Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

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Research paper

An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria O.S. Olorunnisola a,b,n, A. Adetutu b, A.J. Afolayan a a b

Medicinal Plant and Economic Development (MPED) Research Center. University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa Department of Biochemistry, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 19 April 2014 Received in revised form 29 September 2014 Accepted 2 October 2014

Ethnopharmacological relevance: This study was designed to take an inventory of medicinal plants, Q4 recipes and methods commonly used traditionally to treat some cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases in five local government areas in Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria. Material and methods: First-hand field survey through semi-structured questionnaire was employed in the 5 months study. Results: A total of 101 plant species (medicinal plants (80.90%), spices (17.5%) and vegetables (1.53%)) belonging to 51 different families were mentioned for the treatment of various types of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. The survey revealed that 51.5% of the plants mentioned are used for the management of inflammatory diseases, 34.7% for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and 11.9% of the plants are used for the treatment of both diseases. Euphorbiaceae (7.9%) are the most frequently used families of plants for the treatment of the various types of diseases mentioned, followed by Caesalpiaceae, (4.9%), Apocynoceae (4.9%) and Poaceae (4.9%). Fifty-nine recipes are usually prepared for the treatment of the six types of inflammatory diseases while twenty-three recipes are reportedly used for the treatment of the four types of cardiovascular diseases mentioned in this study. The recipes covered in the survey were mostly prepared from leaves (37.6%) and roots (23.8%) decoction or infusions. Medications are mostly administered orally with few numbers of the recipes showing side effect. Conclusion: The study has documented indigenous plants in Ogbomoso as a potential source for the development of new drugs for the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. & 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cardiovascular diseases Inflammatory diseases Medicinal plants Traditional medicine Ogbomoso

1. Introduction The use of medicinal plants for the treatment of human diseases is a recurring decimal in virtually all cultures (Baquar, 1995). According to WHO, 80% of the world population, especially people in the rural area of developing countries rely on herbal medicine for their primary health needs (WHO, 1992; WHO, 2003). The recent interest in the use of herbal medicines has been attributed to the believed that they are comparatively less toxic than the synthetic drugs (Yusuf et al., 2007). Ogbomoso is a city in Oyo State inhabited by Yoruba speaking people of Southwestern Nigeria. The area belongs to the humid tropical with dry and rainy

n Corresponding author at: Medicinal Plant and Economic Development (MPED) Research Center. University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa. Tel.: þ 27 82202167; fax: þ 27 866282295. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (O.S. Olorunnisola), [email protected] (A. Adetutu), [email protected] (A.J. Afolayan).

seasons, and is rich in wide varieties of indigenous medicinal plants, commonly used by the local herbalists for the treatment of a number of ailments such as malaria, cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. Although, an ethnobotanical survey of the plants commonly used in the treatment of malaria infection has been reported (Olorunnisola et al., 2013), information on the plants usually employed in the management of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases in this locality is scanty in the literature. Cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases represent a public health problem for developing countries such as Africa (Mbewu, 1998; Beaglehole and Yach, 2003). They are major causes of morbidity and mortality (Madjid et al., 2004; Krisela, 2007). Long term exposure to oxidative stress and other factors such as cigarette smoking, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, hypertension, physical inactivity and diabetes have been implicated in the etiopathogenesis of both diseases (Commerford, 2005). Although, many synthetic drugs such as statin, aspirin and many steroidal, as well as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are readily available for the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001 0378-8741/& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Olorunnisola, O.S., et al., An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001i

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respectively, there prolonged usage has been reported to cause renal problems, gastrointestinal irritation and other adverse side effects (Bertolini et al., 2001). Considering the predicted increase in the incidence of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases couple with the decline in the potency of most orthodox drugs in use, it is imperative to search for newer drugs. The present study was designed to identify medicinal plant and the recipes commonly used by people of Ogbomoso to treat cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases with the primary aim to document indigenous knowledge in this locality.

2.5. Intellectual property agreement statement Consent was obtained from the respondents to divulge information, and when consent was refused, no question whatsoever was forced on the individual. The informant who contributed information during this survey, were adequately financially rewarded with a further verbal agreement that this research shall not be for commercial purposes, but to serve as enlightenment information to the community and the entire Ogbomoso Town. 2.6. Compliance statement

2. Materials and method 2.1. Study area The study area is as earlier described by Olorunnisola et al. (2013). The study covered a period of 5 months from January to May 2013. The dwellers of this town make use of herbal medications either alone or alongside with orthodox medicines for the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases.

No part of this study in any form has been or will be commercialized; instead the entire article is meant to be used as a tool for information dissemination on the medicinal plants used for the treatment of malarial infection in Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria.

