AN E C O L O G I C A L F R A M E W O R K F O R RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN BRITISH COLUMBIA S. M A H and S. T H O M S O N Research Branch, B.C. Ministry of Forests, 31 Bastion Square, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 3E7, Canada
and D. DEMARCHI Wildlife Branch, B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 780 Blanshard Street, Victoria, British Columbia, V8V IX4, Canada
Abstract. British Columbia's landmass encompasses a complex diversity of ecosystems as a result of its diverse physiography, geology and climate. Resource planners and managers, depending upon their management objectives, use ecological information at different scales, from the very broad regional level to the local or site-specific level. The Ecoregion Classification and the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification systems provide the means for resource managers and others in British Columbia concerned with the environment to understand, manage, and communicate about the diverse ecosystems of the province. This paper outlines this multi-level regional ecological classification and describes how it is being applied by resource managers from various resource agencies and organizations responsible for forest, wildlife and habitat management in British Columbia.
1. Ecosystem Mapping and Classification Most of the ecological classification work conducted in British Columbia has occurred since the 1940's to satisfy agriculture, forestry or wildlife interpretive needs. As such, the classifications tended to be single purpose and independent of other initiatives. Munro and Cowan (1947) developed a biotic regions classification for wildlife interpretations. Around the same time, Spilsbury and Smith (1947) developed a site type approach for forest land classification. During the 1950's, Krajina (1972) began developing the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification of the province for forest management purposes, which has been further refined and is the framework for forest management today. In the 1960's and 1970's, the B.C. Soil Survey was developing a biophysical habitat classification for agriculture, forestry and wildlife resources (Walmsley, 1976; Demarchi and Lea, 1989) from which the Ecoregion Classification for B.C. was developed (Demarchi et al., 1990). Since 1991, all resource agencies in B.C. have been cooperating in the development of common inventory and classification standards through an interagency resource committee (Resources Inventory Committee, 1992). Six task forces (terrestrial ecosystems, earth sciences, aquatic ecosystems, marine resources, atmospheric resources, and cultural resources) have been established to develop comprehensive resource inventories. Within the Terrestrial Ecosystems Task Force, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 39:119-125, 1996. (~) 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
120
s. MAHETAL. REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION
ZONAL CLASSIFICATION
SITE CLASSIFICATION
Ecodomain Biogeoclimatic Zone Ecodivision Ecoprovince
Site Association
l
Biogeoclimatic Subzone
Ecoregion
1
BiogeoclimaticVariant
Site Series
Site Type
Ecosection
Fig. 1. The hierarchical structure of the Regional, Zonal and Site Classificationsof ecosystem classificationin BritishColumbia. the Ecosystems Working Group is using the ecological classification framework described in this paper for the development of an ecosystems mapping methodology (Banner et al., this volume; Ecosystems Working Group, 1994). The B.C. ecological framework is an integration of both the Ecoregion Classification and the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification systems. When combined, there are three hierarchical components: a broad regional classification that divides the province on the basis of regional climates and large physiographic features, and a zonal classification and a site classification that subdivide the landscape based on more detailed ecological parameters (Figure 1) (Pojar et al., 1987; Demarchi and Lea, 1989; Demarchi, 1990; Demarchi et al., 1990; Meidinger and Pojar, 1991). 1.1,
REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION
The Ecoregion Classification provides a broad systematic view of ecological relationships in the province. There are five hierarchical levels (Figure 1): Ecodomains and Ecodivisions are areas of broadly uniform climate and place the province within a global context; Ecoprovinces, Ecoregions, and Ecosections describe areas of similar climate, physiography, vegetation, and wildlife potential. 1.2. ZONALCLASSIFICATION The Zonal Classification is a hierarchical system that integrates climate, vegetation and site classifications at a broad landscape level (Figure 1). The zonal or regional climate (reflected by vegetation and soil relationships), defines the basic biogeoclimatic unit, the subzone. These units are grouped into zones and further subdivided into variants based on further refinements of climate (Pojar et al., 1987; Meidinger and Pojar, 1991).
