 (conducted under HEW Grant No. 7-42-1070-178), 1967. Head, H.: The conception of nervous and mental energy. Brit. J. Psychoi. 14, 126-147, 1923. Hebb, D. O.: Textbook o f Psychology. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders, 1972. Parlay, I. P.: Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes. Gantt, W. H. (trans. and ed.L New York, International, 1928. Tinbergen, N.: The Study oflnstinct. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 195l.
tern as well as in direction. All were recognizable as vigilance by their components of orientation and arousal, and some were sufficiently alike to be classified as belonging to a stereotype. This observation, coupled with an assumption that specific vigilance reactions served as mediating processes, led to the development of a model in which the reactions, abbreviated SVR, are treated as random variables from a finite population N. The progress of learning is assumed to depend on enlisting the several SVR's as cues. Estimates of the progress are obtainable from the formulas of the classical occupancy problem, with the obvious result: the larger the N the longer the learning (Boguslavsky, 1955). In a test of the model, selective manipulation of the environment, intended to reduce the animal's field of orientation, led to a significant decrease in the time required to learn to an established criterion (Boguslavsky, 1958). The effect of such manipulation is intuitively understandable, and the transition to other forms of learning is straightforward. Acquisition of knowledge, particularly in the classroom, is enchanced by eliminating irrelevant stimuli competing for the learner's attention, or, in the language of the model, by reducing the value ofN. Competition for the learner' s'atte ntion is particularly severe when a specific detail is to be isolated from a mass of details in a visual display. The common classroom practice is to indicate the detail with a pointer or a beam of light. The technique is generally effective in directing receptor-orientation, but it does little to enhance the level of arousal. Both objectives, however, may be attained by
0093-2213/78/0100/0236/$00.80 9 J. B. Lippincott Company
236
Volarac 13
237
VIGILANCE MODEL
Number 4
sequential changes in figure-ground relation. As the instruction progresses, the contrast between figure and ground may be arranged to change in the same order. The very fact of change is sufficient to maintain the excitatory aspect of vigilance, and the figure-ground effect gives direction to orientation. In line with this reasoning I postulated that orientation accompanied by arousal is more conducive to acquisition than orientation alone. This proposition was tested under a grant from the U.S. Office of Education, and the present paper is a report on that project (Boguslavsky, 1967).
Test of Hypothesis Method The foregoing proposition was tested by controlled comparisons of two instructional methods consisting of tape-recorded lectures and photographic slides. In both methods the lectures were identical, but the slides differed.
Control Slides: These were black-and-white reproductions of conventional textbook illustrations. The various components of each illustration were properly labeled. As the taped narrative described a particular component, the teacher directed a pointer to the corresponding detail in the picture. Experimental Slides: These, too, were reproductions of textbook illustrations, but done in black, white, and a shade of gray. There was no teacher with a pointer: instead, the detail under discussion appeared with maximal contrast of white against black, while other details remained in lesser contrast of gray against black. As the narrative progressed from one component to another, the maximal contrast shifted accordingly. This basic approach was occasionally varied by the introduction of coloration in order to maximize contrast. Materials The materials were prepared with the help of the faculty in Troy High School and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, who had volunteered to take part in the project. The areas of study and the topics selected to test the hypothesis are summarized below: I. High School Biology--two lectures: a. Cell Division b. The Reproductive Process 2. High School Chemistry--two lectures: a. Oxidation-Reduction b. Balancing of Equations 3. High School Physics--two lectures:
a. Wave Motion b. Reflection and Refraction 4. High School Geometry--one lecture: a. Simple and Compound Loci Two other topics, statistics and mechanics, had been tested on RPI students. These, however, had not been replicated on other college populations and are not included in the present discussion.
Procedure Each lecture was about 40 minutes long, recorded on tape by a professional radio announcer. A script was keyed numerically to the narrative for manual changing of the slides. These were presented by Bell and Howell projectors: The #750 specialist projector for the control group and the lap-dissolve tandematic projector for the experimental group. The latter allowed for a gradual shift in figure-ground contrast without affecting topographic relation. The hypothesis was tested by specially prepared objective examinations administered upon completion of the lecture or lectures. When comparison between treatments was based on only one lecture, the examination was administered on the following day. In courses with two lectures the examination was given on the third day, except as noted hereafter.
