School Psychology Quarterly 2015, Vol. 30, No. 1, 64 –74
© 2014 American Psychological Association 1045-3830/15/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/spq0000056
Academic Self-Efficacy Mediates the Effects of School Psychological Climate on Academic Achievement Rune Høigaard, Velibor Bobo Kovacˇ, Nina Cecilie Øverby, and Tommy Haugen
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University of Agder This study investigated the effects of proximal and distal constructs on adolescent’s academic achievement through self-efficacy. Participants included 482 ninth- and tenth- grade Norwegian students who completed a questionnaire designed to assess school-goal orientations, organizational citizenship behavior, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement. The results of a bootstrapping technique used to analyze relationships between the constructs indicated that school-goal orientations and organizational citizenship predicted academic self-efficacy. Furthermore, school-goal orientation, organizational citizenship, and academic self-efficacy explained 46% of the variance in academic achievement. Mediation analyses revealed that academic self-efficacy mediated the effects of perceived task goal structure, perceived ability structure, civic virtue, and sportsmanship on adolescents’ academic achievements. The results are discussed in reference to current scholarship, including theories underlying our hypothesis. Practical implications and directions for future research are suggested. Keywords: school psychological environment, citizenship behavior, academic self-efficacy, academic achievement
The potential for education to assist in efforts to fulfill a student’s ambitions by providing environments designed to promote their positive development, including their cognitive abilities, is indisputable. Adolescents are in a sensitive developmental period in which social comparisons and identity formation generally are prominent. Furthermore, this period can be
especially demanding while attempting to maintain an academic focus while also struggling with competing challenges (e.g., rapid physical changes, sex role orientation) that may create impediments to their academic development and general psychosocial adjustment (Hardy, Bukowski, & Sippola, 2002; Larson, Moneta, Richards, & Wilson, 2002; Rusby, Forrester, Biglan, & Metzler, 2005). The importance of academic self-efficacy and psychological climate on academic achievement is well established. Higher levels of academic self-efficacy are important, perhaps even critical, to attaining desired high levels of academic performance (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2010; Vrugt, Kangereis, & Hoogstraten, 1997). Moreover, the presence of a task-oriented and supportive learning environment also seems to be important for high academic achievement (Eccles et al., 1993; Maehr & Anderman, 1993; Midgley, 1993; Wang & Holcombe, 2010). However, solely personal processes (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2010) may not determine self-efficacy. Self-efficacy may also be influenced by environmental and behavioral events within the school, including a school’s psychological climate (Bandura, Caprara, Bar-
This article was published Online First April 7, 2014. Rune Høigaard, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway; Velibor Bobo Kovacˇ, Department of Education, Faculty of Humanities and Education, University of Agder; Nina Cecilie Øverby, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder; Tommy Haugen, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder. This study is a part of a larger study of school achievement conducted jointly by the University of Agder and Sørlandet Resource Centre in Norway. The authors thank personnel at the Sørlandet Resource Centre as well as the principals, staff, and students at the four participating schools for their support. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Rune Høigaard, University of Agder, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, Service Box 422, No-4604 Kristiansand, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] 64
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EFFECTS OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATES
baranelli, Pastorelli, & Regali, 2001). Selfefficacy is an important mediator of academic achievement (Diseth, 2011; Zhu, Chen, Chen, & Chern, 2011; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). However, the extent to which self-efficacy may also mediate relationships between school environments and academic achievement has seemingly not been examined. This study investigates relationships among middle-school students’ perceptions of their learning environment, self-efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. The mediating role of academic self-efficacy in the relationship between perceived school psychological climate and academic achievement is also examined. School Psychological Climate and Learning Achievements Students characterize a school’s psychological climate in light of their personal perceptions of its proximal and distal qualities (Roeser, Midgley, & Urdan, 1996). Students’ perceptions of the dominant learning goal orientations that their school tends to display constitutes the distal qualities of a school’s psychological climate. According to achievement goal theory (Ames, 1992a, 1992b; Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 2001), students often perceive and define their school’s social and learning context in one of two fundamentally opposite orientations. One focuses on mastery orientation. It promotes adaptive functioning that helps and supports the learning contexts. For example, teachers using mastery orientation tend to promote a learning atmosphere that stimulates students’ intrinsic motivation, personal efforts, and general improvement. In contrast, another focuses on performance orientation. Its atmosphere is more competitive and draws distinctions between correct and incorrect performance. Teachers using a performance orientation tend to promote rivalry and competition, compare students, and suppress intrinsic motivation (Duda & Whitehead, 1998). Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) exemplifies proximal aspects of an environment’s psychological climate. At first, OCB was defined as an “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization” (Organ, 1988, p. 4).
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Later, the definition was modified to “performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place” (Organ, 1997, p. 95). The more recent definition explicitly associates OCB with task performances regardless of the effect of potential formal rewards. The concept of OCB, developed originally for use in organizational psychology contexts, has been subject to considerable research (e.g., Podsakoff, Blume, Whiting, & Podsakoff, 2009), and its conceptually distinct dimensions are identified (Organ, 1988, 1990; Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006). Current scholarship focuses on three main dimensions (Podsakoff, Ahearne, & MacKenzie, 1997): sportsmanship (e.g., the willingness to tolerate the inevitable inconveniences and impositions of work without complaining), civic virtue (e.g., responsive, constructive involvement in the organization), and helping behavior (e.g., voluntarily helping others with an organizationally relevant task or problem). Thus, OCB is viewed as an essential part of an organization. Organizational citizenship contributes to several important organizational outcomes, including motivation, productivity, performance, and job satisfaction (see Organ et al., 2006 and Podsakoff et al., 2009 for overviews). Some studies investigated OCB in a school context from the perceptions of teachers and school leaders (e.g., Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995). In addition, a study of university students found a positive association between OCB and academic achievement, consistent with findings generally observed in business settings (Allison, Voss, & Dryer, 2001). Thus, the belief that OCB also may exert an influence on secondary school achievement seems tenable. Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievement Self-efficacy refers to self-beliefs about the degree of perceived self-control over future actions. Self-efficacy is linked to one’s actual performance in a specific domain (Maddux & Gosselin, 2003). Self-efficacy beliefs comprise a component of a person’s global self-concept and typically refer to an individual’s ability to successfully perform a certain task (Huang, 2011; Sanchez & Roda, 2003). Personal abili-
HØIGAARD, KOVACˇ, ØVERBY, AND HAUGEN
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ties vary substantially across different behaviors—we are good at some things and not good at other things. The effect of self-efficacy is better understood when its assessment is domain-specific rather than focused on more general behaviors (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004). Thus, the assessment of selfefficacy usually focuses on specific domains (Bandura, 1997). The direct effect of selfefficacy in predicting subsequent behavior in general is well documented (e.g., Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 2003; Caprara, Barbaranelli, Pastorelli, & Cervone, 2004). Moreover, its effect on academic achievements is well documented (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996; Chemers, Hu, & Garcia, 2001; Greene, Miller, Crowson, Duke, & Akey, 2004; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Schunk, 1994; Sharma & Silbereisen, 2007; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). Academic self-efficacy refers to personal beliefs about one’s ability to organize and execute actions to attain desired levels of academic performance (Zimmerman, 1995). Academic selfefficacy beliefs relate positively to academic performances, achievements, and efforts (Multon et al., 1991), including those for middleschool students (Britner & Pajares, 2006; Pajares, Britner, & Valiante, 2000). The strength of one’s self-efficacy during middle school is important. Those with higher levels are likely to succeed now and are better prepared for later academic and vocational challenges (Bandura et al., 2001; Zimmerman, 1990). In contrast, those with lower levels are likely to do less well
academically now and later and to display other difficulties (e.g., antisocial behaviors) (Bandura, 1997; Bandura et al., 1996; Bandura et al., 2001). Although the direct effects of selfefficacy on academic achievement are impressive and well documented, the role of selfefficacy as a mediator has not been explored widely. Bandura’s (1986) belief that selfefficacy may mediate the effects of other selfbeliefs on subsequent performance helps guide this research (see also Bandura, 1997; Zimmerman, 1995; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of proximal and distal qualities on academic success among Norwegian middleschool students (see Figure 1). The following three hypothesized are tested: (a) proximal and distal qualities associated with school psychological climate will predict self-efficacy, (b) self-efficacy will have the strongest effect on academic achievement, and (c) self-efficacy mediates the effects of proximal/distal qualities of school psychological climate on academic achievement. Method Participants Norwegian ninth- and tenth-grade students (i.e., approximately 14 –15 years old) who attended one of four secondary schools in three different municipalities in Vest-Agder County were invited to participate. The schools were selected by the Sørlandet Resource Centre to well represent the county by including urban
ab path (indirect effect) PTGS
a path
ASE
b path
PAGS OCB-H
c (total effect) AA
OCB-CV OCB-S
c´ (direct effect)
Figure 1. The hypothesized mediation model. PTGS ⫽ perceived task goal structure; PAGS ⫽ perceived ability goal structure; OCB ⫽ organizational citizenship behavior; H ⫽ helping behavior; CV ⫽ civic virtue; S ⫽ sportsmanship; ASE ⫽ academic self-efficacy, AA ⫽ academic achievement.
