520181

research-article2014

ICTXXX10.1177/1534735413520181Integrative Cancer TherapiesHaddad and Palesh

Article

Acupuncture in the Treatment of CancerRelated Psychological Symptoms

Integrative Cancer Therapies 2014, Vol. 13(5) 371­–385 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1534735413520181 ict.sagepub.com

Nadia Elisabeth Haddad, MD, MS, LAc1 and Oxana Palesh, PhD, MPH1

Abstract Acupuncture is being adopted by cancer patients for a wide range of cancer-related symptoms including highly prevalent psychological symptoms like depression, anxiety, insomnia, and impairment in quality of life. Pharmacological treatment of prevalent symptoms like anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbance can contribute to the high chemical burden already carried by cancer patients, creating additional side effects. As a result, patients and providers alike are interested in evidence-based nonpharmacologic alternatives like acupuncture for these symptoms. This article reviews the current literature (January 2000 through April 2013) for acupuncture in cancer-related psychological symptoms with attention to both efficacy and acupuncture-specific methodology. All published studies that met our review criteria demonstrate a positive signal for acupuncture for the treatment of depression, anxiety, sleep disturbance, and for improving quality of life with most results showing statistical significance. However, there are only a handful of acupuncture studies that were specifically designed to evaluate depression, sleep disturbance, and quality of life as primary outcomes, and no studies were found that looked at anxiety as a primary outcome in this population. Published studies in cancer patients and survivors show that acupuncture treatment is not only safe but also more acceptable with fewer side effects than standard of care pharmacological treatments like antidepressants. Finally, there is wide variability in both the implementation and reporting of acupuncture methods in the literature, with only 2 of 12 studies reporting full details of acupuncture methods as outlined in the revised Standards for Reporting Interventions in Clinical Trials of Acupuncture guidelines, published in 2010 and providing an essential framework for the reporting of acupuncture methodology. This lack of methodological detail affects outcomes, generalizability, and validity of research involving acupuncture. Reasons for ongoing challenges in the development of high-quality acupuncture trials are discussed. In conclusion, results are encouraging for the development of randomized trials to directly evaluate the therapeutic impact of acupuncture in cancer-related psychological symptoms, including depression, anxiety, sleep disturbance, and quality of life, but attention to acupuncture methodological specific challenges in the development of high-quality research is necessary. Keywords acupuncture, psychology, psychiatry, methodology, neoplasms, cancer, anxiety, depression, quality of life, insomnia, sleep disturbance, Chinese medicine

Introduction Acupuncture is a therapeutic intervention originating in China thousands of years ago involving the insertion of thin, solid metallic needles into specific anatomic locations on the skin. Although acupuncture is well known for the treatment of pain, it was designed to treat the full range of physical and emotional disorders as an extension of an independent, complex medical system known as Chinese medicine.1 The general public has increasingly adopted the use of acupuncture for a wide range of ailments, but its use has been particularly prevalent among cancer patients and survivors.2-4 As a result, there has been increasing attention to the study of acupuncture for various cancer-associated symptoms in the oncology patient.5 Currently, evidence supports the use of acupuncture in cancer therapy-related

nausea and vomiting, and is promising for treatment of hot flashes, chemotherapy-induced leukopenia, postchemotherapy fatigue, and radiation-induced xerostomia in both cancer patients and survivors.5,6 In addition, emerging research5,7-10 suggests that acupuncture might also be useful for treatment of commonly occurring cancer-related psychological symptoms. Pharmacological treatment of prevalent symptoms like anxiety, depression, and sleep 1

 epartment of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University D School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA

Corresponding Author: Nadia Elisabeth Haddad, MD, MS, L.Ac, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, 401 Quarry Road, Stanford, CA 94305-5718, USA. Email: [email protected]

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disturbance can contribute to the high chemical burden already carried by cancer patients, creating additional side effects. As a result, patients and providers alike are interested in evidence-based nonpharmacologic alternatives like acupuncture for these symptoms. Although acupuncture use is prevalent among cancer patients and survivors,2-4 evaluation of the efficacy of acupuncture is hindered by methodological issues in acupuncture research. For example, it is difficult to develop an effective control condition (sham acupuncture) because of the invasive nature of inserting a needle into the skin. Sham acupuncture is a control condition used by some studies, generally involving placing needles that do not puncture the skin, or needling at locations not considered true acupuncture points. However, given its invasive nature, acupuncture is difficult to blind and thus, it is challenging to conduct randomized clinical trials with an adequate placebo arm. Likewise, compromises to the applicability and reproducibility of the data are often required to maintain fidelity to the Chinese medicine framework in which acupuncture is commonly practiced. Finally, the frequent incomplete reporting of acupuncture methods makes the interpretation of the research more problematic. The purpose of this review is to summarize existing research for acupuncture in cancer patients and survivors in the treatment of psychological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance, and quality of life. In addition, this review will provide interpretation of acupuncture findings and further elucidate the challenges of acupuncture research in order to make recommendations for future studies.