Subjects The subjects were students regularly enrolled in the respective courses. The breakdown is summarized below. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Biology: 4 classes, total N = Chemistry: 3 classes, total N Physics: 2 classes, total N = Geometry: 2 classes, total N
107. = 67. 56. = 38.
Each class was divided at random into approximately equal control and experimental groups, and the treatments were administered simultaneously in separate rooms. Though the several classes in an area of study met at different hours, the examination for all classes in the area was given at the same time. The results are summarized in Table 1. The results support the hypothesis for biology and geometry but contradict it for chemistry and physics, a nonparametric analysis, the rankorder test, shows only one significant difference at the 5% level: the reflection-refraction test difference, contradicting the hypothesis. The lowest level of significance, approaching pure chance, was for the test difference in geometry. Although the data were inconsistent between areas of study, they were relatively consistent between classes within an area. This suggests
238
BOGUSLAVSKY
Pay.J. tool Sci.
October-December 1978
T A B L E 1.
Subject
Topic
Ne
Nc
Test Maximum
Med,
Medc Med~ - Medr
56
51
60
40.5
39
+ 1.5
25
15
15.5
- 0.5
33
34 70
50
50.5
- 0.5
Cell Division Biology*
Reproduction Oxidation-Reduction
Chemistry Balancing of Equations Wave Motion
29
28
43
24
24.5
- 0.5
Reflection-Refraction
27
29
27
13
15
- 2.0
Locus
19
19
16
14
13
+ 1.0
Physics
Geometry
N = number of students; e = experimental; c = control; Med = median score. * The two lectures in biology were combined in a single test.
the possibility of interaction between treatment and area of study. It is quite likely that areas of study differ in levels of arousal which are optimal for acquisition. Thus, a high level of arousal may be beneficial to the learning of localization and naming of concrete details, as in high school biology. On the other hand, the same level may be detrimental to problem-solving, as in chemistry and physics. As Hebb has suggested, the summation form arousal is not selective and can break into the train of thought (Hebb, 1972). The validity o f these conclusions was examined by replication of the comparisons with new populations.
Test Replication Subjects The subjects and classroom space were provided by five schools in New York State Capital District in the summer of 1965. The list of schools follows. I. Albany Academy: private, nonparochial high school. 2. East G r e e n b u s h High School: public school. 3. Lansingburgh High School: public school. 4. Milne School: experimental school of the State College of Education, combining high school with lower grades. 5. Vincentian Academy: parochial high school. Students in the MiMe School were 7th, 8th and 9th graders taking an advanced experimental course in biology; students in the other four schools were repeating courses they had failed in the previous academic year or in which they had
received a low mark. A total of 227 students took part in the project.
Materials Three areas of study were selected for the replication: (1) biology, as maximally favoring the hypothesis; (2) physics, as most contradictory to the hypothesis; and (3) geometry, as failing to show differentiation between treatments. By eliminating reiteration and summaries, the two lectures in biology and the two lectures in physics were condensed into single 45-minute lectures. Procedure The presentation dates were established by the teachers, coinciding with the periods scheduled for teaching the materials. As in the original experiment, the classes were randomly divided into experimental and control groups. Because most students had some acquaintance with the subject matter, a test was administered before as well as after the presentation. This was a 15-item multiple-choice test, with ample time to answer the items. The entire procedure required about 75 minutes. Results The results of the replication are presented in Table 2. Although the differences between improvement scores in the experimental and control groups failed to achieve statistical significance at the 5% level, the mean improvement scores in the experimental groups were generally larger than those in the control groups. To determine whether the frequency of this occurrence (8 of 11
Volume 13 Number 4
VIGILANCE MODEL
239
TABLE 2. Biology
Geometry
School
De
Dc
D e-c
D~
Dc
Milne Albany Vincen E. Gr. Lans.