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EFFECTS OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATES
and rural communities. The sample is one characterized by convenience. The principals of four schools, two urban and two rural, contacted by the Sørlandet Resource Centre agreed to participate. Six hundred twenty-five students were invited to participate, and 482 students returned their questionnaires (a participation rate of 77%), among which 475 included all needed data and 7 were excluded because of their many shortcomings. The final sample included 49% males with a mean age of 14.6 years for both sexes. Procedure The students completed the questionnaire during a school class and under the supervision of a project worker. Students were informed that their responses were anonymous and that their participation was voluntary. The students received oral and written instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. Project workers answered student questions. Students returned the completed questionnaires in a sealed envelope to the project worker. Institutional ethics approval was obtained according to the Sørlandet Resource Centre institutional procedures. Measurements School goal orientation. The School Goal Scale (SGS; Roeser et al., 1996) was used to measure students’ perceptions of the school psychological climate. This scale consists of two subscales. The perceived task goal structure scale’s six items assess students’ perceptions of their school’s emphasis on effort, understanding, and the belief that all students can learn and be successful (i.e., a reflection of mastery orientation). An item example follows: “In this school, understanding the work is more important than getting the right answers.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.81. The perceived ability goal structure scale’s six items assess students’ perceptions that relative ability is a salient and rewarded marker of success in the school and that higher achieving students are treated better than other students (i.e., a reflection of performance orientation). An item example follows: “In this school, teachers treat kids who get good grades better than other kids.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.81. All items were measured using a 5-point Likert scale (1 ⫽ not at all true in this school, 5 ⫽ very true in this school).
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Thus, higher values reflect a stronger perception of the measured goal structure. OCB. The OCB scale’s 13 items assess students’ perception of citizenship behavior in the class (Podsakoff et al., 1997). The scale’s items were adapted to better suit students in educational settings. The scale assessed three types of OCB. The helping behavior scale used seven items to assess students’ discretionary behaviors that help other students with a schoolrelevant task or problem. An item example follows: “Students in my class help other students if they fall behind in his or her schoolwork.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.88. The civic virtue scale uses three items to assess the degree students are responsible for participating or being involved in or are concerned about behavior in the class. An item example follows: “Provide constructive suggestions about how students can improve learning in class.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.77. The Sportsmanship scale used three items to assess student willingness to tolerate less-than-ideal circumstances without complaining. An item example follows: “Always focus on what is wrong with our situation, rather than the positive side”—an item that was reverse scored. The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.70. All subscales were rated on a 7-point Likerttype scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Thus, higher values indicated higher levels of each type of OCB. Academic self-efficacy. The academic self-efficacy scale (Roeser et al., 1996) was used to measure students’ academic selfefficacy. The scale’s six items assess whether students believe they could master the academic material and skills if they were provided sufficient time and exerted sufficient effort. An item example follows: “If I have enough time, I can do a good job on all my schoolwork.” The ␣ coefficient for the scale was 0.92. Items were assessed on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 5 (very true of me). Thus, higher values indicate higher levels of academic self-efficacy. Academic achievement. Academic achievement was measured by asking students to report their grade point averages in three core academic subjects: mathematics, Norwegian, and English languages. The scale used in these schools ranges from 1 (lowest academic grade) to 6 (highest academic grade).
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Statistical Analyses
Results
The concept of mediation may be explained as a third variable that represents the mechanism through which the independent variable influences an outcome (i.e., a dependent variable). Mediation analyses can be used to test a theory on the terms of the process by which a given effect is produced (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). The Preacher and Hayes (2004) bootstrapping technique for mediation analysis was used to test the hypothesized model while also controlling for covariates. Bootstrapping refers to a nonparametric resampling procedure to test the null hypothesis for indirect effects. Bootstrapping involves repeated extraction with replacement of samples from the data set (in the study presented here, the number of bootstrap samples is 20,000) and the estimation of the indirect effect in each resampled data set. In extensive sets of simulations, MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, and Sheets (2002) examined the performance of different methods for testing mediation to assess their Type I error rates and power. They recommended the use of the distribution of the product approach or bootstrapping over the Sobel test or causal steps approach on the grounds that the former have higher power while maintaining reasonable control over the Type I error rate. In addition to normal theory regression procedures, the bootstrapping technique produces point estimates and bias-corrected confidence intervals for the indirect effect. A biased-corrected confidence interval not including zero indicates a statistically significant mediation.
Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients are reported in Table 1. Correlations among perceived task goal structure, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement were positive. In contrast, correlation among perceived ability goal structure, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement were negative. Two OCB subscales, helping behavior and civic virtue, were positively related to academic self-efficacy and academic achievement. However, the third subscale, sportsmanship, was unrelated to academic self-efficacy and was negatively related to academic achievement. The Mediator Model—Predicting Academic Self-Efficacy Data pertaining to the effect of distal/ proximal qualities of the school psychological climate on academic achievement through academic self-efficacy are shown in Table 2. When investigating the mediator model (i.e., the effect of the predictors on the mediator; a path in Figure 1), the school-task goal structure, school-ability goal structure, and two of the three OCB subscales (i.e., civic virtue and sportsmanship) individually predicted academic self-efficacy. More specifically, perceived ability goal structure and sportsmanship were inversely related to academic self-efficacy whereas perceived task goal structure and civic virtue were positively related to academic selfefficacy.