3. Results 3.1. Plants commonly used to treat inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases

2.2. Sample size and sampling techniques In this study, the researcher collected relevant data from 25 healers from each of the five local government from the area using purposive sampling techniques. This is because the study area (Ogbomoso) is mostly covered by different plant species which are used for traditional medicinal value to treat different diseases. 2.3. Data collection The information was obtained from herbalist and traditional healers with the use of scientifically guided questionnaires and interviews. Very few of the informants were scientifically literate while the majority is non-learned. Plants used for the treatment of cardiovascular (hypertension, stroke, high blood pressure and heart attack) and inflammatory diseases (asthma, appendicitis, rheumatism, pneumonia, ulcer and eczema) were identified and collected with the help of the actual users and were identified by Dr. A. A Ogunkunle of Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology. Voucher specimens of the plants were deposited (DSO 001-103) at the University Herbarium. The descriptive statistical method was employed to analyze and summarize the ethnobotanical data on the reported medicinal plants and associated knowledge. 2.4. Structure questionnaire Ethno-medical information on the plants used in the treatment of cardiovascular (hypertension, high blood pressure, heart attack and stroke) and inflammatory (asthma, appendicitis, rheumatism, pneumonia and eczema) were obtained by consulting herbalists and traditional healers (both male and female from ages 40 years and above) in the five local governments. The use of semistructured questionnaire and oral interviews were adopted to obtain the relevant ethno-medical data. A total of 125 questionnaires divided into three sections were administered by trained interviewers and in some cases, monetary incentives were given to unwilling respondents. Section (a) dealt with personal information such as age, sex, religion local tribe and nationality. Section (b) was about the names of plants commonly used in the treatment of the above mentioned diseases, diagnosis method and duration of treatments. Section (c) dealt with plants, recipes and likely side effects of recipes were documented. A total of 101 plant species was mentioned in the study.

A total of 101 plant species belonging to 51 different families were recorded in the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases during the survey. Table 1 shows that 51.5% of the plant reported is used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases (asthma, appendicitis, rheumatism, pneumonia and eczema) while 34.7% of the plants (Table 2) are used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, stroke, high blood pressure and heart attack) and 11.8% (Table 3) are used for the treatment of both diseases. Euphorbiaceae (18.8%) are the most frequently used family in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, followed by Poaceace (12.5%), Apocynaceae, Caesalpinaceae Moraceae and Combretaceae with 9.4% respectively. The most frequently used plant families in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases are Annonaceae (6.7%) followed by Apocynaceae (6.7%), Bombaceae (6.7%), Euphorbiaceae (6.7%), Papilioniaceae (6.7%) and Bignoniaceae (6.7%). Mimosaceae (37.5%) is the most commonly use plant families to treat both diseases followed by Liliaceae (25.0%) Zingiberaceae (25.0%), and Caesalphinaceae (25.0%). Tables 1 and 2 show that the leaves (37.6%), roots (23.8%), bark (14.9%), fruits (9.90%), seeds (6.90%), stem (3.96%), tuber (0.99%), bulbs (0.99%) and whole plant (0.99%) are frequently utilized plant parts for preparation of recipes for the treatment of both diseases but the leaves were the mostly used. 3.2. Recipes used for the treatment of inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases The survey revealed that 59 recipes are employed for the treatment of inflammatory diseases ((ulcer (10), appendicitis (9), asthma (16), rheumatism (13), pneumonia (8) and eczema (3)) (Table 4a) while 23 recipes are used for the management of cardiovascular diseases ((hypertension (10), stroke (9), heart attack (2) and high blood pressure (2) Table 4b. The analysis showed that most of the remedies are prepared from single or mixed with other plants. Allium specie (19.2% for inflammatory diseases and 21.7% for cardiovascular diseases) and Citrus aurantifolia (12.1%) are common plant species usually employed in the preparation of various remedies for both diseases. The methods of preparation varied considerably from one healer to the other; however, most remedies were often used in the form of decoctions and infusions. Extraction may be hot by boiling in water or mere soaking plant parts in cold water, dry gin, mixed with shear butter or palm oil. The survey also indicated that the remedies were mainly

Please cite this article as: Olorunnisola, O.S., et al., An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001i

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Table 1 List of medicinal plants used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, their botanical names, parts used, and diseases treated. Local name

Botanical name

VSN

FA

FQ

Dis

PPU

Orombo

Citrus aurantifolia Christm. and Panzer

DSO 001

Rutaceae

70

Fruit/root/bark

Ayin Dongoyaro Orogbo Abeere Afon Idigbo Atawere Epakun Iyere Obo Lapalapa pupa Oloraigbo Tagiri Ila Inobiri Ipin Iyeye Abafe Agbado Asunwon Ata dudu Atoo Baka Bamboo Bomubomu Eegunorun Ege Enuopiri Gbegbe Idi Iginla Ira Irawo ile Ire Ireke ibile Isinko Kanafuru Obi Odan Ogbo Ogedewewe Oja-ikoko Oko-ofe Ologunsese Ope oyinbo Ora Oro adete Oro alaidan Oruru Paron Sawewe

Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. and Perr. Azadirachta indica A. juss Garcinia kola Heckel Picralima nitida (Stapf) T. Durand and H.Durand Treculia africana Decne var. africana Terminalia ivorensis Chev. Capsicum frutescens L. Curculigo pilosa (Schum. and Thonn.) Spondias monbin L. Erythrophleum guineense G. Don Jatropha curcas L. Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel. Lagenaria breviflorus (Benth.) Roberty Hibiscus esculentus L. Plumbago zeylanica L. Ficus exasperata Vahl. Piper guineense Schumach. and Thonn. Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.) Zea mays L. Cassia siamea Lam. Piper nigrum L. Chasmanthera dependens Hochst. Gladiolus psittacinus Hook.f. Dendrocalamus calostachyus (Kurz) Kurz Calotropis procera L. Crateva religiosa G.Forst. Manihot esculenta Crantz Euphorbia lateriflora Schum. and Thonn. Icacina tricantha Oliv. Terminalia avicenniodes Guill and Perr. Okoubaka aubrevillei Pellegr. and Normand Bridelia ferruginea Benth Borreria verticullata L Holarrhena floribunda (G. Don.) Dur. and Schinz Saccharum officinarum. L. Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) Eugenia caryophyllata L. Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott et Endl. Ficus thonningii (Blume) Paraquetina nigrescens L. Musa sapientum var. sylvesteris Sansevieria liberica ger. and Labr. Vetivera nigritana (Benth) Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Dicliptera alternans Lindau Bot. Jahrb. Syst. Euphorbia unispina N.E. Br. Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum and Thonn) Taub Vitex doniana (Sweet) Morinda lucida Benth Glinus oppositifollus (L.)

DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO

Combretaceae Meliaceae Clusiaceae Apocynaceae Moraceae Combretaceae Solanaceae Hypocidaceae Anacardiaceae Caesalpiniaceae Euphorbiaceae Apocynaceae Cucurbitaceae Malvaceae Plumbaginaceae Moraceae Piperaceae Caesalpiniaceae Poaceae Caesalpiniaceae Piperaceae Menispermaceae Iridaceae Poaceae Asclepiadaceae Capparaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Icacinaceae Combretaceae Octoknemataceae Euphorbiaceae Rubiaceae Apocynaceae Poaceae Euphorbiaceae Myrtsceae Malvaceae Moraceae Petiplocaceae Musaceae Draceaceae Poaceae Papilionaceae Bromeliaceae Acanthaceae Euphorbiaceae Mimiossaceae Verbenaceae Rubiaceae Molluginaceae

30 30 30 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

AS/UL AP/PN AP/PN PN/AP RH/AS PN/RH AP/RH UL/AS PN AS PN/AS AP/EC RH/AS AP/PN RH/AS UL/EC PN/EC UL AP/AS AP PN RH PN UL AS RH RH AS RH AS RH AS RH AP EC UL AS AS AP RH PN RH UL AP AP AP RH PN AS AS AP AP AP

002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 016 017 018 019 020 021 022 023 024 025 026 027 028 029 030 031 032 033 034 035 036 037 038 039 040 041 042 043 044 045 046 047 048 049 050 051 052

Bark Leaves/bark fruit leaves Fruits/leaves Bark Seeds Roots Leaves Bark Leaves/stem Roots Fruits Fruits Roots Leaves Roots Bark Leaves Roots Fruits Stem Roots Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Root/tuber Leaves Bark Bark Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Fruits Leaves Leaves Bark Leaves Roots Roots Fruits Leaves Bark Leaves Leaves Leaves Fruits

Appendicitis: AP, Asthma: AS, Eczema: EC, Pneumonia: PN, Rheumatism: RH, Ulcer: UL, FA Represent Family, FQ¼ Frequency, Dis¼ Diseases, PPU ¼Plants part used and represent voucher specimen numbers.

administered orally and very rarely as external application. A few numbers of the remedies mentioned for the treatment of inflammatory (27.1%) and cardiovascular (4.4%) diseases are reported to have side effect.

4. Discussion The present survey revealed that about 101 plant species and 51 different families are commonly used for the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. The informants consulted in this investigation claimed that ulcer, appendicitis, asthma, rheumatism, pneumonia and eczema are common inflammatory diseases while hypertension, stroke, high blood pressure

and heart attack are common cardiovascular diseases in the study area (Fig. 1B). Though, the majority of the informants do not have formal education, they described the various diseases in a way that explain they have knowledge of the diseases. They claimed that their knowledge and experienced come from their forefathers and that some of it comes from thousands of years of trials and errors. Most of the plants they mentioned are used singly or combined to prepare a particular recipe. 4.1. Plants commonly used to treat inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases The most represented plant families employed in the management of the inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases mentioned

Please cite this article as: Olorunnisola, O.S., et al., An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001i

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Table 2 List of medicinal plants used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, their botanical names, parts used, and diseases treated. Local name