5.40 4.00 1.75 3.55 2.11
4.63 2.00 1.66 3.00 2.00
0.77 2.00 0.09 0.55 0.11
2.71 2.94 2.16 2.61
2.89 1.81 1.79 2.70
ALL
3.09
2.68
0.41
2.52
2.25
Physics
D~-c
D~
D~
D~_~
-0.18 1.13 0.37 -0.09
3.67 1.62
2.50 1.69
1.17 -0.07
0.27
2.00
1.80
0.20
e = experimental; c = control. Under each discipline, the first two columns show the differences between posttreatment and pretreatment scores; i.e., they show improvements resulting from exposure to instruction. The third column shows differences between improvements, attributable to the differential effects of the experimental and the control treatments.
samples) deviated significantly from chance, the probability values were computed by binomial expansion. The probability of obtaining 8 or more samples in which the experimental group's mean improvement score exceeded that of the control group was 11.3% for a one-tailed test. The value for biology, however, lends substantial credibility to the hypothesis. The probability of five successes in five trials is .03. This is also a one-tailed test; but when the data are pooled with those of the original experiment, the probability value holds for a two-tailed test. Discussion The confirmation of original results in biology provides grounds for accepting the hypothesis of the efficacy of the experimental treatment in this area of study. The equivocal data from other classes are insufficient to reject the hypothesis of interaction between treatment and area of study. If such interaction does in fact exist, the relation lends itself to mathematical interpretation as a probability surface shown in Figure 1. The algebraic expression is p r o p o s e d tentatively as a point of departure for empirical tests of differences in rates of acquisition among disciplines and instructional methods. The three variables are defined as follows: x = level of arousal; y = population of specific vigilance reactions; z = probability of acquisition on any specific trial. The parameter k is expected to vary with instructional method, and the parameter u with area of study. The parameter c defines the value o f z along the Y-axis, where the level of arousal is minimal.
Concluding
Observations
The following observations were not the aim of the original design, but they were inescapable. They are presented here as intuitive generalizations rather than as experimentally supported verities. I. To regard academic learning as qualitatively different from other forms of learning is to deny evolutionary continuity. Academic learning is not a unitary process governed by asingle set of parameters. It includes latent or associative learning, such as occurs in straightforward exposition. It also includes learning of the application of principles, which is most certainly dependent on response evocation and, possibly, on reinforcement9 Both forms of learning have been demonstrated in lower organisms, and the difference between phylogenetic levels is very probably one of the degree of refinement in discrimination. 2. The problem of student motivation may very well turn out to be purely academic. The instructional technique for a captive audience of a class may be so structured as to make the direction of attention irresistible, the performance of a response, when needed, compelling, and the acquisition of knowledge inevitable. 3. It is tempting to regard academic learning as a purely rational process and to ignore the learner's biological tendencies, which may facilitate as well as handicap the learning process. This aspect of the phenomenon of learning has been aptly described by Tinbergen (1951): 9 . . disregard of innate behavior is due to the fact that it is not generally understood that learning and many other higher processes are secondary modifications of innate mecha-
240
BOGUSLAVSKY
Pa,. J. Biol.Sei.
Octobcr-Dccernl~r 1978
IZ
!
k y
Z=~e
i
-c(x-]~) z
!
level of arousal y: number of SVR's z: probability of ocquisition x.:
X /
/
I I,"
I
i/
FIG. 1.
nisms, and that therefore a study of learning processes has to be preceded b~, a study of the innate foundations o f behavior. My thesis is that vigilance is an instance of such innate foundation. Its most striking characteristics are its universality in the animal world, its ready evocation by a wide range o f stimuli, and its apparent behavioral and physiological manifestations. The last two are the natural resources for objective investigation, and the first m a y well be the basis o f b r o a d and valid generalizations. References
Boguslavsky, G. W.: Interruption and learning. Psychol. Rev. 58, 248-255, 1951.
Boguslavsky, G. W.: A mathematical model for conditioning. Psychometrika 20, 125-138, 1955. Boguslavsky, G. W.: The effect of vigilance on the rate of conditioning. In Gantt, W. H. (ed.), Physiological Bases o f Psychiatry. Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas, 1958. Boguslavsky, G. W.: Study of characteristics contributing to the effectiveness of visual demonstrations. HEW Report, Project No. 5-0458 (conducted under HEW Grant No. 7-42-1070-178), 1967. Head, H.: The conception of nervous and mental energy. Brit. J. Psychoi. 14, 126-147, 1923. Hebb, D. O.: Textbook o f Psychology. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders, 1972. Parlay, I. P.: Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes. Gantt, W. H. (trans. and ed.L New York, International, 1928. Tinbergen, N.: The Study oflnstinct. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 195l.