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Variables and Correlations M 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
PTGS PAGS OCB-H OCB-CV OCB-S ASE AA
3.59 2.58 4.20 4.35 4.20 3.90 3.85
SD 0.75 1.01 1.17 1.30 1.30 0.91 0.87
2
3 ⴱ
⫺.30
4 ⴱ
.40 ⫺.10ⴱ
5 ⴱ
.39 ⫺.12ⴱ .63ⴱ
⫺.01 ⫺.29ⴱ .13ⴱ ⫺.02
6
7 ⴱ
.38 ⫺.22ⴱ .34ⴱ .45ⴱ ⫺.06
.18ⴱ ⫺.18ⴱ .23ⴱ .29ⴱ ⫺.16ⴱ .64ⴱ
Note. PTGS ⫽ perceived task goal structure; PAGS ⫽ perceived ability goal structure; OCB ⫽ organizational citizenship behavior; H ⫽ helping behavior; CV ⫽ civic virtue; S ⫽ sportsmanship; ASE ⫽ academic self-efficacy; AA ⫽ academic achievement. ⴱ p ⬍ .05.
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Table 2 Investigating Indirect Effects. Dependent Variable: Academic Achievement
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Outcome Modelb Indirectf
Mediator Modela
Total
Direct
PE (SE)c
PE (SE)c
PE (SE)c
d
e
Predictors PTGS .206 (.061)ⴱⴱ .026 (.062) ⫺.095 (.051) PAGS ⫺.157 (.044)ⴱⴱ ⫺.158 (.044)ⴱⴱ ⫺.066 (.036) OCB-H .053 (.045) ⫺.028 (.046) ⫺.003 (.039) OCB-CV .217 (.040)ⴱⴱ .156 (.040)ⴱⴱ .028 (.034) OCB-S ⫺.090 (.033)ⴱⴱ ⫺.126 (.033)ⴱⴱ ⫺.073 (.027)ⴱⴱ Mediator ASE .591 (.041)ⴱⴱ Covariates Age ⫺.079 (.058) Gender ⫺.285 (.064)ⴱⴱ 2 Full model summary: R ⫽ .46, F (df1, df2) ⫽ 42.97 (8,407), p ⬍ .01.
BC 95% CIg PE (SE)c
LL
UL
.121 (.041) ⫺.093 (.033) .032 (.001) .129 (.001) ⫺.053 (.022)
.044 ⴚ.160 ⫺.019 .077 ⴚ.095
.205 ⴚ.030 .086 .182 ⴚ.011
Note. PTGS ⫽ perceived task goal structure; PAGS ⫽ perceived ability goal structure; OCB ⫽ organizational citizenship behavior; H ⫽ helping behavior; CV ⫽ civic virtue; S ⫽ sportsmanship; ASE ⫽ academic self-efficacy; DV ⫽ dependent variable; IV ⫽ independent variable; M ⫽ mediator. a Effect of IV on M: a-path. b Effect of IV and M on DV. c Bootstrapped point estimate (standard error). d Effect of IV on DV (before entering the M; c-path). e Effect of IV on DV (not via the M: c’-path). f Effect of IV on DV through M: ab-path. g Bias-corrected 95% confidence interval (those not including zero in bold). LL ⫽ lower limit; UL ⫽ upper limit. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01 statistically significant point estimate.
The Outcome Model—Predicting Academic Achievement Taken together, the model explained 46% of the variation in academic achievement. When investigating the total effects (i.e., before entering the mediator; c path in Figure 1) from the predictors to academic achievement, results revealed that perceived ability goal structure predicted academic achievement inversely, civic virtue positively, and sportsmanship inversely. Furthermore, when entering the mediator, only one direct effect, sportsmanship, (c’ path in Figure 1) remained statistically significant. In addition, academic self-efficacy positively predicted academic achievement. Moreover, one covariate, gender, independently predicted academic achievement: girls achieved higher than boys (see Table 2). Indirect Effects on Academic Achievement Through Self-Efficacy The possible indirect effects of the multiple predictors on academic achievement through academic self-efficacy were investigated. All
indirect paths were significant (biased-corrected confidence interval not including zero) except helping behavior (Table 2). In other words, higher levels of perceived task goal structure and civic virtue predicted higher levels of academic achievement through higher academic self-efficacy. Furthermore, higher levels of perceived ability goal structure and sportsmanship predicted lower levels of academic selfefficacy, which in turn predicted lower levels of academic achievement. Discussion The aim of the study presented here was to investigate the effects of proximal and distal factors on academic achievement through selfefficacy in Norwegian middle-school students. Academic self-efficacy stands out as a strong predictor of academic achievement. This finding is consistent with previous research (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2010; Vrugt et al., 1997). The important effect of academic beliefs on academic achievement is well documented. An examination of the indirect effect of school
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HØIGAARD, KOVACˇ, ØVERBY, AND HAUGEN
and classroom psychological climates on academic achievement through academic selfefficacy finds that self-efficacy mediates the effect of perceived task and ability goal structure, civic virtue, and sportsmanship on academic achievement. More specifically, academic achievement is affected through increased academic self-efficacy when students perceived the school climate to be task-oriented and aimed toward civic virtue. In contrast, academic achievement is affected negatively through decreased academic self-efficacy when school climate is perceived to be sportsmanship- and ability-oriented. More specifically, students report higher levels of academic achievement when they perceive the school psychological climate to be task-oriented and display a higher level of academic self-efficacy. The opposite relationship emerges for students who perceive the school climate as ability-oriented; students perceiving the school psychological climate to be abilityoriented typically displayed lower levels of academic self-efficacy and, in turn, lower levels of academic achievement. These results are consistent with prior achievement goal research (Roberts, 2001; Schunk et al., 2010), which shows a consistent and systematic relational pattern between achievement goals and behavioral, emotional, and cognitive outcomes. An emphasis on growthoriented learning processes fosters a higher intrinsic motivation for learning, more effective cognitive learning strategies, and less anxiety in the learning environment. The importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in promoting self-efficacy and academic achievement has been highlighted elsewhere (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). In contrast, a focus on ability, grades, and competition among students and sorting students into ability groups may diminish academic efficacy and subsequently lower academic performance (Benware & Deci, 1984; Tsai, Kunter, Lüdtke, Trautwein, & Ryan, 2008). However, under some conditions, high achievers benefit from an ability-oriented climate (Schunk et al., 2010). OCB constitutes a set of important qualities that affect organizational performance, effectiveness, and job satisfaction (Organ et al., 2006; Podsakoff et al., 2009). We found that OCB indirectly affects academic achievement through academic self-efficacy. The perception
of high levels of civic virtue in the classroom may reflect an environment that is characterized by positive task feedback and interaction among students in a supporting and stimulating atmosphere. Such behavior and atmosphere may promote academic self-efficacy and academic achievement (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2010). However, somewhat surprisingly, sportsmanship’s influence on academic achievement is negative through academic self-efficacy. In contrast, sportsmanship has been linked in the OCB literature to effectiveness and organizational performance because it indicates less complaining about trivial matters and a greater willingness to make the best of unhelpful situations (Organ et al., 2006). Such behaviors seemingly harmonize situations that otherwise could be quasi-litigious and thus wasteful of time and effort. The fact that there is a direct link between academic self-efficacy and achievement in the school contexts may help account for the negative relationship between sportsmanship and academic self-efficacy and academic achievement in this study. Sportsmanship is according to Organ et al. (2006) related to things people choose not to do (e.g. complaining). Not complaining can have a positive effect on organizational effectiveness because it represents a generalized willingness to make the best of the situation (Organ et al. 2006). In a school context, students’ complaining about, opposition to, and critical evaluation of the learning environment may reflect their involvement and critical thinking. Students believe their voiced concerns are taken seriously and that their suggestions are important when teachers listen carefully and respond interactively and constructively to their critical complaints. In line with such reasoning, this may influence students’ academic self-efficacy. Furthermore, student complaints and critical comments also may contribute to positive changes in the learning environment, leading to improve efficacy and achievement. Limitations Some limitations characterize this study. First, although the schools were selected to be representative of the county by including urban and rural communities, the participants in the study presented here nevertheless represent a
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EFFECTS OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATES
convenient sample. Second, the study was fully correlational in nature, which sets limits for making conclusive statements in terms of causality when discussing relations between the study variables. Additional longitudinal research that follows and measures important variables over time is needed to provide an insight to the causal processes that influence academic achievement. Furthermore, one may argue that this study includes variables from multiple levels of measurement (Martin, Bobis, Anderson, Way, & Vellar, 2011). The school psychological climate may be considered to be level 2 measures (i.e., school-level data), which warrant multilevel analyses of the research question of interest. The usual assumption when using regression models is that individual observations are independent. This assumption may not be true when using nested structures like those in this study. As a consequence, the effects from pooled estimates may be underestimated. We regretfully have no information about what class of school the participants attend. In other words, the study presented here cannot take this possible clustering effect into account. This fact should be considered when interpreting the results. Third, the study presented here relies on selfreported grade point averages as indications of academic achievement. Although the use of self-reported grades is fairly common in educational research, this practice has been criticized on methodological grounds (Kuncel, Marcus Credé, & Thomas, 2005). However, despite the criticism, Kuncel and colleagues acknowledge that practical difficulties often exist when attempting to obtain school transcripts. They also recognize that self-reported grades can be used, but with caution. In the study presented here, we asked participants to report their grades in three key subjects: math and Norwegian and English languages. All three variables showed a clear pattern of normal distribution with average means centered close to the arithmetical mean of the 6-point scale. Furthermore, this pattern of self-reported grades corresponds to the distribution of school-reported grades obtained from educational administrators in the municipality, thus strengthening the validity of our measure (Udir, 2013). Moreover, the prediction of academic achievement is a complex issue, and several other relevant variables (e.g., the pupil’s intelligence, self-regulation ability, self-
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concept, socioeconomic background, etc.) could be included in future models. Finally, caution should be taken when interpreting the unexpected result related to sportsmanship. All items within the subscale of sportsmanship are negatively worded, in contrast to positively worded items in the two other OCB subscales. This negative wording may have caused an agreeing-response effect or acquiescence (i.e., the tendency to answer items in a positive way regardless of their content; Bentler, Jackson, & Messick, 1971; Billiet & Davidov, 2008). Also, the finding that sportsmanship did not correlate with academic selfefficacy in bivariate correlations yet predicted academic achievement in the mediation model may suggest a collider effect (i.e., the change in association between two variables when conditioning on their common effect, resulting in the two causes colliding at the common effect; Hernán, Hernandez-Diaz, & Robins, 2004). Thus, future work should investigate the validity of the OCB scale and consider the possibility of causal relationships between sportsmanship and the other independent variables. Implications Notwithstanding these limitations, the results presented here have theoretical and practical implications. In terms of theory, the results provide further support for the important role of academic self-efficacy in influencing learning achievements. Furthermore, the results also provide additional support for achievement-goal theory (Ames, 1992a, 1992b; Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 2001) and emphasize the importance of pupils’ perceptions of the dominant learning goals that their schools tend to adopt. The role of these distal aspects of the school psychological climate on self-efficacy and academic achievement is theoretically important because it highlights the significance of a broad approach to understanding pupils’ motivations. In terms of practical implications, the findings presented here indicate that teachers should attend to the manner in which the learning atmosphere develops and that teachers should strive to promote cooperative and productive relationships among pupils. Thus, teachers should adopt mastery orientation, a technique known to exert a positive influence on academic achievement through elevating levels of self-
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efficacy in specific and general self-determination. Furthermore, knowledge about Bandura’s social-cognitive theory and self-efficacy in particular can be of vital importance. Consistent with a larger body of research from OCB, teachers at the preservice and in-service levels should learn to promote methods that encourage students to practice good study routines and to develop norms and attitudes that foster extrarole behavior. References Allison, B. J., Voss, R. S., & Dryer, S. (2001). Student classroom and career success: The role of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Education for Business, 76, 282–288. doi:10.1080/ 08832320109599650 Ames, C. (1992a). Achievement goals and the classroom motivational climate. In D. H. Schunk & J. L. Meece (Eds.), Student perceptions in the classroom (pp. 327–348). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ames, C. (1992b). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271. doi:10.1037/0022-0663 .84.3.261 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Prentice Hall series in social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman. Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted impact of selfefficacy beliefs on academic functioning. Child Development, 67, 1206 –1222. doi:10.2307/ 1131888 Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Gerbino, M., & Pastorelli, C. (2003). Role of affective self-regulatory efficacy in diverse spheres of psychosocial functioning. Child Development, 74, 769 –782. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00567 Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., & Regali, C. (2001). Sociocognitive self-regulatory mechanisms governing transgressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 125–135. doi:10.1037/0022-3514 .80.1.125 Bentler, P. M., Jackson, D. N., & Messick, S. (1971). Identification of content and style: A twodimensional interpretation of acquiescence. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 186 –204. doi:10.1037/ h0031474 Benware, C. A., & Deci, E. L. (1984). Quality of learning with an active versus passive motivational set. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 755–765. doi:10.3102/00028312021004755
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teacher attitudes and student performance in Singapore. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 319 –333. doi:10.1002/job.4030160404 Kuncel, N. R., Marcus Credé, M., & Thomas, L. L. (2005). The validity of self-reported grade point averages, class ranks, and rest scores: A metaanalysis and review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 75, 1, 63– 82. doi:10.3102/ 00346543075001063 Larson, R. W., Moneta, G. B., Richards, M., & Wilson, S. (2002). Continuity, stability, and change in daily emotional experience across adolescence. Child Development, 73, 1151–1165. doi:10.1111/ 1467-8624.00464 MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83 Maddux, J. E., & Gosselin, J. T. (2003). Selfefficacy. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 218 –238). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Maehr, M. L., & Anderman, E. M. (1993). Reinventing schools for early adolescents: Emphasizing task goals. The Elementary School Journal, 93, 593– 610. doi:10.1086/461742 Martin, A. J., Bobis, J., Anderson, J., Way, J., & Vellar, R. (2011). Patterns of multilevel variance in psycho-educational phenomena: Comparing motivation, engagement, climate, teaching, and achievement factors. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 25, 49 – 61. doi:10.1024/1010-0652/ a000029 Midgley, C. (1993). Motivation and middle level schools. In P. Pintrich & M. L. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Vol. 8. Motivation in the adolescent years (pp. 217–294). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30 –38. doi:10.1037/ 0022-0167.38.1.30 Nichols, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7, 133–144. doi:10.1177/1477878509104318 Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Organ, D. W. (1990). The subtle significance of job satisfaction. Clinical Laboratory Management Review, 4, 94 –98.