Methods A Pubmed search was conducted by the authors with the aid of a medical librarian using the terms “acupuncture” and either “cancer” or “neoplasm,” combined with “depression” or “anxiety” or “sleep” or “insomnia” or “quality of life.” Criteria for selected articles were use of acupuncture as treatment modality and (1) English language, (2) adults, and (3) at least one measure of anxiety, depression, quality of life, or sleep disruption as primary or secondary outcome. We included only primary studies (not reviews) in which full articles were available. The titles and abstracts of all articles that met review criteria were reviewed by both researchers to determine whether the articles met selection criteria. If relevant, full text article was systematically reviewed, and data was extracted on study design, number and characteristics of participants, outcome measures used, and data specific to the Standards for Reporting Interventions in Clinical Trials of Acupuncture (STRICTA) guidelines as outlined below. We excluded studies that focused exclusively on pediatric populations, were available only in nonEnglish language, or were otherwise not relevant.

Given the wide variability in the administration of acupuncture, we used the recently published revised STRICTA guidelines in describing existing research. The STRICTA guidelines, originally published in 200111 and revised in 2010,12 identify a 6-item checklist for the reporting of methodology in acupuncture trials to improve interpretation and replication. These 6 areas include (1) specifics of acupuncture rationale (including style of acupuncture and reasoning for treatment), (2) details of needling, (3) treatment regimen, (4) other components of treatment (ie, additional modalities such as moxabustion that involves burning a prepared herb over skin), (5) practitioner background, and (6) specifics of control or comparator interventions.12 An analysis of STRICTA guideline “other components of treatment” was excluded in order to focus more exclusively on the reporting of acupuncture. All studies dealing with acupuncture and psychological symptoms in cancer are listed in Table 1.

Overview of Acupuncture for Psychiatric Side Effects of Cancer Sleep Disturbance Sleep disturbance is prevalent in cancer patients and survivors, as nearly 80% of cancer patients experience sleep disturbance, and about 60% of survivors complain of poor sleep.25-27 In a recent review of cancer-related symptoms, sleep disturbance was the second most prevalent symptom reported by cancer patients after fatigue.28 Four clinical trials14,16,17,23 met criteria for this review and were conducted using acupuncture for sleep disturbance in cancer. Only 1 of them chose sleep as a primary outcome,23 while others focused on sleep disturbance secondary to either hot flashes14,17 or depression.16 Otte et al23 conducted a study that focused on sleep disturbance as the primary symptom in cancer patients. In this study, 10 women with breast cancer who were experiencing sleep disturbance and hot flashes received 3 acupuncture sessions in a single arm design. Otte et al23 reported significant improvements in sleep parameters, specifically in percentage of time awake after sleep onset and decreased sleep latency as measured by actigraphy. Of note, the study by Otte et al23 was the only one to use objective sleep measurement. Two randomized clinical trials evaluated acupuncture for sleep disturbance associated with other symptoms in cancer patients. Feng et al16 evaluated sleep comorbid to depression. A second study by Frisk et al17 evaluated sleep as secondary to hot flashes. Feng et al16 studied 80 cancer patients randomized to either acupuncture or antidepressant (fluoxetine) using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Frisk et al17 evaluated 45 breast cancer patients treated with electro-acupuncture or hormone therapy using a sleep log. It should be noted that

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Open arm, pilot, prospective

RCT, acu vs fluoxetine

40

80

DeanClower et al (2010)15 Feng et al (2011)16

RCT, Massage + Acu v standard of care RCT, acu + usual care vs usual care RCT, EA vs applied relaxation

138

50

Walker et al (2010)24

RCT acu vs venlafaxine

Breast Ca survivors with sleep disturbance and hot flash Women, breast Ca with vasomotor sx

Postmenopausal breast Ca with vasomotor sx

Breast cancer

Hospice patients (63% had cancer as primary diagnosis) Perioperative Ca pt

Women, breast CA 2 yr prior

Breast Ca survivors with vasomotor sx

Malignant tumor, + depression

Ca survivors on tamoxifen, reporting >4 hot flashes/24 h >3 mo Advanced ovarian or breast Ca, ambulatory

Women, local Ca, post surgery and/or chemo, pending radiation

Participants

EA 12 wk, HT 24 mo

15 “standard” txs Median 3 acu tx

2 consequtive days postop 6 sessions in 6 wk

√, EA

MenQOL,SF-12 mental, BDIPC

Wrist actigraph, sternal skin conductance

SCL, Mood Scale

POMS-SF, cost of anti-anxiety meds HADS, FACTQOL

None

Open-ended f/u Q

∅ ∅

√

TCM (no dx) ∅

TCM (no dx)