Botanical name

Ewuro Pandoro Laara Epaikun Ese oka Wowo Igiara Eru Alomo Egbesi Alubosa obe Legunoko Leginiko/jenloko Akoogun Itanna-akorere Ako ibepe Amuje Apaasa Araba Atapari obuko Dufin/Ako Igi dodo Labelabe Gbure Guofa Idi apata Iroko iju Sapo Ube Godogbo Apabida Igbale Iru alangba Afomo Olomi ojo Oja ikoko Awopa

Vernonia amygdalina (Del.) Kigelia Africana (Lam.) Benth. Ricinus communis L. Curculigo pilosa (Schum. and Thonn.) Engl. Soghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Beaucamea recurvate M. Malphigia Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich Nauclea latifolia Smith. Allium cepa L. Psoropermum febrifugum Spach Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich Aristolo chiaringens Vahl Cassia occidentalis L. Carica papaya L. Harugana madagascatiensis (L.) Choisy Ageratum conyzoides L. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn Citropsis articulate (Will) Hook.f.ex Benth Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau Voacanga africana Stapf Lablab purpureus L. Talinum triangulare (Jacq) Wild Psidium guajava L. Microdesmis keayana (J. Leonard) Chlorophora excelsa (Welw.) Benth Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev Persea Americana Mill. Cissampelos pareira L. var. orbiculala (DC.) Miq. Ceiba pentandra L. Moringa oleifera Lam. Stachytarpheta angustifolia (Mill.) Vahl Viscum album L. Thevetia neriifolia A. Juss. Ex Steud Sarsevieria liberica Ger. and Labr. Enantia chlorantha Oliv.

DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO

053 054 055 056 057 058 059 060 061 062 062 064 065 066 O67 068 069 070 071 072 073 074 075 076 077 078 079 080 081 082 083 084 085 086 087 088

Family

Fr

Dis

Parts used

Asteraceae Bignoniaceae Euphorbiaceae Hypoxidaceae Poaceae Ruscaceae Papilionoideae Annonaceae Rubiaceae Liliaceae Clusiaceae Menispermaceae Aristolochiaceae Fabaceae Caricaceae Hyperricaceae Asteraceae Bombacaceae Rutaceae Bignoniaceae Apocynaceae Papilionaceae Hydrophyllaceae Myrtaceae Euphorbiaceae Moraceae Loganiaceae Lauraceae Bombacaceae Malvaceae Moringaceae Verbenaceae Loranthaceae Apocynaceae Agavaceae Annonaceae

44 43 40 39 38 34 31 28 30 25 24 23 21 19 19 17 17 15 15 13 12 12 11 10 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 6

HY HY HY HY HY HY HY HY HY/HBP HY HF ST HA ST HA HY HA HY ST ST HY HA ST ST ST HA HY HY HY HY HY/HBP HY ST ST ST/HBP ST

Leaves Seeds Seeds Roots Leaves Roots Bark Leaves/seed Roots Bulb Leaves Roots Roots Seeds Roots Leaves Roots Bark Leaves/roots Roots Stem Seeds Leaves Leaves Roots Leaves Roots Fruit Stem, bark and roots Leaves Roots and bark Leaves and whole plants Bark and leaves Bark and leaves Leaves and roots Leaves

Hypertension¼HY, High blood pressure ¼HBP, Dis ¼Diseases, Heart attack¼ HA, Stroke. VSN represent Voucher specimen numbers. Table 3 List of medicinal plants used to treat both inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases, their botanical names, parts used, and diseases treated. Local name

Botanical name

VSN

Alubosa elewe Alubosa ayu Ataare Ipeta Rere Aidan

Allium ascalonicum L. Allium sativum L. Aframomum melegueta K. Schum Securidaca longepedunculata Fres. Cassia alata L. Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schumm. and Thonn.) Taub.

DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO

Tude Efirin Ata ile pupa Iru Pandoro Senyo Ewe taba

Calliandra portoricensis (Jacq.) Benth. Ocimum gratissimum L. Zingiber officinale rose L. Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. Kigelia africana. (Lam.) Benth Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Nicotiana tabacum L.

DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO DSO

Family

Fr

Diseases treated

Parts used

089 090 091 092 093 094

Liliaceae Liliaceae Zingiberaceae Polygalaceae Caesalpiniaceae Mimosaceae

80 70 70 50 50 40

leaves Bulb Seeds Roots Seeds/root leaves Tuber fruits

095 096 097 098 099 100 101

Mimosaceae Lamiaceae Zingiberaceae Mimosaceae Bignoniaceae Caesalpiniaceae Solanaceae

40 37 20 20 20 20 20

AS/UL/PN/RH/AP/HY/HBP HY/ST/AP/RH/AS/PN UL/RH/ST/HA HY/HBP/PN/RH/AS ST/AS AS/ST UL/HBP AS/RH/HBP/HA HY HY/RH HY/AS AP/HY ST/RH HY/AS/PN

Roots Leaves Fruits Seeds leaves fruit Roots Leaves

Appendicitis: AP, Asthma: AS, Eczema: EC, Pneumonia: PN, Rheumatism: RH, Ulcer: UL, Hypertension: HY, High blood pressure: HBP, Heart attack: HA, Stroke UL, FA Represent Family, FQ ¼Frequency, PPU¼ Plants part used and VSN represent voucher specimen numbers.