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1.3. SITECLASSIFICATION Within each subzone or variant, the landscape contains a mosaic of ecosystems or site series which result from differences in site conditions within a particular regional climate; site associations represent sites capable of producing similar late seral or climax vegetation, but over a range of climates. The most detailed level is site types which represent site series subdivided on the basis of specific soil properties such as texture or depth. These ecosystems are described within the site classification of the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification system (Figure 1). The site units have been identified and correlated for the province and are described in regional field guides (British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 1987; Lloyd et aL, 1990; Braumandl et al., 1992; Banner et al., 1993; DeLong et al., 1993, 1994; Green and Klinka, 1994). This component of the ecological framework forms the basis for mapping ecosystem units or biophysical habitat classes (Banner et al., this volume; Ecosystems Working Group, 1994).
2. Applying Ecosystem Classification The three components of classification (regional, zonal, site) organize ecological information at a range of scales, from provincial and regional levels, to individual watersheds or landscapes, down to specific sites within a landscape. These different scales meet the needs of a variety of users and objectives. Land use and conservation goals are set at a provincial or regional level using information on broad scale physiography, climate and vegetation (e.g., Ecoregions and Biogeoclimatic Zones). This information has been used by government resource agencies for provincial and regional land use planning and for program activity description (Wareham, 1991; Province of British Columbia, 1993; British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1993; Quesnel and Thiessen, 1993), as well as by many non-government environmental organizations for understanding the province's ecological diversity (Western Canada Wilderness Committee, 1992; Hume, 1993; Senez, 1994; Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, 1994). Maintaining biological diversity has emerged as a fundamental issue in natural resource management (Province of British Columbia, 1994). Managing for biodiversity means maintaining the diversity of native genes, species, and ecosystems. One approach to maintaining biodiversity is to establish a system of protected areas, such as parks and ecological reserves, that represent the range of ecological diversity found in the province, Broad scale ecosystem classification provides an ecological basis for allowing resource planners to identify and fill gaps in this system of protected areas. The Protected Areas Strategy initiative uses Ecoregion Classification for stratifying the province into broadly similar ecological areas. Further stratification, by biogeoclimatic units within ecosections is necessary for
122
s. MAHETAL.
mapping, analyzing, and evaluating the representation of ecosystems (Province of British Columbia, 1993). Wildlife management also takes place at various scales. Some wildlife species, such as frogs and salamanders, require only small patches of a specific habitat type, while others, such as grizzly bears, range over large areas and use many different habitats. For example, the home ranges of caribou herds in southeastern B.C. span several ecological zones - in winter they feed on lichens in high elevation forests and in summer, move between lower elevation forests and alpine meadows (i.e., between subzones within Ecosections). Based on the knowledge of a species and their habitat requirements, analytical maps can be produced that rate the capability of different ecosystems (Harper et aL, 1993; British Columbia Wildlife Branch, 1994). Other species, such as Snow Geese, migrate across entire continents, and spend only part of the year in B.C. Managing these wide-ranging species requires broad scale ecological information and often involves co-operation between different provinces or nations (i.e., across Ecoprovinces and Ecodivisions). To maintain biodiversity within a particular landscape, resource managers may design a network of ecosystems for protection or restricted resource development. In forested landscapes, this may mean establishing Forest Ecosystem Networks (FENs) which encompass representative tracts of older forests, economically or technically inoperable forests, rare and sensitive ecosystems, wetlands and streamside areas, and unlogged corridors that connect these areas. A Biodiversity field guide is currently being developed for the province (Province of British Columbia, in preparation). For maintaining representative ecosystems, it may be necessary to identify and map groups of ecosystems or develop an alternative method of estimating proportions of ecosystems in a planning unit. Ecosystem classification will play an integral part in the implementation of the recently introduced Forest Practices Code in B.C. over the next few years. There will be an increased need for ecological training and understanding because many of the Forest Practices Code field guides (e.g., Biodiversity and Wildlife Habitat Areas) will incorporate this ecological framework into their guidelines. Natural disturbances such as wildfire, insect outbreaks, and windstorms shape complex patterns of ecosystems of varying sizes and ages across the landscape. For example, extensive tracts of young forest are common in ecological zones where frequent wildfires occur. Where wildfires are rare, trees die individually or in small groups, leaving small patches of young forest within a landscape dominated by old forest. Within the ecosystem classification framework, researchers are studying the origin of these patterns and the relative importance of different disturbance processes that create these natural landscapes. Ecosystem classification at the site level guides the management of smaller units within a landscape (MacKinnon et al., 1992). Foresters manage forest stands by describing and classifying sites using data such as tree and understory plant species cover, stand age, soil type, soil moisture and nutrient regimes. Once a site
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123
has been classified, specific recommendations and prescriptions can be made using site-specific ecological information found in field guides, The site level provides an ecological framework to guide silvicultural prescriptions, including choice of tree species and stock type for reforestation, site preparation, and stand tending (British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 1987; Lloyd et al., 1990; Braumandl et al., 1992; Silviculture Interpretations Working Group, 1993; Banner et al., 1993; DeLong et al., 1993, 1994; Green and Klinka, 1994), as well as for assessing wildlife habitat management options (Lea et al., 1990; Harper et al., 1993). The usefulness of the ecosystem framework will increase as more ecological data are collected and incorporated. For example, research is currently being done to better correlate site index (and hence timber growth and yield prediction) to ecological site units. Information is also being collected on woody debris (e.g., snags and fallen logs) in order to develop guidelines on the amount of woody debris to leave in specific forest ecosystems (Steventon, 1994).
3. Conclusion In British Columbia, ecosystem classification and mapping has been essential to land use planning and resource management at the provincial, regional, and site-specific levels. It provides a language for communicating across disciplines and a means for understanding complexity. The ecological framework, which is an integration of the Ecoregion Classification and the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification systems, has provided an ecological basis for work at different levels of landscape planning and management which range from the province's Protected Areas Strategy, and Forest Practices Code to regional field guides for site identification and interpretation.
References Banner, A., Mackenzie, W., Haeussler, S., Thomson, S. Pojar, J. and Trowbridge, R.: 1993, 'A field guide to site identification and interpretation for the Prince Rupert Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 26, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. Banner, A., Lea, E.C., Maxwell, R.E., Meidinger, D.V. and von Sacken, B.C.: 1996, 'Ecosystem mapping methodology for British Columbia', Environmental Monitoring and Assessment (this volume). Braumandl, T. and Curran, M.P.: 1992, 'A field guide for site identification and interpretation in the Nelson Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 20, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks: 1993, 'State of the Environment for British Columbia', co-published, Province of British Columbia, Victoria, B.C. and Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. British Columbia Ministry of Forests: 1993, 'BiogeoclimaticZonation for British Columbia', Maps at 1:250 000 scale, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Research Branch, Victoria, British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Forests: 1987, 'A fieldguide for the identification and interpretation of ecosystems in the Cariboo Forest Region', Revised Draft Report.