TCM

√, flex

∅, flex

∅, EA

∅

TCM

√

Med

2/wk first 4 wk, then 1/ wk × 8 wk

2/wk first 2 weeks, then 1/wk × 10 wk 3× in 2 wk

? In 30 days

√

TCM

12 in 8 wks

√, flex

∅

PGWB, WHQ, sleep log

1/wk × 8 wk

√, flex

TCM, 5E

TCM

1-2/wk × 4-6 wk

√, EA

∅

3: Frequency

2: Needling Details

1: Rationale

SDS, HAMD, PSQI

RSCL, SLDS-C, POMS, CCM

WHQ

SF-36, CES-D

Measures

STRICTA

Unreported

LAc

Physiotherapist

Unreported

LAc, >10y experience

LAc

Unreported

Physiotherapist

Unreported

LAc >10 y experience

Unreported

Unreported

5: Practitioner

Venlafaxine control

N/A

“Usual care” – not described “Usual care” = fatigue handbook Applied relaxation

Sham = “minimal” acupuncture N/A

Estrogen/ progestagen control

Fluoxetine control

N/A

N/A

Sham

6: Control

There were no significant differences between Acu and venlafaxine on QOL and depression. Both increased QOL (MenQOL: P < .002, SF-12: P < .007), decreased depression (P < .001).

Massage + Acu significantly reduced depression, (p=.003) and the spending on sleep & antianxiety meds (p-values not reported) compared to standard of care. Acupuncture significantly reduced anxiety and depression and improved QOL (all Ps < .001) compared with usual care. There were no significant differences between Acu and applied relaxation on mood (P = .55) and QOL (P = .16). Both groups had significant improvements in QOL (P < .0001). Increased minutes to fall asleep after tx stopped, (P = .04) and decreased % time awake after sleep onset at end of tx period (P = .05).

Acu was significantly more effective than fluoxetine in reducing depression (P < .05) and improving sleep problems (P 4 hot flashes/24 h >3 mo Malignant tumor, + SDS, HAMD, depression PSQI

Participants

Feng et al (2011)16

50 Prospective, de Valois single-arm et al (2010)14

Author, Year

Table 2.  Sleep and Acupuncture in Cancer.a

∅, flex

√, EA

TCM

TCM

√

√, flex

TCM

TCM, 5E

Unreported

Fluoxetine control

N/A

6: Control

There were significant improvements in sleep (P = .0001) from baseline to 8 wk. Few side effects

Significant Findings

Acu was significantly more effective than fluoxetine in improving sleep problems (P < .001). There were no significant differences EA 12 wk, Physiotherapist Estrogen/ HT 24 mo progestagen between EA and HT on sleep problems (P value not reported). control 12 wk of EA was comparable to 24 mo of HT and both showed significant improvement in sleep with time. 3× in 2 LAc N/A Increased minutes to fall asleep after tx weeks stopped, (P = .04) and decreased % time awake after sleep onset at end of tx period (P = .05).

? In 30 days

1/wk × 8 wk Unreported

1: Rationale 2: Needling Details 3: Frequency 5: Practitioner

STRICTA

376

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Measures

302 RCT, acu + usual Breast Ca care vs usual care

50 RCT acu vs venlafaxine

Molassiotis et al (2012)21

Walker et al (2010)24

HADS, FACTQOL

Women, breast Ca MenQOL,SF-12 with vasomotor mental, BDI-PC sx

For explanation of abbreviations, see footnote to Table 1.

a

138 RCT, massage + Acu vs standard of care

Mehling et al (2007)20 Perioperative Ca pt POMS-SF, cost of anti-anxiety meds

Malignant tumor, + SDS, HAMD, PSQI depression

80 RCT, acu v fluoxetine

Feng et al (2011)16

RSCL, SLDS-C, POMS, CCM

Advanced ovarian or breast Ca, ambulatory

Women, local SF-36, CES-D Ca, postsurgery and/or chemo, pending radiation

Participants

Dean-Clower 40 Open arm, pilot, et al (2010)15 prospective

27 RCT, pilot, EA vs sham

Balk et al (2009)13

Study Design

n

Author, Year

Table 3.  Depression and Acupuncture in Cancer.a

TCM

Med

TCM (no dx)

TCM

∅

∅

2/wk first 4 weeks, then 1/ wk × 8 wk

6 sessions in 6 wk Unreported

√

√, flex

2 consecutive days postop

√

Unreported

LAc, >10 y experience

Unreported

? In 30 days

√

LAc >10 y experience

Unreported

5: Practitioner

12 in 8 wk

1-2/wk × 4-6 wk

3: Frequency

√, flex

√, EA

1: Rationale 2: Needling Details

STRICTA

Acu was significantly more effective than fluoxetine in reducing depression (P < .05).

There were significant reductions in depression (P = .003) at 8 wk. Benefits were sustained at 12-wk follow-up.

There were no significant differences between EA and sham on depression (P = .29). Both groups had significant improvements in depression at 10 wk (P < .009). Blinding failed.