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Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. L. (2010). Motivation in education. Theory, research and application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Sharma, D., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2007). Revisiting an era in Germany from the perspective of adolescents in mother headed single-parent families. International Journal of Psychology, 42, 46 –58. doi: 10.1080/00207590600663299 Tsai, Y., Kunter, M., Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). What makes lessons interesting? The role of situational and individual factors in three school subjects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 460 – 472. doi:10.1037/00220663.100.2.460 Udir. (2013). The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://skoleporten.udir.no/rapportvisning.aspx? enhetsid⫽10&vurderingsomrade⫽11&skoletype⫽0 Valentine, J. C., DuBois, D. L., & Cooper, H. (2004). The relation between self-beliefs and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 39, 111–133. doi:10.1207/ s15326985ep3902_3 Vrugt, A. J., Langereis, M. P., & Hoogstraten, J. (1997). Academic self-efficacy and malleability of relevant capabilities as predictors of exam performance. Journal of Experimental Education, 66, 61–72. doi:10.1080/00220979709601395
Wang, M.-T., & Holcombe, R. (2010). Adolescents’ perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 47, 633– 662. doi:10.3102/0002831209361209 Zhu, Y. Q., Chen, L. Y., Chen, H. G., & Chern, C. C. (2011). How does Internet information seeking help academic performance? The moderating and mediating roles of academic self-efficacy. Computers & Education, 57, 2476 –2484. doi:10.1016/ j.compedu.2011.07.006 Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulating academic learning and achievement: The emergence of a social cognitive perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 2, 173–201. doi:10.1007/BF01322178 Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). Self-efficacy and educational development. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Selfefficacy in changing societies (pp. 202–231). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511527692.009 Zimmerman, B. J., & Bandura, A. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 845– 862. doi:10.3102/00028312031004845 Received September 3, 2013 Revision received January 7, 2014 Accepted January 14, 2014 䡲
© 2014 American Psychological Association 1045-3830/15/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/spq0000056
Academic Self-Efficacy Mediates the Effects of School Psychological Climate on Academic Achievement Rune Høigaard, Velibor Bobo Kovacˇ, Nina Cecilie Øverby, and Tommy Haugen
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University of Agder This study investigated the effects of proximal and distal constructs on adolescent’s academic achievement through self-efficacy. Participants included 482 ninth- and tenth- grade Norwegian students who completed a questionnaire designed to assess school-goal orientations, organizational citizenship behavior, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement. The results of a bootstrapping technique used to analyze relationships between the constructs indicated that school-goal orientations and organizational citizenship predicted academic self-efficacy. Furthermore, school-goal orientation, organizational citizenship, and academic self-efficacy explained 46% of the variance in academic achievement. Mediation analyses revealed that academic self-efficacy mediated the effects of perceived task goal structure, perceived ability structure, civic virtue, and sportsmanship on adolescents’ academic achievements. The results are discussed in reference to current scholarship, including theories underlying our hypothesis. Practical implications and directions for future research are suggested. Keywords: school psychological environment, citizenship behavior, academic self-efficacy, academic achievement
The potential for education to assist in efforts to fulfill a student’s ambitions by providing environments designed to promote their positive development, including their cognitive abilities, is indisputable. Adolescents are in a sensitive developmental period in which social comparisons and identity formation generally are prominent. Furthermore, this period can be
especially demanding while attempting to maintain an academic focus while also struggling with competing challenges (e.g., rapid physical changes, sex role orientation) that may create impediments to their academic development and general psychosocial adjustment (Hardy, Bukowski, & Sippola, 2002; Larson, Moneta, Richards, & Wilson, 2002; Rusby, Forrester, Biglan, & Metzler, 2005). The importance of academic self-efficacy and psychological climate on academic achievement is well established. Higher levels of academic self-efficacy are important, perhaps even critical, to attaining desired high levels of academic performance (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2010; Vrugt, Kangereis, & Hoogstraten, 1997). Moreover, the presence of a task-oriented and supportive learning environment also seems to be important for high academic achievement (Eccles et al., 1993; Maehr & Anderman, 1993; Midgley, 1993; Wang & Holcombe, 2010). However, solely personal processes (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2010) may not determine self-efficacy. Self-efficacy may also be influenced by environmental and behavioral events within the school, including a school’s psychological climate (Bandura, Caprara, Bar-
This article was published Online First April 7, 2014. Rune Høigaard, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway; Velibor Bobo Kovacˇ, Department of Education, Faculty of Humanities and Education, University of Agder; Nina Cecilie Øverby, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder; Tommy Haugen, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder. This study is a part of a larger study of school achievement conducted jointly by the University of Agder and Sørlandet Resource Centre in Norway. The authors thank personnel at the Sørlandet Resource Centre as well as the principals, staff, and students at the four participating schools for their support. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Rune Høigaard, University of Agder, Department of Public Health, Sport, and Nutrition, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, Service Box 422, No-4604 Kristiansand, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] 64
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EFFECTS OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATES
baranelli, Pastorelli, & Regali, 2001). Selfefficacy is an important mediator of academic achievement (Diseth, 2011; Zhu, Chen, Chen, & Chern, 2011; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). However, the extent to which self-efficacy may also mediate relationships between school environments and academic achievement has seemingly not been examined. This study investigates relationships among middle-school students’ perceptions of their learning environment, self-efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. The mediating role of academic self-efficacy in the relationship between perceived school psychological climate and academic achievement is also examined. School Psychological Climate and Learning Achievements Students characterize a school’s psychological climate in light of their personal perceptions of its proximal and distal qualities (Roeser, Midgley, & Urdan, 1996). Students’ perceptions of the dominant learning goal orientations that their school tends to display constitutes the distal qualities of a school’s psychological climate. According to achievement goal theory (Ames, 1992a, 1992b; Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 2001), students often perceive and define their school’s social and learning context in one of two fundamentally opposite orientations. One focuses on mastery orientation. It promotes adaptive functioning that helps and supports the learning contexts. For example, teachers using mastery orientation tend to promote a learning atmosphere that stimulates students’ intrinsic motivation, personal efforts, and general improvement. In contrast, another focuses on performance orientation. Its atmosphere is more competitive and draws distinctions between correct and incorrect performance. Teachers using a performance orientation tend to promote rivalry and competition, compare students, and suppress intrinsic motivation (Duda & Whitehead, 1998). Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) exemplifies proximal aspects of an environment’s psychological climate. At first, OCB was defined as an “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization” (Organ, 1988, p. 4).