during the survey is Euphorbiaceae, followed by Mimosaceae, Liliaceae , Zingiberaceae and Caesalpiaceae (Tables 1 and 2). Mac Donald et al. (2004) and Laporta et al. (2007) reported that members of these families are usually employed in the preparations of recipes for common cold, hypertension, psoriasis, urinary tract infections, prostate diseases, gastrointestinal complaints, and even mental disorder. Euphorbiaceae is widely distributed worldwide and ranges in morphological form and genetics (Cateni et al., 2003; Julius and Patrick, 2011). Some of its species had earlier been reported by various researchers to possess anti-nociceptive

and anti-inflammatory effects (Borges et al., 2012). Jäger et al. (1996) revealed that Synadenium cupularis are a potent inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis. Also Bridelia retura (Mehare and Hatapakki, 2003), Alchornea cordifolia (Manga et al., 2004) and Euphorbia splendens demonstrate potent anti-inflammatory activity. In the present survey, eight species of Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia unispina, Margaritari discoidea, Bridelia ferruginea, Euphorbia lateriflora, Jatropha curcus Microderms icearara, Ricinus communis and Manihot esculata) were mentioned by the respondents. Pharmacological activities of some members of this plant family has

Please cite this article as: Olorunnisola, O.S., et al., An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001i

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Table 4a Recipes commonly used in the treatment of different types inflammatory diseases. Diseases

Methods of preparation

Ulcer

Char leaves of Ocimum gratissimum with alligator pepper plus half beer bottle of Two tablespoons are taken orally twice “adi eyan”—a local body cream produced from palm kernel nuts. daily. Ficus exasperate leaves is pound, dry and blended to powder. One teaspoon of the powder in water is taken orally thrice daily. The bark of Terminalia avicenniodes is pounded with potash to powder and the One table spoon is taken orally thrice daily. sieve. The stem of Chasmanthera dependens and Allium ascalonicum leaves are sliced Desired quantity is taken orally thrice daily. together and sieved after soaked for 3 days. Parkia biglobosa leaves are squeezed or seeds soaked with water obtained from One tablespoon is taken orally thrice daily. cheese (“yanfa”) and then sieved. The dry skin of Citrus aurantifolia and char Tetrapleura tetratera fruit with little One teaspoon is taken twice daily. salt and water are grinded to powder. Dry leaves of Funtumia africana isgrinded to powder, soaked in water and sieved. Tablespoon is taken twice orally twice daily.

Not reported

Sun dried leaves of “Onitanmeta” is powdered, sieved and soaked in water. Palm oil ((Elaeis quineensis jacq.) is added to burn skin of Musa Sapientum. “Adin” is added to burn seed of Hibiscus esculentus.

Not reported Not reported Not reported

Appendicitis The root of “Wawon”, leaves Calvatia cyathiformis (“Iso aparo”), root of Spondias mombin, seed of Seure, Treculia Africana and tuber of Curcuma domestica are dried and pounded to powder. The bark of Erythrophleum ivorense, root of Sansevieria liberica, bark of Anogeissus leiocarpus, root of Cajanus cajan, Xylopia aethiopica leaves and Vitex doniana are boiled. The bark of Bridelia ferruginea, leaves of Eugenia aromatica and the bark of “Asase” were dried and blend together into powder. The leaves of Vernonia amygdalina plus water from fermented maize with little salt is sieve . Extract from Citrus aurantifolia fruit is mixed with potassium water. The leave of Morinda lucida, rootVetiveria nigritana and leaves of Allium ascalonicum are boiled together. The root of Rauvolfia vomitoria, leaves of Azadirachta indica L, root of Anogeissus leiocarpus, leaves of Allium ascalonicum and bulb of Allium sativum L are dried, pounded and blended into powdery form. “Red stone” is wrap with the leave of “Awo” and fold with root of Treculia Africana and then cooked . The fruit of Citrus aurantifolia and peeled Lagenaria breviflora fruits were cooked. Asthma

Mode of administration

Two tablespoon is taken orally twice daily. Two tablespoon is taken orally twice daily. One tablespoon is taken orally twice daily.

Side effects Not reported Not reported Not reported Not reported Not reported Frequent urination

One tablespoon is taken orally with hot pap Not reported once daily. Desired quantity is taken twice daily.

Not reported

One tablespoon with water is taken orally twice daily. One teaspoon is taken orally thrice daily.

Nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite Not reported

One teaspoon is taken orally once daily. One teaspoon is taken orally three times daily. One tablespoon is taken orally before meal in the morning.

Not reported Loss of appetite and dizziness Weight loss, depression, loss of appetite and drowsiness Not reported

One stainless cup is taken orally once in 3 days. Two tablespoon of the juice is taken orally twice daily.