Significant Findings

Venlafaxine control

“Usual care” = fatigue handbook

There were no significant differences between Acu and venlafaxine on depression. Both decreased depression (P < .001).

Acupuncture significantly reduced depression and anxiety (P < .001) compared with usual care.

“Usual care”— Massage + Acu significantly reduced depression (P = not described .003) and the spending on sleep and anti-anxiety meds (P values not reported) compared with standard of care

Fluoxetine control

N/A

Sham

6: Control

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Haddad and Palesh medication, and in both cases performed as well or better than medication with fewer side effects.

Anxiety A recent review found that the prevalence of clinical anxiety in cancer patients was 19%, with women almost twice as likely to report anxiety (24% vs 12.9%).32 There were no studies that met review criteria that had anxiety as a primary outcome measure. Of the following 4 studies,14,15,19,21 one was a randomized clinical trial designed to treat fatigue,21 two were single-arm studies, evaluating quality of life15 or hot flashes,14 and the final study19 was a retrospective chart review of acupuncture in a hospice program. The largest (n = 302) study of acupuncture in cancer patients measuring anxiety was the 2012 study by Molassiotis et al.21 In a trial of acupuncture for fatigue in breast cancer patients utilizing a randomized controlled design, the study found significant improvement in anxiety as measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale compared with usual care. The subsequent 3 studies14,15,19 were either prospective single arm or retrospective chart review studies. In the 2010 single-arm study by Dean-Clower et al,15 12 acupuncture treatments were given to 40 advanced ovarian and breast cancer patients with results demonstrating significant decrease in anxiety scores. This improvement continued at 1 month after acupuncture was completed. de Valois et al14 enrolled 50 patients with early breast cancer to a single-arm trial of 8 acupuncture treatments for hot flashes. Anxiety was measured through Women’s Health Questionnaire anxiety subscale, and improvement reached significance. Finally, Kaufman and Salkeld,19 through retrospective chart review and acupuncturist interview of Kaiser Northwest Hospice acupuncture program, determined that 63% of patients treated with acupuncture had a cancer diagnosis and 45% had an anxiety diagnosis. It is unclear, however, in what proportion these 2 groups overlapped. Results indicated that 31% of patients who were treated for anxiety had “excellent” or “good” results as noted in the charts. In summary, currently no definitive conclusions can be drawn regarding the efficacy of acupuncture for anxiety in cancer patients given limited data, and also because no trials evaluated anxiety as a primary outcome measure as outlined in Table 4. Studies that did use anxiety as secondary outcome measure were generally positive with significant results, paving the way for the pursuit of higher quality studies with anxiety as primary outcome measure.

Quality of Life Quality-of-life measures attempt to evaluate the impact of cancer on a person’s activities of daily living. The measures used in the acupuncture literature are varied, but generally

include a combination of psychological, psychosocial, and symptom-specific questions.33 Several studies looked at the impact of acupuncture on quality of life; however, similar to research for other cancer-related psychiatric symptoms (as described above), only one was specifically designed to evaluate quality of life,15 and this trial was a single-arm pilot study. An additional 5 randomized clinical trials met criteria in the evaluation of acupuncture for quality of life, 3 for hot flashes17,22,24 and 2 for fatigue.13,21 Dean-Clower et al15 performed the only study to primarily evaluate quality of life, in an 8-week single-arm trial of acupuncture for 40 advanced ovarian and breast cancer patients. In addition to showing significant improvement in quality of life (P = .0004), 97% of participants reported that acupuncture “helped their overall sense of well-being.” Quality-of-life measures continued to show improvement one month after acupuncture was completed (at week 12). No significant side effects or adverse events attributable to acupuncture were observed. There are 3 randomized controlled trials that evaluated quality of life as secondary to hot flashes in breast cancer patients via 12-week acupuncture versus control. Control condition differed among the 3 studies, and was hormone therapy in Frisk et al,17 venlafaxine in Walker et al,24 and applied relaxation in Nedstrand et al.22 All 3 demonstrated significant improvement for acupuncture in quality-of-life measures, with Frisk et al17 (n = 45) demonstrating significant improvement in quality of life in both electro-acupuncture and hormone therapy group using the Psychological and General Well-Being Index and Women’s Health Questionnaire, but no significant difference between the groups. Nedstrand et al22 (n = 38) also used electro-acupuncture and found significant improvement in “psychological well-being” in both electro-acupuncture and applied relaxation groups using Symptom Checklist and Mood Scale. Walker et al24 evaluated 50 breast cancer patients receiving anti-estrogen hormone treatment and found significant improvement in quality of life for both acupuncture and venlafaxine groups using the Menopause-Specific Quality of Life Questionnaire and concluded that acupuncture was at least as effective as venlafaxine in improving quality of life associated with hot flashes. As previously noted, Walker et al24 reported that acupuncture was significantly better tolerated than venlafaxine, as there were zero adverse events in acupuncture group compared with 18 in venlafaxine. Out of 94 eligible patients who declined to participate, one third did so because they were unwilling to take venlafaxine, but none declined because of acupuncture, an indication of acceptability and tolerability. The following 2 randomized controlled trials were designed to evaluate fatigue in cancer patients, with Molassiotis et al21 randomizing 302 breast cancer patients to acupuncture or fatigue pamphlet. They found a significant improvement in quality of life in the acupuncture-treated