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Later, the definition was modified to “performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place” (Organ, 1997, p. 95). The more recent definition explicitly associates OCB with task performances regardless of the effect of potential formal rewards. The concept of OCB, developed originally for use in organizational psychology contexts, has been subject to considerable research (e.g., Podsakoff, Blume, Whiting, & Podsakoff, 2009), and its conceptually distinct dimensions are identified (Organ, 1988, 1990; Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006). Current scholarship focuses on three main dimensions (Podsakoff, Ahearne, & MacKenzie, 1997): sportsmanship (e.g., the willingness to tolerate the inevitable inconveniences and impositions of work without complaining), civic virtue (e.g., responsive, constructive involvement in the organization), and helping behavior (e.g., voluntarily helping others with an organizationally relevant task or problem). Thus, OCB is viewed as an essential part of an organization. Organizational citizenship contributes to several important organizational outcomes, including motivation, productivity, performance, and job satisfaction (see Organ et al., 2006 and Podsakoff et al., 2009 for overviews). Some studies investigated OCB in a school context from the perceptions of teachers and school leaders (e.g., Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995). In addition, a study of university students found a positive association between OCB and academic achievement, consistent with findings generally observed in business settings (Allison, Voss, & Dryer, 2001). Thus, the belief that OCB also may exert an influence on secondary school achievement seems tenable. Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievement Self-efficacy refers to self-beliefs about the degree of perceived self-control over future actions. Self-efficacy is linked to one’s actual performance in a specific domain (Maddux & Gosselin, 2003). Self-efficacy beliefs comprise a component of a person’s global self-concept and typically refer to an individual’s ability to successfully perform a certain task (Huang, 2011; Sanchez & Roda, 2003). Personal abili-
HØIGAARD, KOVACˇ, ØVERBY, AND HAUGEN
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ties vary substantially across different behaviors—we are good at some things and not good at other things. The effect of self-efficacy is better understood when its assessment is domain-specific rather than focused on more general behaviors (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004). Thus, the assessment of selfefficacy usually focuses on specific domains (Bandura, 1997). The direct effect of selfefficacy in predicting subsequent behavior in general is well documented (e.g., Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 2003; Caprara, Barbaranelli, Pastorelli, & Cervone, 2004). Moreover, its effect on academic achievements is well documented (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996; Chemers, Hu, & Garcia, 2001; Greene, Miller, Crowson, Duke, & Akey, 2004; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Schunk, 1994; Sharma & Silbereisen, 2007; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). Academic self-efficacy refers to personal beliefs about one’s ability to organize and execute actions to attain desired levels of academic performance (Zimmerman, 1995). Academic selfefficacy beliefs relate positively to academic performances, achievements, and efforts (Multon et al., 1991), including those for middleschool students (Britner & Pajares, 2006; Pajares, Britner, & Valiante, 2000). The strength of one’s self-efficacy during middle school is important. Those with higher levels are likely to succeed now and are better prepared for later academic and vocational challenges (Bandura et al., 2001; Zimmerman, 1990). In contrast, those with lower levels are likely to do less well
academically now and later and to display other difficulties (e.g., antisocial behaviors) (Bandura, 1997; Bandura et al., 1996; Bandura et al., 2001). Although the direct effects of selfefficacy on academic achievement are impressive and well documented, the role of selfefficacy as a mediator has not been explored widely. Bandura’s (1986) belief that selfefficacy may mediate the effects of other selfbeliefs on subsequent performance helps guide this research (see also Bandura, 1997; Zimmerman, 1995; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of proximal and distal qualities on academic success among Norwegian middleschool students (see Figure 1). The following three hypothesized are tested: (a) proximal and distal qualities associated with school psychological climate will predict self-efficacy, (b) self-efficacy will have the strongest effect on academic achievement, and (c) self-efficacy mediates the effects of proximal/distal qualities of school psychological climate on academic achievement. Method Participants Norwegian ninth- and tenth-grade students (i.e., approximately 14 –15 years old) who attended one of four secondary schools in three different municipalities in Vest-Agder County were invited to participate. The schools were selected by the Sørlandet Resource Centre to well represent the county by including urban
ab path (indirect effect) PTGS
a path
ASE
b path
PAGS OCB-H
c (total effect) AA
OCB-CV OCB-S
c´ (direct effect)
Figure 1. The hypothesized mediation model. PTGS ⫽ perceived task goal structure; PAGS ⫽ perceived ability goal structure; OCB ⫽ organizational citizenship behavior; H ⫽ helping behavior; CV ⫽ civic virtue; S ⫽ sportsmanship; ASE ⫽ academic self-efficacy, AA ⫽ academic achievement.
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EFFECTS OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATES
and rural communities. The sample is one characterized by convenience. The principals of four schools, two urban and two rural, contacted by the Sørlandet Resource Centre agreed to participate. Six hundred twenty-five students were invited to participate, and 482 students returned their questionnaires (a participation rate of 77%), among which 475 included all needed data and 7 were excluded because of their many shortcomings. The final sample included 49% males with a mean age of 14.6 years for both sexes. Procedure The students completed the questionnaire during a school class and under the supervision of a project worker. Students were informed that their responses were anonymous and that their participation was voluntary. The students received oral and written instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. Project workers answered student questions. Students returned the completed questionnaires in a sealed envelope to the project worker. Institutional ethics approval was obtained according to the Sørlandet Resource Centre institutional procedures. Measurements School goal orientation. The School Goal Scale (SGS; Roeser et al., 1996) was used to measure students’ perceptions of the school psychological climate. This scale consists of two subscales. The perceived task goal structure scale’s six items assess students’ perceptions of their school’s emphasis on effort, understanding, and the belief that all students can learn and be successful (i.e., a reflection of mastery orientation). An item example follows: “In this school, understanding the work is more important than getting the right answers.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.81. The perceived ability goal structure scale’s six items assess students’ perceptions that relative ability is a salient and rewarded marker of success in the school and that higher achieving students are treated better than other students (i.e., a reflection of performance orientation). An item example follows: “In this school, teachers treat kids who get good grades better than other kids.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.81. All items were measured using a 5-point Likert scale (1 ⫽ not at all true in this school, 5 ⫽ very true in this school).
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Thus, higher values reflect a stronger perception of the measured goal structure. OCB. The OCB scale’s 13 items assess students’ perception of citizenship behavior in the class (Podsakoff et al., 1997). The scale’s items were adapted to better suit students in educational settings. The scale assessed three types of OCB. The helping behavior scale used seven items to assess students’ discretionary behaviors that help other students with a schoolrelevant task or problem. An item example follows: “Students in my class help other students if they fall behind in his or her schoolwork.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.88. The civic virtue scale uses three items to assess the degree students are responsible for participating or being involved in or are concerned about behavior in the class. An item example follows: “Provide constructive suggestions about how students can improve learning in class.” The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.77. The Sportsmanship scale used three items to assess student willingness to tolerate less-than-ideal circumstances without complaining. An item example follows: “Always focus on what is wrong with our situation, rather than the positive side”—an item that was reverse scored. The scale’s ␣ coefficient was 0.70. All subscales were rated on a 7-point Likerttype scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Thus, higher values indicated higher levels of each type of OCB. Academic self-efficacy. The academic self-efficacy scale (Roeser et al., 1996) was used to measure students’ academic selfefficacy. The scale’s six items assess whether students believe they could master the academic material and skills if they were provided sufficient time and exerted sufficient effort. An item example follows: “If I have enough time, I can do a good job on all my schoolwork.” The ␣ coefficient for the scale was 0.92. Items were assessed on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 5 (very true of me). Thus, higher values indicate higher levels of academic self-efficacy. Academic achievement. Academic achievement was measured by asking students to report their grade point averages in three core academic subjects: mathematics, Norwegian, and English languages. The scale used in these schools ranges from 1 (lowest academic grade) to 6 (highest academic grade).