Not reported

Weight loss and loss of One teaspoon is taken orally by children appetite while one tablespoon is taken twice daily by adult. The root and fruit Calliandra portoricensis and Citrus aurantifolia are sliced into Three tablespoon is taken orally, once daily Not reported pieces and soaked in a bottle containing schnapps and lime juice plus four cubes before breakfast. of sugar and for 1 h. The stem of Euphorbia unispina, seed and tubers of Tetrapleura tetraptera, leaves One shot is taken orally before breakfast Vomiting, nausea and dizziness of Allium ascalonicum plus leaves Xylopia aethiopica are soaked in cold water for until symptom disappears. 2–3 days. The leaves of Nicotiana tabacum is squeeze with cow's gall bladder and soak with One shot is taken orally once daily. Not reported schnapps. The leaves of Cassia alata, Blighia unijugata and bulb of Allium cepa soaked in One tablespoon is taken orally, once daily. Not reported Schnapps for 3 days. The leaves of Cratevare ligiosa, Vernonia amygdalina and bulb of Allium sativum One full glass cup is taken orally once daily. Not reported boiled together with alum. The root of “Kerebuje” is pounded to remove the extract schnapps is added and One teaspoon is taken orally once daily. Not reported then sieve after 2 days. The leaves and bark of Terminalia avicenniodes are grounded with little water and One teaspoon is taken orally, once in 3 days. Diarrhea alum. One shot is taken orally once daily. Diarrhea, vomiting, The stem of Saccharum officinarum, leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and root of dizziness and convulsion Securidaca longipedunculata are pounded together and schnapps is added to ferment for 3 days, taken orally. The leaves of Lablab purpureus is boiled with water from fermented maize. Cheer One tablespoon is taken orally twice daily. Not reported butter is added when hot. The leaves and fruit of Nicotiana tabacum and Citrus aurantifolia were squeeze One shot is taken orally twice daily. Not reported together. The root of “Imi ona”. Chew three times daily. Not reported Jetro phacurcas added with honey and fermented water of Zea mays. One tablespoon is taken three times daily. Convulsion The leaves Abrus precatorius and fruit of Carcinia koladry and cooked. One fully glass taken orally thrice daily. Tooth decay, weight loss and extended sleep Fruit of Citrus aurantifolia and root of Parkia biglobosa cooked with potash taken. One teaspoon is taken orally thrice daily. Not reported The leaves of Abrus precatorius, root of Spondias mombin and the bark of Parkia Half cup of tomato paste is taken orally Not reported biglobosa are boiled with sugar. thrice daily.

The root of Gladiolus psittacinus, Curculigo pilosa and Gladiolus daleni were washed, soaked in water, pound and sieve.

Rheumatism The bark of Picralima nitida, leaves of Allium ascalonicum, root of Calliandra One tablespoon with pap taken once daily Diarrhea, vomiting and portoricensis and leaves of Xylopia aethiopica were pounded and cooked together. before breakfast. stomach upset Desired quantity is taken three times daily. Sneezing cold and catarrh

Please cite this article as: Olorunnisola, O.S., et al., An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001i

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Table 4a (continued ) Diseases

Methods of preparation

Mode of administration

The bark of Picralima nitida and leaves of Xylopia aethiopica were boiled with water. The leaves of Xylopia aethiopica, the bark Okoubaka aubrevillei and the leave of Desired quantity is taken three times daily. Saccharum officinarum were all boiled together. Lagenaria breviflora fruit and seed of Aframomum melegueta Char with black soap. Two teaspoons with hot pap is taken twice daily. The bulb of Allium sativum and tuber of Zingiber officinale are grinded together, Apply to the affected part at interval for plus “adi eyan” is then added. 3 days. The leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, Euphorbia hirta and Jatropha curcas were Desired quantity is taken orally three times grinded together. daily. The leaves of Parquetina nigrescens is squeeze plus water and then sieved. Little One teaspoon is taken orally thrice daily. salt is then added. Dried leaves of Calotropis procera grinded and mix with Shea butter. Rub on the affected body part. Half tablespoon is taken orally twice daily. The root of Cassia siamea, leaves of Allium ascalonicum, seed of Aframomum melegueta, seed of Carcinia kola, fruit of Cola nitida, leave of Xylopia aethiopica and “kofookun” were pounded together and cooked. The leaves of Ananas comosus and Xylopia aethiopica are cook together. Bath with it using straw sponge. The leaves of Caesalpinia bonduc and Treculia africana were cooked. Bath with it using sponge. The root of Securidaca longepedunculata pounded to powder. A quarter tablespoon with hot pap is taken once daily. Dried dead rat is grinded with root of Icacinatricantha plus “adi eyin”. Usually apply on the body as cream. Pneumonia