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40

50

71

302

Dean-Clower et al (2010)15

de Valois et al (2010)14

Kaufman and Salkeld (2008)19

Molassiotis et al (2012)21

RCT, acu + usual care vs usual care

Prelim retrospect cohort

Prospective, single-arm

Open arm, pilot, prospective

Study Design

Breast Ca

Ca survivors on tamoxifen, reporting >4 hot flashes/24 h >3 mo Hospice patients (63% had cancer as primary diagnosis)

Advanced ovarian or breast Ca, ambulatory

Participants

For explanation of abbreviations, see footnote to Table 1.

a

n

Author, Year

Table 4.  Anxiety and Acupuncture in Cancer.a

HADS, FACTQOL

None

RSCL, SLDS-C, POMS, CCM WHQ

Measures

1/wk × 8 wk

Median 3 acu tx

6 sessions in 6 wk

√, flex

∅

√

TCM, 5E

∅

Med

12 in 8 wk

√, flex

∅

3: Frequency

2: Needling Details

1: Rationale

Unreported

LAc

Unreported

LAc >10 y experience

5: Practitioner

STRICTA

“Usual care” = fatigue handbook

N/A

N/A

N/A

6: Control

Anxiety was the second most common chief complaint for those receiving Acu. “Excellent” or “good” results were reported in 31% of medical charts for anxiety. Acupuncture significantly reduced anxiety (P < .001) compared with usual care.

There were significant improvements in anxiety (P = .0001) from baseline to 8 wk. Few side effects.

There were significant reductions in anxiety (P = .001) at 8 wk. Benefits were sustained at 12-wk follow-up.

Significant Findings

379

Haddad and Palesh patients as compared with control using the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy scale. In a different design, Balk et al13 performed a sham-controlled trial of acupuncture in 27 participants using the Short Form 36, with both sham (nonpenetrating, blunt, telescoping needles) and true acupuncture groups showing improvement in quality of life. Finally, a subjective approach was sought by Hervik and Mjåland18 in their questionnaire research of 82 women who had previously participated in a randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of acupuncture versus sham acupuncture on hot flashes in breast cancer patients. A nonspecific, broad, and open question was posed and qualitative data were then analyzed. Sham acupuncture participants complained that hot flashes were still problematic, and those treated with true acupuncture found them “less of a problem and generally had a more positive outlook on life.” Although intentionally subjective, a limitation of this study was the open-ended subjective question and associated challenges inherent to analysis and interpretation of qualitative research. In spite of the limitations described above, acupuncture appears to have positive effects on quality of life in cancer patients. It was well tolerated and better tolerated than medication.24 In addition, some participants expressed strong preference for acupuncture over medication.24 When quality of life is examined in association with symptoms such as hot flashes, acupuncture appears to work as well as medication. However, once again, these findings are limited by study design, with only one trial evaluating quality of life as the primary outcome measure,15 and another trial underpowered to detect a difference between acupuncture and sham.13 Incomplete reporting of acupuncture practices was common, as outlined in Table 5, and this limits the interpretation of results. Clinical trials with adequate power, objective and validated outcome measures, and adequately described acupuncture protocol are needed to specifically evaluate the role of acupuncture for psychological wellbeing and quality of life.

Summary In reviewing this literature on acupuncture in the treatment of cancer-related psychological symptoms, common themes have emerged. There appears to be a positive effect for acupuncture in all published articles that met review criteria for cancer-related psychological symptoms, including sleep disturbance, depression, anxiety, and quality of life. However, there are only a few studies that directly address the question of whether acupuncture is effective in managing these psychological symptoms, since the majority evaluated these symptoms secondary to other cancer-related symptoms such as fatigue and hot flashes. There is strong evidence for acupuncture safety and tolerability in this population, as well as its higher acceptability and tolerability

than standard of care pharmacological treatments like antidepressants. The statistically significant findings for the beneficial effect of acupuncture on cancer-related psychological symptoms in a limited number of studies are encouraging and suggest the need for conducting randomized clinical trials to directly evaluate the therapeutic impact of acupuncture in this setting.