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British Columbia Wildlife Branch: 1994, 'Northeastern British Columbia Wildlife Biophysical Project: Phase 1 (Overview)', Map folio, Habitat Inventory Section, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, British Columbia. Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society: 1994, 'B.C. Wildlands: Central Interior Region', Endangered Spaces Campaign Initiative, No. 3, Summer. DeLong, C., Tanner, D. and Jull, M.J.: 1993, 'A field guide for site identification and interpretation for the Southwest Portion of the Prince George Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 24, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. DeLong, C., Tanner, D. and Jull, M.J.: 1994, 'A field guide for site identification and interpretation for the Northern Rockies Portion of the Prince George Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 29, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. Demarchi, D.A.: 1990, Ecosystems: A Global Odyssey, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, Victoria, British Columbia, Poster. Demarchi, D.A. and Lea, E.C.: 1989, 'Biophysical habitat classification in British Columbia: an interdisciplinary approach to ecosystem evaluation', In: Symposium on Land Classification Based on Vegetation: Applications for Resource Management, Nov. 17-19, Moscow, Idaho. Demarchi, D.A., Marsh, R.D., Harcombe, A.P. and Lea, E.C.: 1990, 'The environment', In: R.W. Campbell, N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J.M. Cooper, G.W. Kaiser and M.C.E. McNall (eds.), The Birds of British Columbia, Vol. 1, Royal B.C. Museum, Victoria, British Columbia. Ecosystems Working Group: 1994, 'Terrestrial ecosystems mapping methodology for British Columbia', Review Draft, Resources Inventory Committee (RIC) Secretariat, Victoria, British Columbia. Green, R.N. and Klinka, K.: 1994, 'A field guide for site identification and interpretation in the Vancouver Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 28, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. Harper, W.L., Lea, E.C. and Maxwell, R.E.: 1993, 'Biodiversity inventory in the South Okanagan', In: M.A. Fenger, E.H. Miller, J.E Johnson and E.J.R. Williams (eds.), Proceedings - Our Living Legacy, Symposium on Biological Diversity, Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, British Columbia. Hume, M.: 1993, 'Where birds sing year round: British Columbia's ecological diversity', Borealis 3(4) 12, 8-1 l i Krajina, V.J.: 1972, 'Ecosystem Perspectives in Forestry', The H.R. MacMillan Lectureship in Forestry, Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia. Lea, E.C., Demarchi, D.A. and Lacelle, L.E.H.: 1990, 'Biophysical analysis of the Sheep Mountain Wildlife Area', Wildlife Bulletin No. B-66, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Victoria, British Columbia. Lloyd, D., Angove, K., Hope, G. and Thompson, C.: 1990, 'A guide to site identification and interpretation for the Kamloops Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 23, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria, British Columbia. MacKinnon, A., Meidinger, D. and Klinka, K.: 1992, 'Use of the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification System in British Columbia', Forestry Chronicle 68(1), 100-120. Meidinger, D. and Pojar, J. (compilers and editors): 1991, 'Ecosystems of British Columbia', Special Report Series No. 6, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. Munro, J.A. and McTaggart Cowan, I.: 1947, 'A review of the bird fauna of British Columbia', B.C. Provincial Museum Special Pub. No. 2, Victoria, British Columbia. Pojar, J., Klinka, K. and Meidinger, D.V. 1987, 'Biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification in British Columbia', For. EcoL Manage. 22, 119-154. Province of British Columbia: 1993, 'A protected areas strategy for British Columbia', Victoria, British Columbia. Province of British Columbia: 1994, 'Biodiversity field guide', Internal Government Review Draft. Quesnel, H.J. and Thiessen, EN.: 1993, 'Ecosection summaries for the Kootenay-Boundary Region', Technical Report No. TR-003, Forest Sciences and Recreation Section, British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Nelson, British Columbia.
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Resources Inventory Committee: 1992, 'Resource Inventory Committee Workshop Summary, May 27-28, 1992', Mesachie Lake, Corporate Resources Inventory Initiative, Victoria, British Columbia. Senez, P.: 1994, 'The Conservation Proposal: Towards Sustainability on Vancouver Island, Alternative 2 - Revised', Conservation Sector to the Vancouver Island CORE Table, Sierra Club of Western Canada, Victoria, British Columbia. Silviculture Interpretations Working Group, 1993, 'Correlated guidelines for tree species selection (lst approx.) and stocking standards (2nd approx.) for the ecosystems of British Columbia', B.C. Min. Forests & For. Can., Victoria, British Columbia. Spilsbury, R.H. and Smith, D.S.: 1947, 'Forest site types in the Pacific Northwest, a preliminary report', Forest Service Tech. Pub. No. T.30, B.C. Dep. Lands and Forests, Victoria, British Columbia. Steventon, J.D.: 1994, 'Biodiversity and forest management in the Prince Rupert Forest Region: a discussion paper', Land Manage. Report No. 82, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria, British Columbia. Walmsley, M.E.: 1976, 'Biophysical land classification in British Columbia: the philosophy, techniques, and application', In: J. Thie and G. Ironside (eds.), Ecological (Biophysical) Land Classification in Canada, Proceedings of the 1st Meeting on Canada Committee of Ecological Land Classification, Ecological Land Classification Series No. 1, Environ. Can., Ottawa, Ontario. Wareham, B.: 1991, British Columbia Wildlife Viewing Guide, Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton, Alberta. Western Canada Wilderness Committee: 1992, 'A global heritage in peril: British Columbia's temperate rainforest', BC-WILD Educational Report 11(1), 4.