Eczema

The bulb of Allium sativum and leaves of Allium ascalonicum and bark of Rauvolfia vomitoria, leaves of Azadirachta indica and bark of Anogeissus leiocarpus were cooked together with water. The root of Citrus aurantifolia, fruit of Capsicum frutescens, leaves of Allium ascalonicum and Ocimium gratisimum were grinded together. The leaves of Spondias mombin, Picralima nitida and seed of “eru” were all grinded together and mix with schnapps. The leaves of Allium ascalonicum and Ocimium gratisimum were grinded together with “idaro” and little salt. Dried leaves of Nicotiana tabacum is grinded and mixed with Schnapps for 3 days taken orally. The leaves of Ficus exasperate and Ficus thonningii is boiled with fermented water of Zea mays. The root of Securidaca londepedunculata and the fruit of Capsicum frutescens were pounded and dry. Re-pounded to powder. The leaves Dicliptera akternans and root of Plumbago zeylanica are grinded with potash. taken orally. The leave of Borreria verticillata and root of Plumbago zeylanica pounded together and mixed with soap. Erythrophleum ivorense bark is grinded and “adi eyan” is added. Grinded seeds of Crateva religiosa are mixed with imported gun powder and soap.

been reported in literatures, for example, Palatnick and Tenenbein (2000) reported that Ricinus communis as the source of one of the most poisonous substance of plant origin. Also, Hirota and Suttajit (1988) and Julius et al. (2011), reported that Jatrophya curcus and others be co- carcinogenic and able to influence and promote excessive cell division which can result in tumor growth. In spite of these reports, information on bioactivities of most of the species of Euphorbiaceae mentioned in the survey is scanty in the literature. Among all the plant species documented for the management of cardiovascular diseases in this survey, Annonaceae species were the most commonly used. This observation was in agreement with the observation of Nadkarni (2000) who revealed that Annonaceae species are used in the management of cardiac problems. Annona muricata tree, a member of Annonaceae, has also been describe to demonstrate hypotensive potential (Stephen et al., 2006). Scientific evidences have equally shown that most of the mentioned plant families are rich in phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, carbohydrates, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, saponins and phenol. According to Ho-Fai and Geoffrey (2002)and Savithramma et al. (2011), Artabotrys hexapetalus (Linn.f.) a member of annonaceae is a rich source of steroids, terpenoids, saponins and leucoanthocyanin, bisabolane, guiane sesquiterpenes, aporphine tetrahydroherberine alkaloids and long chain hydrocarbon. Also, Phyllantus species a member of Euphorbiaceae contains

Side effects

Not reported Sneezing and black stool Allergy Nausea, dizziness and vomiting Not reported Not reported Stomach upset and insomnia Not reported Not reported Not reported Not reported

One shot is taken orally once daily.

Not reported

One tablespoon with pap is taken orally once a daily. One glass cup is taken orally twice daily.

Not reported Not reported

One tablespoon with hot pap is taken orally Not reported twice daily. One shot is taken orally twice daily. Not reported Two tablespoon is taken orally twice daily.

Not reported

One spoon is taken orally thrice daily.

Not reported

One tablespoon is taken orally with pap once daily.

Not reported

Normally use as body cream.

Not reported

Apply as cream on the affected body part. Use for bathing.

Not reported Not reported

bioactive compounds like alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols and steroids (Venkata et al., 2012). Bamisaye et al. (2013) reported that alkaloids possess anti-hypertensive, while tannin, phenolic and Flavonoids demonstrate anti-inflammatory (Parekh and Chanda, 2007; Bamisaye et al., 2013) potentials. The observed pharmacological activities of most of these plants may be due to the phytochemical content and this may account for their folklore usage in the study area. 4.2. Recipes used for the treatment of inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases Regarding the modes of remedies preparation, the parts of the plants used, administration and likely side effect, our results revealed that eighty-two different recipes are employed in the treatment of six inflammatory and four types of cardiovascular diseases (Tables 3 and 4). Almost all the recipes recorded are prepared from single or mixed with other plants. According to the informant, the choice on number(s) of plant(s) to be use is based on knowledge and observations that have endured over time because of their continuing usefulness. This is consistent with the report of Abubakar et al. (2007). The use of Allium specie in the preparation of most of the recipes mentioned in the survey is understandable considering its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory

Please cite this article as: Olorunnisola, O.S., et al., An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001i

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Table 4b Recipes of medicinal plants commonly used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Diseases

Methods of preparation

Mode of administration

Hypertension The bark of Ceiba pentandra, leaves of “Konunkoho”, Soghum bicolor, Xylopia ethiopica and Ocimum gratissimum were boiled together with potash. The bulb of Allium sativum, seed of Parkia biglobosa, and leaves of Allium ascalonicum, bulb Allium cepa and tuber of Zingiber officinale were all blend into powder and mix with honey. The bulb of Allium sativum is blended with honey.