Possible Biologic Mechanisms for Acupuncture Effects There are diverse theories that attempt to explain the potential effect of acupuncture on psychiatric symptoms. Animal studies have suggested that acupuncture may have many different mechanisms of action that act both locally and systemically.34 One theory involves acupuncture’s apparent effect on neuropeptide Y, a neuromodulator produced primarily by the sympathetic nervous system. Neuropeptide Y is thought to be pivotal in the stress response, with functions that include increasing food intake and fat storage, reducing anxiety, stress, and the perception of pain, and affecting circadian rhythms.35 One immunohistochemical study demonstrated an increase in neuropeptide Y immunoreactive cells in the hippocampus, associated with increase in locomotion and weight as compared with control in maternally separated rats treated with a single acupuncture point.36 Additional potential mechanisms of action stem from evidence that acupuncture can increase adrenocorticotropic hormone, a substance integral to the stress response, β-endorphins—the neurotransmitters associated with pain relief and a sense of well-being—as well as the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine, all important targets in the psychiatric treatment of depression and anxiety.34,37 In addition to neurotransmitters, acupuncture appears to have diverse effects on other signaling molecules, decreasing the expression of 3 cytokines, interleukin-6, β-nerve growth factor, and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1,38 potentially reducing the inflammatory response. Emerging research has begun to describe how pro-inflammatory cytokines can influence a vast array of brain function relevant to behavior, including neurocircuits relating to mood, anxiety, and motivation.39 Evidence also supports the potential role of connective tissue and fibroblasts in the signaling mechanism of acupuncture, in potentially dose-dependent response,40,41 raising the question of whether “De Qi,” or the sensation of heaviness or tingling associated with needle manipulation is an important modulator of acupuncture effect. One theory suggests that acupuncture meridians may actually relate to connective tissue planes, as one study found an 80% correspondence between connective tissue planes and the sites of acupuncture points.42 The search for potential mechanisms for acupuncture is still in the early stages.

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50

38

302

82

RCT acu vs venlafaxine

Post RCT qualitative study RCT, acu + usual care vs usual care RCT, EA vs applied relaxation

Open arm, pilot, prospective RCT, EA vs HT

RCT, pilot, EA vs sham

Study Design

TCM

√, flex

SCL, Mood Scale

Postmenopausal breast Ca with vasomotor sx MenQOL,SF-12 mental, BDIPC

∅, EA

∅

HADS, FACTQOL

Breast Ca

Women, breast Ca with vasomotor sx

√

Med

Open-ended f/u Q

∅

2/wk first 2 wk, then 1/wk × 10 wk 2/wk first 4 wk, then 1/wk × 8 wk

15 “standard” txs 6 sessions in 6 wk

EA 12 wk, HT 24 mo

√, EA

TCM

PGWB, WHQ, sleep log

TCM (no dx)

12 in 8 wk

√, flex

∅

1-2/wk × 4-6 wk

3: Frequency

RSCL, SLDS-C, POMS, CCM

2: Needling Details √, EA

1: Rationale

STRICTA

∅

SF-36, CES-D

Measures

Women, breast Ca 2 yr prior

Women, local Ca, post surgery and/or chemo, pending radiation Advanced ovarian or breast Ca, ambulatory Breast Ca survivors with vasomotor sx

Participants

For explanation of abbreviations, see footnote to Table 1.

a

Walker et al (2010)24

Hervik and Mjåland (2010)18 Molassiotis et al (2012)21 Nedstrand et al (2006)22

40

DeanClower et al (2010)15 Frisk et al (2012)17

45

27

n

Balk et al (2009)13

Author, Year

Table 5.  Quality of Life and Acupuncture in Cancer.a

Unreported

Physiotherapist

Unreported

Unreported

Physiotherapist

LAc >10 y experience

Unreported

5: Practitioner

Venlafaxine control

Sham = “minimal” acupuncture “Usual care” = fatigue handbook Applied relaxation

Estrogen/ progestagen control

N/A

Sham

6: Control

There were no significant differences between Acu and applied relaxation on mood (P = .55) and QOL (P = .16). Both groups had significant improvements in QOL (P < .0001). There were no significant differences between Acu and venlafaxine on QOL. Both increased QOL (MenQOL: P < .002, SF-12: P < .007).

There were no significant differences between EA and HT on QOL indices (WHQ: P = .08, PGWB: P = .47). 12 wks of EA was comparable to 24 mo of HT and both showed significant improvement in QOL with time. Qualitative data showing people who had Acu 2 years prior now had a generally more positive outlook on life compared with those who had sham. Acupuncture significantly improved QOL (P < .001) compared with usual care.

There were no significant differences between EA and sham on QOL (P = .20). Both groups did not have significant improvements in QOL (P = .45). Blinding failed. There were significant reductions in QOL (P = .0004) at 8 wk. Benefits were sustained at 12-wk follow-up.