and D. DEMARCHI Wildlife Branch, B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 780 Blanshard Street, Victoria, British Columbia, V8V IX4, Canada
Abstract. British Columbia's landmass encompasses a complex diversity of ecosystems as a result of its diverse physiography, geology and climate. Resource planners and managers, depending upon their management objectives, use ecological information at different scales, from the very broad regional level to the local or site-specific level. The Ecoregion Classification and the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification systems provide the means for resource managers and others in British Columbia concerned with the environment to understand, manage, and communicate about the diverse ecosystems of the province. This paper outlines this multi-level regional ecological classification and describes how it is being applied by resource managers from various resource agencies and organizations responsible for forest, wildlife and habitat management in British Columbia.
1. Ecosystem Mapping and Classification Most of the ecological classification work conducted in British Columbia has occurred since the 1940's to satisfy agriculture, forestry or wildlife interpretive needs. As such, the classifications tended to be single purpose and independent of other initiatives. Munro and Cowan (1947) developed a biotic regions classification for wildlife interpretations. Around the same time, Spilsbury and Smith (1947) developed a site type approach for forest land classification. During the 1950's, Krajina (1972) began developing the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification of the province for forest management purposes, which has been further refined and is the framework for forest management today. In the 1960's and 1970's, the B.C. Soil Survey was developing a biophysical habitat classification for agriculture, forestry and wildlife resources (Walmsley, 1976; Demarchi and Lea, 1989) from which the Ecoregion Classification for B.C. was developed (Demarchi et al., 1990). Since 1991, all resource agencies in B.C. have been cooperating in the development of common inventory and classification standards through an interagency resource committee (Resources Inventory Committee, 1992). Six task forces (terrestrial ecosystems, earth sciences, aquatic ecosystems, marine resources, atmospheric resources, and cultural resources) have been established to develop comprehensive resource inventories. Within the Terrestrial Ecosystems Task Force, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 39:119-125, 1996. (~) 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
120
s. MAHETAL. REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION
ZONAL CLASSIFICATION
SITE CLASSIFICATION
Ecodomain Biogeoclimatic Zone Ecodivision Ecoprovince
Site Association
l
Biogeoclimatic Subzone
Ecoregion
1
BiogeoclimaticVariant
Site Series
Site Type
Ecosection
Fig. 1. The hierarchical structure of the Regional, Zonal and Site Classificationsof ecosystem classificationin BritishColumbia. the Ecosystems Working Group is using the ecological classification framework described in this paper for the development of an ecosystems mapping methodology (Banner et al., this volume; Ecosystems Working Group, 1994). The B.C. ecological framework is an integration of both the Ecoregion Classification and the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification systems. When combined, there are three hierarchical components: a broad regional classification that divides the province on the basis of regional climates and large physiographic features, and a zonal classification and a site classification that subdivide the landscape based on more detailed ecological parameters (Figure 1) (Pojar et al., 1987; Demarchi and Lea, 1989; Demarchi, 1990; Demarchi et al., 1990; Meidinger and Pojar, 1991). 1.1,
REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION
The Ecoregion Classification provides a broad systematic view of ecological relationships in the province. There are five hierarchical levels (Figure 1): Ecodomains and Ecodivisions are areas of broadly uniform climate and place the province within a global context; Ecoprovinces, Ecoregions, and Ecosections describe areas of similar climate, physiography, vegetation, and wildlife potential. 1.2. ZONALCLASSIFICATION The Zonal Classification is a hierarchical system that integrates climate, vegetation and site classifications at a broad landscape level (Figure 1). The zonal or regional climate (reflected by vegetation and soil relationships), defines the basic biogeoclimatic unit, the subzone. These units are grouped into zones and further subdivided into variants based on further refinements of climate (Pojar et al., 1987; Meidinger and Pojar, 1991).
ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
121
1.3. SITECLASSIFICATION Within each subzone or variant, the landscape contains a mosaic of ecosystems or site series which result from differences in site conditions within a particular regional climate; site associations represent sites capable of producing similar late seral or climax vegetation, but over a range of climates. The most detailed level is site types which represent site series subdivided on the basis of specific soil properties such as texture or depth. These ecosystems are described within the site classification of the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification system (Figure 1). The site units have been identified and correlated for the province and are described in regional field guides (British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 1987; Lloyd et aL, 1990; Braumandl et al., 1992; Banner et al., 1993; DeLong et al., 1993, 1994; Green and Klinka, 1994). This component of the ecological framework forms the basis for mapping ecosystem units or biophysical habitat classes (Banner et al., this volume; Ecosystems Working Group, 1994).
2. Applying Ecosystem Classification The three components of classification (regional, zonal, site) organize ecological information at a range of scales, from provincial and regional levels, to individual watersheds or landscapes, down to specific sites within a landscape. These different scales meet the needs of a variety of users and objectives. Land use and conservation goals are set at a provincial or regional level using information on broad scale physiography, climate and vegetation (e.g., Ecoregions and Biogeoclimatic Zones). This information has been used by government resource agencies for provincial and regional land use planning and for program activity description (Wareham, 1991; Province of British Columbia, 1993; British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1993; Quesnel and Thiessen, 1993), as well as by many non-government environmental organizations for understanding the province's ecological diversity (Western Canada Wilderness Committee, 1992; Hume, 1993; Senez, 1994; Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, 1994). Maintaining biological diversity has emerged as a fundamental issue in natural resource management (Province of British Columbia, 1994). Managing for biodiversity means maintaining the diversity of native genes, species, and ecosystems. One approach to maintaining biodiversity is to establish a system of protected areas, such as parks and ecological reserves, that represent the range of ecological diversity found in the province, Broad scale ecosystem classification provides an ecological basis for allowing resource planners to identify and fill gaps in this system of protected areas. The Protected Areas Strategy initiative uses Ecoregion Classification for stratifying the province into broadly similar ecological areas. Further stratification, by biogeoclimatic units within ecosections is necessary for
122
s. MAHETAL.