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Statistical Analyses
Results
The concept of mediation may be explained as a third variable that represents the mechanism through which the independent variable influences an outcome (i.e., a dependent variable). Mediation analyses can be used to test a theory on the terms of the process by which a given effect is produced (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). The Preacher and Hayes (2004) bootstrapping technique for mediation analysis was used to test the hypothesized model while also controlling for covariates. Bootstrapping refers to a nonparametric resampling procedure to test the null hypothesis for indirect effects. Bootstrapping involves repeated extraction with replacement of samples from the data set (in the study presented here, the number of bootstrap samples is 20,000) and the estimation of the indirect effect in each resampled data set. In extensive sets of simulations, MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, and Sheets (2002) examined the performance of different methods for testing mediation to assess their Type I error rates and power. They recommended the use of the distribution of the product approach or bootstrapping over the Sobel test or causal steps approach on the grounds that the former have higher power while maintaining reasonable control over the Type I error rate. In addition to normal theory regression procedures, the bootstrapping technique produces point estimates and bias-corrected confidence intervals for the indirect effect. A biased-corrected confidence interval not including zero indicates a statistically significant mediation.
Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients are reported in Table 1. Correlations among perceived task goal structure, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement were positive. In contrast, correlation among perceived ability goal structure, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement were negative. Two OCB subscales, helping behavior and civic virtue, were positively related to academic self-efficacy and academic achievement. However, the third subscale, sportsmanship, was unrelated to academic self-efficacy and was negatively related to academic achievement. The Mediator Model—Predicting Academic Self-Efficacy Data pertaining to the effect of distal/ proximal qualities of the school psychological climate on academic achievement through academic self-efficacy are shown in Table 2. When investigating the mediator model (i.e., the effect of the predictors on the mediator; a path in Figure 1), the school-task goal structure, school-ability goal structure, and two of the three OCB subscales (i.e., civic virtue and sportsmanship) individually predicted academic self-efficacy. More specifically, perceived ability goal structure and sportsmanship were inversely related to academic self-efficacy whereas perceived task goal structure and civic virtue were positively related to academic selfefficacy.
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Variables and Correlations M 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
PTGS PAGS OCB-H OCB-CV OCB-S ASE AA
3.59 2.58 4.20 4.35 4.20 3.90 3.85
SD 0.75 1.01 1.17 1.30 1.30 0.91 0.87
2
3 ⴱ
⫺.30
4 ⴱ
.40 ⫺.10ⴱ
5 ⴱ
.39 ⫺.12ⴱ .63ⴱ
⫺.01 ⫺.29ⴱ .13ⴱ ⫺.02
6
7 ⴱ
.38 ⫺.22ⴱ .34ⴱ .45ⴱ ⫺.06
.18ⴱ ⫺.18ⴱ .23ⴱ .29ⴱ ⫺.16ⴱ .64ⴱ
Note. PTGS ⫽ perceived task goal structure; PAGS ⫽ perceived ability goal structure; OCB ⫽ organizational citizenship behavior; H ⫽ helping behavior; CV ⫽ civic virtue; S ⫽ sportsmanship; ASE ⫽ academic self-efficacy; AA ⫽ academic achievement. ⴱ p ⬍ .05.
EFFECTS OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATES
69
Table 2 Investigating Indirect Effects. Dependent Variable: Academic Achievement
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Outcome Modelb Indirectf
Mediator Modela
Total
Direct
PE (SE)c
PE (SE)c
PE (SE)c
d
e
Predictors PTGS .206 (.061)ⴱⴱ .026 (.062) ⫺.095 (.051) PAGS ⫺.157 (.044)ⴱⴱ ⫺.158 (.044)ⴱⴱ ⫺.066 (.036) OCB-H .053 (.045) ⫺.028 (.046) ⫺.003 (.039) OCB-CV .217 (.040)ⴱⴱ .156 (.040)ⴱⴱ .028 (.034) OCB-S ⫺.090 (.033)ⴱⴱ ⫺.126 (.033)ⴱⴱ ⫺.073 (.027)ⴱⴱ Mediator ASE .591 (.041)ⴱⴱ Covariates Age ⫺.079 (.058) Gender ⫺.285 (.064)ⴱⴱ 2 Full model summary: R ⫽ .46, F (df1, df2) ⫽ 42.97 (8,407), p ⬍ .01.
BC 95% CIg PE (SE)c
LL
UL
.121 (.041) ⫺.093 (.033) .032 (.001) .129 (.001) ⫺.053 (.022)
.044 ⴚ.160 ⫺.019 .077 ⴚ.095
.205 ⴚ.030 .086 .182 ⴚ.011
Note. PTGS ⫽ perceived task goal structure; PAGS ⫽ perceived ability goal structure; OCB ⫽ organizational citizenship behavior; H ⫽ helping behavior; CV ⫽ civic virtue; S ⫽ sportsmanship; ASE ⫽ academic self-efficacy; DV ⫽ dependent variable; IV ⫽ independent variable; M ⫽ mediator. a Effect of IV on M: a-path. b Effect of IV and M on DV. c Bootstrapped point estimate (standard error). d Effect of IV on DV (before entering the M; c-path). e Effect of IV on DV (not via the M: c’-path). f Effect of IV on DV through M: ab-path. g Bias-corrected 95% confidence interval (those not including zero in bold). LL ⫽ lower limit; UL ⫽ upper limit. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01 statistically significant point estimate.
The Outcome Model—Predicting Academic Achievement Taken together, the model explained 46% of the variation in academic achievement. When investigating the total effects (i.e., before entering the mediator; c path in Figure 1) from the predictors to academic achievement, results revealed that perceived ability goal structure predicted academic achievement inversely, civic virtue positively, and sportsmanship inversely. Furthermore, when entering the mediator, only one direct effect, sportsmanship, (c’ path in Figure 1) remained statistically significant. In addition, academic self-efficacy positively predicted academic achievement. Moreover, one covariate, gender, independently predicted academic achievement: girls achieved higher than boys (see Table 2). Indirect Effects on Academic Achievement Through Self-Efficacy The possible indirect effects of the multiple predictors on academic achievement through academic self-efficacy were investigated. All
indirect paths were significant (biased-corrected confidence interval not including zero) except helping behavior (Table 2). In other words, higher levels of perceived task goal structure and civic virtue predicted higher levels of academic achievement through higher academic self-efficacy. Furthermore, higher levels of perceived ability goal structure and sportsmanship predicted lower levels of academic selfefficacy, which in turn predicted lower levels of academic achievement. Discussion The aim of the study presented here was to investigate the effects of proximal and distal factors on academic achievement through selfefficacy in Norwegian middle-school students. Academic self-efficacy stands out as a strong predictor of academic achievement. This finding is consistent with previous research (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2010; Vrugt et al., 1997). The important effect of academic beliefs on academic achievement is well documented. An examination of the indirect effect of school
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HØIGAARD, KOVACˇ, ØVERBY, AND HAUGEN
and classroom psychological climates on academic achievement through academic selfefficacy finds that self-efficacy mediates the effect of perceived task and ability goal structure, civic virtue, and sportsmanship on academic achievement. More specifically, academic achievement is affected through increased academic self-efficacy when students perceived the school climate to be task-oriented and aimed toward civic virtue. In contrast, academic achievement is affected negatively through decreased academic self-efficacy when school climate is perceived to be sportsmanship- and ability-oriented. More specifically, students report higher levels of academic achievement when they perceive the school psychological climate to be task-oriented and display a higher level of academic self-efficacy. The opposite relationship emerges for students who perceive the school climate as ability-oriented; students perceiving the school psychological climate to be abilityoriented typically displayed lower levels of academic self-efficacy and, in turn, lower levels of academic achievement. These results are consistent with prior achievement goal research (Roberts, 2001; Schunk et al., 2010), which shows a consistent and systematic relational pattern between achievement goals and behavioral, emotional, and cognitive outcomes. An emphasis on growthoriented learning processes fosters a higher intrinsic motivation for learning, more effective cognitive learning strategies, and less anxiety in the learning environment. The importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in promoting self-efficacy and academic achievement has been highlighted elsewhere (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). In contrast, a focus on ability, grades, and competition among students and sorting students into ability groups may diminish academic efficacy and subsequently lower academic performance (Benware & Deci, 1984; Tsai, Kunter, Lüdtke, Trautwein, & Ryan, 2008). However, under some conditions, high achievers benefit from an ability-oriented climate (Schunk et al., 2010). OCB constitutes a set of important qualities that affect organizational performance, effectiveness, and job satisfaction (Organ et al., 2006; Podsakoff et al., 2009). We found that OCB indirectly affects academic achievement through academic self-efficacy. The perception