Significant Findings

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Overview of Challenges Chinese Medicine and Modern Allopathic Medicine As a result of the different theoretical frameworks governing Chinese medicine and modern medicine, there are many hidden challenges in conducting acupuncture research. One of the most fundamental and often overlooked challenges is the lack of one-to-one correlation between modern allopathic and Chinese medicine diagnoses. In Chinese medicine, no individual symptom equals a diagnosis, and no symptom or sign can be considered in isolation from all others.43(pp143-144) As an example, a symptom like “anxiety,” has no fewer than 5 possible diagnoses in Chinese medicine, and therefore theoretically requires a different point prescription44(p93) making it difficult to standardize the acupuncture treatment protocol. Acupuncture is an extension of Chinese medicine, a system that developed thousands of years ago, before the advent of modern science and modern scientific instruments. As such, Chinese medicine uses a functional paradigm to explain and treat human disease that is based on patterns of illness and clusters of symptoms. Practitioners of Chinese medicine are taught to identify patterns based on physical examination and symptom clusters, and then develop an acupuncture point prescription to address this pattern, which generally describes the entirety of a person’s symptoms (symptom cluster), and not solely one symptom.43 Additionally, acupuncture points often have multiple functions. For instance, a commonly used point for cancerrelated nausea is PC 6 (Pericardium 6), which is also an important and widely used point for the management of insomnia and anxiety. Because of this holistic approach, generally only a small percentage of points are symptomdriven points. Chinese medicine uses a poetic, nonrepresentational language that has roots in Taoism to describe patterns of symptoms and their progression, with disease conceptualized as imbalances in two opposing fundamental forces, Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang are not easily defined, but can be understood by the following “everything in the phenomenal universe has yin and yang aspect . . . (which are) mutually opposed but also mutually united.” Additionally, “yang represents activity, function, warmth and movement, while yin represents matter, form, cold and stillness.”45(p5) This is a fundamentally different approach than that of modern allopathic medicine, which is based on biological and molecular science, and utilizes a reductionist scientific model. Chinese medicine is an emergent system requiring attention to the totality of symptoms and is different from modern allopathic medicine, which uses a reductionist approach designed to analyze each part of the whole. Thus, designing a trial that adequately addresses these translational issues can be an exercise in compromises. However,

because cancer patients share common risk factors, exposures, and thus symptom clusters, they may be a patient population uniquely suited for studying acupuncture, allowing closer fidelity to the Chinese medicine framework while preserving a more rigorous scientific model of inquiry.

Acupuncture Modalities An additional reality is the variability in the practice of acupuncture. The selection of acupuncture points, as classically practiced, is governed by many factors. Acupuncture point selection includes consideration of the presenting symptoms, but also a determination of the current constitution of a patient, described by the Chinese medicine pattern of imbalance in Yin and Yang called the “differential diagnosis.” However, theoretical differences exist in the modern practice of acupuncture, exemplified by the practices of Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), taught by many master’s degree programs in the United States, versus Five Element style, another popular branch of Chinese medicine. Although these styles share a fundamental theoretical framework, point selection and diagnosis vary between these 2 schools. A more recent addition to the practice of acupuncture is auricular acupuncture, developed in France during the 1950s.46 Auricular acupuncture is a method that forgoes Chinese medicine’s theoretical framework and diagnosis, and chooses points on the ear that correspond to a theoretical homunculus. Perhaps the most widely recognized use of auricular acupuncture in the United States is the National Acupuncture Detoxification Association protocol, a fixed set of points used in the treatment of substance abuse. Additionally, certain adjuncts and variants to acupuncture make a notable appearance in the literature, particularly electro-acupuncture, a method of acupuncture in which electrodes are attached to select acupuncture needles and current is applied for the duration of the session, and acupressure, a heterogeneous group of methods meant to stimulate acupuncture points without the use of a needle puncturing the skin.

Training of Acupuncture Practitioners There is significant variability in the training of the practitioners performing acupuncture. In the United States, practitioners can range from state licensed individuals with 3 or more years of master’s level training in the theory and practice of Chinese medicine at a nationally accredited institution, to those trained in other health care fields who practice acupuncture with variable levels of training and no standard accreditation. Although state laws vary, most states require licensed acupuncture providers to be trained at schools accredited by the Accreditation Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine and to seek

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certification from the national acupuncture board, the National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine, which involves successfully passing a comprehensive examination.47,48 Physicians, chiropractors, and physical therapists are among those eligible in some states to take abbreviated courses, often 100 to 300 hours of training, and practice acupuncture without standardized licensure or accreditation.49,50

STRICTA Guidelines Although the revised STRICTA guidelines12 provide an essential framework for reporting acupuncture trial methodology, it is not clear if the addition of this information alone allows the average reader to better interpret this varied and complex data. Many readers do not have the basic knowledge in the practice of acupuncture necessary to evaluate the acupuncture-specific methodological strengths and weaknesses of a study. In addition, STRICTA guidelines are still not widely used even in trials published since STRICTA guidelines inception in 2001.