mapping, analyzing, and evaluating the representation of ecosystems (Province of British Columbia, 1993). Wildlife management also takes place at various scales. Some wildlife species, such as frogs and salamanders, require only small patches of a specific habitat type, while others, such as grizzly bears, range over large areas and use many different habitats. For example, the home ranges of caribou herds in southeastern B.C. span several ecological zones - in winter they feed on lichens in high elevation forests and in summer, move between lower elevation forests and alpine meadows (i.e., between subzones within Ecosections). Based on the knowledge of a species and their habitat requirements, analytical maps can be produced that rate the capability of different ecosystems (Harper et aL, 1993; British Columbia Wildlife Branch, 1994). Other species, such as Snow Geese, migrate across entire continents, and spend only part of the year in B.C. Managing these wide-ranging species requires broad scale ecological information and often involves co-operation between different provinces or nations (i.e., across Ecoprovinces and Ecodivisions). To maintain biodiversity within a particular landscape, resource managers may design a network of ecosystems for protection or restricted resource development. In forested landscapes, this may mean establishing Forest Ecosystem Networks (FENs) which encompass representative tracts of older forests, economically or technically inoperable forests, rare and sensitive ecosystems, wetlands and streamside areas, and unlogged corridors that connect these areas. A Biodiversity field guide is currently being developed for the province (Province of British Columbia, in preparation). For maintaining representative ecosystems, it may be necessary to identify and map groups of ecosystems or develop an alternative method of estimating proportions of ecosystems in a planning unit. Ecosystem classification will play an integral part in the implementation of the recently introduced Forest Practices Code in B.C. over the next few years. There will be an increased need for ecological training and understanding because many of the Forest Practices Code field guides (e.g., Biodiversity and Wildlife Habitat Areas) will incorporate this ecological framework into their guidelines. Natural disturbances such as wildfire, insect outbreaks, and windstorms shape complex patterns of ecosystems of varying sizes and ages across the landscape. For example, extensive tracts of young forest are common in ecological zones where frequent wildfires occur. Where wildfires are rare, trees die individually or in small groups, leaving small patches of young forest within a landscape dominated by old forest. Within the ecosystem classification framework, researchers are studying the origin of these patterns and the relative importance of different disturbance processes that create these natural landscapes. Ecosystem classification at the site level guides the management of smaller units within a landscape (MacKinnon et al., 1992). Foresters manage forest stands by describing and classifying sites using data such as tree and understory plant species cover, stand age, soil type, soil moisture and nutrient regimes. Once a site
ECOLOGICALFRAMEWORKFOR RESOURCEMANAGEMENT
123
has been classified, specific recommendations and prescriptions can be made using site-specific ecological information found in field guides, The site level provides an ecological framework to guide silvicultural prescriptions, including choice of tree species and stock type for reforestation, site preparation, and stand tending (British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 1987; Lloyd et al., 1990; Braumandl et al., 1992; Silviculture Interpretations Working Group, 1993; Banner et al., 1993; DeLong et al., 1993, 1994; Green and Klinka, 1994), as well as for assessing wildlife habitat management options (Lea et al., 1990; Harper et al., 1993). The usefulness of the ecosystem framework will increase as more ecological data are collected and incorporated. For example, research is currently being done to better correlate site index (and hence timber growth and yield prediction) to ecological site units. Information is also being collected on woody debris (e.g., snags and fallen logs) in order to develop guidelines on the amount of woody debris to leave in specific forest ecosystems (Steventon, 1994).
3. Conclusion In British Columbia, ecosystem classification and mapping has been essential to land use planning and resource management at the provincial, regional, and site-specific levels. It provides a language for communicating across disciplines and a means for understanding complexity. The ecological framework, which is an integration of the Ecoregion Classification and the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification systems, has provided an ecological basis for work at different levels of landscape planning and management which range from the province's Protected Areas Strategy, and Forest Practices Code to regional field guides for site identification and interpretation.
References Banner, A., Mackenzie, W., Haeussler, S., Thomson, S. Pojar, J. and Trowbridge, R.: 1993, 'A field guide to site identification and interpretation for the Prince Rupert Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 26, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. Banner, A., Lea, E.C., Maxwell, R.E., Meidinger, D.V. and von Sacken, B.C.: 1996, 'Ecosystem mapping methodology for British Columbia', Environmental Monitoring and Assessment (this volume). Braumandl, T. and Curran, M.P.: 1992, 'A field guide for site identification and interpretation in the Nelson Forest Region', Land Manage. Handb. No. 20, B.C. Min. For., Victoria, British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks: 1993, 'State of the Environment for British Columbia', co-published, Province of British Columbia, Victoria, B.C. and Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. British Columbia Ministry of Forests: 1993, 'BiogeoclimaticZonation for British Columbia', Maps at 1:250 000 scale, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Research Branch, Victoria, British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Forests: 1987, 'A fieldguide for the identification and interpretation of ecosystems in the Cariboo Forest Region', Revised Draft Report.
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