of high levels of civic virtue in the classroom may reflect an environment that is characterized by positive task feedback and interaction among students in a supporting and stimulating atmosphere. Such behavior and atmosphere may promote academic self-efficacy and academic achievement (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2010). However, somewhat surprisingly, sportsmanship’s influence on academic achievement is negative through academic self-efficacy. In contrast, sportsmanship has been linked in the OCB literature to effectiveness and organizational performance because it indicates less complaining about trivial matters and a greater willingness to make the best of unhelpful situations (Organ et al., 2006). Such behaviors seemingly harmonize situations that otherwise could be quasi-litigious and thus wasteful of time and effort. The fact that there is a direct link between academic self-efficacy and achievement in the school contexts may help account for the negative relationship between sportsmanship and academic self-efficacy and academic achievement in this study. Sportsmanship is according to Organ et al. (2006) related to things people choose not to do (e.g. complaining). Not complaining can have a positive effect on organizational effectiveness because it represents a generalized willingness to make the best of the situation (Organ et al. 2006). In a school context, students’ complaining about, opposition to, and critical evaluation of the learning environment may reflect their involvement and critical thinking. Students believe their voiced concerns are taken seriously and that their suggestions are important when teachers listen carefully and respond interactively and constructively to their critical complaints. In line with such reasoning, this may influence students’ academic self-efficacy. Furthermore, student complaints and critical comments also may contribute to positive changes in the learning environment, leading to improve efficacy and achievement. Limitations Some limitations characterize this study. First, although the schools were selected to be representative of the county by including urban and rural communities, the participants in the study presented here nevertheless represent a
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EFFECTS OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATES
convenient sample. Second, the study was fully correlational in nature, which sets limits for making conclusive statements in terms of causality when discussing relations between the study variables. Additional longitudinal research that follows and measures important variables over time is needed to provide an insight to the causal processes that influence academic achievement. Furthermore, one may argue that this study includes variables from multiple levels of measurement (Martin, Bobis, Anderson, Way, & Vellar, 2011). The school psychological climate may be considered to be level 2 measures (i.e., school-level data), which warrant multilevel analyses of the research question of interest. The usual assumption when using regression models is that individual observations are independent. This assumption may not be true when using nested structures like those in this study. As a consequence, the effects from pooled estimates may be underestimated. We regretfully have no information about what class of school the participants attend. In other words, the study presented here cannot take this possible clustering effect into account. This fact should be considered when interpreting the results. Third, the study presented here relies on selfreported grade point averages as indications of academic achievement. Although the use of self-reported grades is fairly common in educational research, this practice has been criticized on methodological grounds (Kuncel, Marcus Credé, & Thomas, 2005). However, despite the criticism, Kuncel and colleagues acknowledge that practical difficulties often exist when attempting to obtain school transcripts. They also recognize that self-reported grades can be used, but with caution. In the study presented here, we asked participants to report their grades in three key subjects: math and Norwegian and English languages. All three variables showed a clear pattern of normal distribution with average means centered close to the arithmetical mean of the 6-point scale. Furthermore, this pattern of self-reported grades corresponds to the distribution of school-reported grades obtained from educational administrators in the municipality, thus strengthening the validity of our measure (Udir, 2013). Moreover, the prediction of academic achievement is a complex issue, and several other relevant variables (e.g., the pupil’s intelligence, self-regulation ability, self-
71
concept, socioeconomic background, etc.) could be included in future models. Finally, caution should be taken when interpreting the unexpected result related to sportsmanship. All items within the subscale of sportsmanship are negatively worded, in contrast to positively worded items in the two other OCB subscales. This negative wording may have caused an agreeing-response effect or acquiescence (i.e., the tendency to answer items in a positive way regardless of their content; Bentler, Jackson, & Messick, 1971; Billiet & Davidov, 2008). Also, the finding that sportsmanship did not correlate with academic selfefficacy in bivariate correlations yet predicted academic achievement in the mediation model may suggest a collider effect (i.e., the change in association between two variables when conditioning on their common effect, resulting in the two causes colliding at the common effect; Hernán, Hernandez-Diaz, & Robins, 2004). Thus, future work should investigate the validity of the OCB scale and consider the possibility of causal relationships between sportsmanship and the other independent variables. Implications Notwithstanding these limitations, the results presented here have theoretical and practical implications. In terms of theory, the results provide further support for the important role of academic self-efficacy in influencing learning achievements. Furthermore, the results also provide additional support for achievement-goal theory (Ames, 1992a, 1992b; Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 2001) and emphasize the importance of pupils’ perceptions of the dominant learning goals that their schools tend to adopt. The role of these distal aspects of the school psychological climate on self-efficacy and academic achievement is theoretically important because it highlights the significance of a broad approach to understanding pupils’ motivations. In terms of practical implications, the findings presented here indicate that teachers should attend to the manner in which the learning atmosphere develops and that teachers should strive to promote cooperative and productive relationships among pupils. Thus, teachers should adopt mastery orientation, a technique known to exert a positive influence on academic achievement through elevating levels of self-
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efficacy in specific and general self-determination. Furthermore, knowledge about Bandura’s social-cognitive theory and self-efficacy in particular can be of vital importance. Consistent with a larger body of research from OCB, teachers at the preservice and in-service levels should learn to promote methods that encourage students to practice good study routines and to develop norms and attitudes that foster extrarole behavior. References Allison, B. J., Voss, R. S., & Dryer, S. (2001). Student classroom and career success: The role of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Education for Business, 76, 282–288. doi:10.1080/ 08832320109599650 Ames, C. (1992a). Achievement goals and the classroom motivational climate. In D. H. Schunk & J. L. Meece (Eds.), Student perceptions in the classroom (pp. 327–348). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ames, C. (1992b). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271. doi:10.1037/0022-0663 .84.3.261 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Prentice Hall series in social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman. Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted impact of selfefficacy beliefs on academic functioning. Child Development, 67, 1206 –1222. doi:10.2307/ 1131888 Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Gerbino, M., & Pastorelli, C. (2003). Role of affective self-regulatory efficacy in diverse spheres of psychosocial functioning. Child Development, 74, 769 –782. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00567 Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., & Regali, C. (2001). Sociocognitive self-regulatory mechanisms governing transgressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 125–135. doi:10.1037/0022-3514 .80.1.125 Bentler, P. M., Jackson, D. N., & Messick, S. (1971). Identification of content and style: A twodimensional interpretation of acquiescence. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 186 –204. doi:10.1037/ h0031474 Benware, C. A., & Deci, E. L. (1984). Quality of learning with an active versus passive motivational set. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 755–765. doi:10.3102/00028312021004755
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