Limitations Throughout this review, we noted the presence of significant limitations because of an overall small number of trials designed to look at the impact of acupuncture on psychological symptoms in cancer, nonrandomized designs, small sample sizes, and lack of objective outcome measures. Most studies did not evaluate psychological symptoms as primary outcomes. It should be noted that although most articles that met our review criteria had a positive signal for acupuncture, it is possible that there may be a publication bias, since negative trials are less likely to be published particularly in debatable areas of medicine where strong evidence is limited.51-54 Finally, as described above, blinding in acupuncture studies is difficult, and thus studies without control or with failed blinding are common. One theme that emerged is the inconsistent reporting of acupuncture methodology, as outlined in Table 1. Only 2 (Frisk et al17 and Mehling et al20) of the 12 trials reported all essential details of acupuncture administration as outlined in the STRICTA guidelines. The most commonly omitted information was lack of details of acupuncture needling (such as the number of needles inserted, location of needling, depth of insertion, and response sought) and the training of the practitioner providing the acupuncture. These omissions have a significant impact on interpretation of acupuncture clinical trial for the following reasons. First, administration of acupuncture has significant variability. Acupuncture needling details are necessary for evaluating an acupuncture trial, similar to providing the name, dosage, and administration form in a medication trial. Leaving out this essential information would render an allopathic

medicine trial nearly uninterpretable. Second, the skill level of a practitioner providing an intervention is likely to affect the consistency and efficacy of an intervention. The fact that the vast majority of trials did not describe certain aspects of the acupuncture specific methodological details is a cause of concern. It should also be noted when reviewing Table 1 that there is wide variability between trials, both in the level of detail with which acupuncture is reported, and in the actual administration of acupuncture. There is little consistency between trials on how the acupuncture points are chosen, whether there is a flexible or fixed protocol, how many sessions are given and how often, or the training of the provider (when these details are reported). These aspects could potentially have significant effects on the outcome of a trial, so greater attention to the reporting of these details could improve reproducibility, aid interpretation, and facilitate the translation of this body of work into clinical practice. The STRICTA guidelines have been designed to help researchers in reporting of crucial acupuncture methodological details including the specifics of acupuncture methods, rationale (including style of acupuncture and reasoning for treatment), details of needling, treatment regimen, practitioner background, and specifics of control or comparator interventions. However, it is apparent that these guidelines are not yet in widespread use. Furthermore, the question remains whether the inclusion of this information alone is enough to address the interpretive challenges of acupuncture research. Many who consult the literature may not have sufficient knowledge about acupuncture to make sense of this complex data. In addition to the incomplete reporting of methodologies, there is also a pattern of incomplete reporting of important statistical details such as standard deviations and mean change scores. These were reported in our tables when reported by study authors. This review has several limitations. First, although this review is novel in analyzing included studies according to the STRICTA guidelines,12 we did not use a method for ranking the quality of the acupuncture studies and the data that they produce. Thus, it was not in the scope of this review to provide detailed commentary on issues related to choice of outcome measure, duration of treatment, use of appropriate statistical analysis or adherence to Chinese medicine best practices. Instead, the focus of this review was on summarizing the current state of the literature and highlighting the heterogeneity in current acupuncture research methodology and reporting. Second, our conclusions for this review are based on a small number of available published studies on acupuncture in psychological outcomes, few of which examined psychological symptoms as primary outcome. As such, conclusions drawn from this review are useful in suggesting future directions for research, since interpretability of the findings is limited.

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Future Directions

References

In addition to the need for higher quality studies with more rigorous methodology and methodological reporting, further evaluation of each aspect of the variable practice of acupuncture is needed to clarify acupuncture efficacy and best practices. For example, future studies should determine whether Chinese medical differential diagnosis is essential for using acupuncture in treatment of psychological disorders, as is suggested in Liu et al55 since many current studies appear to forgo this traditionally integral aspect of acupuncture point selection. More research is needed to determine whether substantial training in the theory and practice of Chinese medicine (master’s level state licensed providers) leads to better outcomes. Another unanswered question is whether there are moderators of acupuncture treatment responsiveness such as obtaining De Qi (a specific sensation of heaviness or tingling), as needling technique is taught as an essential component of achieving treatment response in some schools of acupuncture training. Many of the studies evaluated in this review had no discussion of needle manipulation, and the study by Molassiotis et al21 specifically avoided manipulation of needles. Preliminary evidence for the importance of needling technique is supported by Xiong et al56 as well as basic science research as outlined in the mechanism of action section.41,57 Furthermore, an issue that appears absent from the current acupuncture literature is the question of whether there are acupuncture responders and nonresponders and their characteristics to guide potential referrals for acupuncture. These issues will help clarify how and whom acupuncture can effectively treat. As higher quality studies emerge, acupuncture has the potential to improve psychological outcomes of cancer patients in clinical practice.

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Acknowledgments We are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments and suggestions and to Dr. Smita Das, MD, PhD, MPH who graciously gave of her time proofreading and reviewing statistics.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Nadia Haddad, MD, MS, L.Ac received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. For Dr. Oxana Palesh, PhD, MPH, the work was supported in part by NCI K07CA132916 and NCCAM 5P30AT005886 grants.

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