One teaspoon is taken orally thrice daily. Two tablespoon is taken orally once daily. One tablespoon is taken orally three times daily. The bark of Ceiba pentandra, leaves of Harugana madagascariensis, bulb of Vismia guineensis and leaves One glass cup is taken twice daily. of Allium cepa are boiled with potash. The leaves of Tridax procumbens is sun dry an grinded to power. One tablespoon is taken orally with tea once daily. The seed of Ricinus communis and stem of Voacanga Africana are grinded and soaked in schinapp. One shot is taken orally daily at night. The root of Nauclea latifolia is washed and pound in mortar. On the third day, it is squeeze and little One tablespoon is taken orally once water and honey are added. daily. The root of Anthocleista djalonensis, leaves of Curculigo pilosa, roots Securidaca londepedunculata and root One teaspoon is taken orally three of Nauclea latifolia Soaked with cold water. times daily. The leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are squeezed and honey is added to the extract obtained. Two tablespoon is taken orally twice daily. Kigelia africana seed is burn to ashes then dissolved in water. One tablespoon is taken orally twice daily.

Stroke

Seed of Cassia alata is washed and pound in mortal then soak in water for 10 minutes and sieve.

Side effect Not reported Not reported Not reported Not reported Not reported Likely bed wetting Not reported Dizziness Not reported Not reported

(1) Five tablespoon is taken orally Not reported three times daily. (2) Part of the filtrate can be blended with soap and then use for bathing.

The root of Cassia alata is blended with camphor and “caphra” with addition of palm oil.

The mixture is use as cream.

The root of Nauclea latifolia, Securidaca londepedunculata, Calliandra portoricensis, leaves of Allium ascalonicum and Tetrapleum tetraptera respectively are pounded, dry and re-pound.

Small powdered form dissolved in dry gin ¼ glass cup is taken orally thrice daily. Half tablespoon is taken orally thrice daily.

Not reported Two cloves of Allium sativum is blended with 35 ml of honey. One tablespoon is taken orally three Not times daily. reported The root and leaves Citropsis articulate, roots of Caesalpinia bonduc, Newbouldia laevis and the leaves of Half-stainless cup is taken orally Not Xylopia aethiopica are boiled. twice daily. reported The leaves of Psoropermum febrifugum, Xylopia aethiopica and root of Cissampelos mucronata are Use soap for bathing. Not pounded together and mixed with black soap. reported The leaves of Aframomum melegueta and seed of Zingiber officinale are pounded together and mixed The mixture is apply as cream on the Not with shear butter. affected part. reported The leaves of Tetrapleura tetraptera and Psidium guajava are boiled with “Ako Okuta’ Three tablespoon is taken orally Not thrice daily. reported The leaves of Talinium triangulare and snail were burn to ashes. One teaspoon is taken with pap once Not daily. reported The leaves of “koko orisare” pound together with soap. Use to bath. Not reported

High blood pressure

The seeds of Chlorophor exelsa are soaked in water, grind and sieve. Heart attack

Not reported Not reported

The leaves of Aframomum melegueta and seed of Zingiber officinale Rose were grind and burn together. One tablespoon is taken orally twice Not daily. reported Roots of Aristolochia ringens, Carica papaya, Calliandra portoricensis and Ageratum conyzoides were One tablespoon is taken orally twice Not soaked in “adi eyan”. daily. reported

A teaspoon¼ 5 ml, A tablespoon ¼10 ml and standard full cup/glass ¼ 250 ml.

properties (Emily et al., 2007) and ability to protect against high blood pressure Ginter and Simko, 2010; Londhe et al., 2011) as earlier reported. However, the present survey also revealed eight plants (Terminalia avicenniode, Citrus aurantifolia, Tetrapleura tetratera, Spondia mombin, Angiesussus leiocarpus and Xylopia aethiopia) as common components for preparation of inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases recipes (Tables 3 and 4). The use of Citrus aurantifolia in the preparation of most the recipes may be due to its high vitamin C content and acetic acid (Souci et al., 200) which possess antioxidant potential. 50% of the methods of preparation are by infusion while 15.0% is by decoction (Table 1). The leaves followed by the root (45.0%) are the most used plants for the treatment of both diseases. Our results agreed with Buwa and Afolayan (2009) who had earlier reported that the roots and leaves

of plants are mostly used as decoctions for the treatment of various ailments such as colds, asthma, tuberculosis and stomach problems. Most remedies are taken orally twice per day (morning and afternoon) and for a long period of time depending on the severity of the disease while few are for bathing and creaming. According to our informants, 27.1% of the recipes for the treatment inflammatory and (4.4%) cardiovascular diseases have side effect, which suggested that the recipes should be taken with caution.

5. Conclusion The traditional healers in Ogbomoso possess high knowledge of plants for the treatment of cardiovascular and inflammatory

Please cite this article as: Olorunnisola, O.S., et al., An inventory of plants commonly used in the treatment of some disease conditions in Ogbomoso, South West, Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.001i

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Fig. 1. The study area in the context of Nigeria (A): Adapted from Duce and Ojo (1982). Map of Ogbomoso (B): Source- Afon and Abel (1998).

diseases. This study allows for identifying many high value medicinal plant species and also indicates high potential for economic development through sustainable collection and preservation of these medicinal plants.

Authors' contributions All authors contributed equally to the preparation of this research work and manuscript.

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