Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 36:266–271, 2015 Copyright © 2015 Informa Healthcare USA, Inc. ISSN: 0161-2840 print / 1096-4673 online DOI: 10.3109/01612840.2014.955934
Arrogance in the Workplace: Implications for Mental Health Nurses Michelle Cleary, RN, PhD University of Western Sydney, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Garry Walter, MBBS, BMedSc, PhD University of Sydney and Northern Sydney Local Health District, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Jan Sayers, RN, PhD University of Western Sydney, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Violeta Lopez, RN, PhD National University of Singapore, Alice Lee Centre for Nursing Studies, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Singapore City, Singapore
Catherine Hungerford, RN, PhD University of Canberra, Disciplines of Nursing and Midwifery, Faculty of Health, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Cultures of performativity may contribute to organizational and individual arrogance. Workplace organizations have individuals who at various times will display arrogance, which may manifest in behaviours, such as an exaggerated sense of self-importance, dismissiveness of others, condescending behaviors and an impatient manner. Arrogance is not a flattering label and irrespective of the reason or the position of power, in the context of organizational behaviors, may not be useful and may even be detrimental to the work environment. Thus, it is timely to reflect on the implications of arrogance in the workplace. Advocacy and empowerment can be undermined and relationships adversely impacted, including the achievement of positive consumer outcomes. This paper provides an introduction to arrogance, and then discusses arrogance to promote awareness of the potential consequences of arrogance and its constituent behaviors.
INTRODUCTION Arrogant attitudes and behaviors, including self-superiority, self-importance, or treating others dismissively or condescendingly, are not uncommon in the workplace (Johnson et al., 2010). While these attitudes or behaviors may be a product of the organizations for which people work, arrogance is nevertheless detrimental to collegial relationships, team work, partnerships and, ultimately, organizational outcomes (Padua & Lerin, Address correspondence to Michelle Cleary, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
2010). Specific to the mental health context, arrogance can also adversely affect therapeutic relationships, undermine advocacy for and the empowerment of consumers and, as such, challenge the outcomes of consumer-centered approaches to health care (Cleary, Walter, & Hungerford, 2014). The need to improve the culture of mental health organizations is well acknowledged (Cleary & Horsfall, 2013), but papers addressing issues related to arrogance are largely absent from the mental health nursing literature. This paper explores the notion of arrogance in mental health service settings, with a view to raising awareness in mental health nurses of the issues involved. To enable the alignment of core values of the individual and their professional behavior, arrogance is considered as both a state of being and also a perception within a critical social theoretical paradigm (e.g. Habermas, 1989). The ways in which arrogant attitudes or behaviors can affect people in their workplaces are also considered, to encourage personal and practice reflection and discussion on the implications of arrogance in the workplace. In conclusion, consideration is given to the different options for managing the arrogant attitudes or behaviors of others, including the attitudes and behaviors exhibited by people in positions of leadership. What Is Arrogance? Arrogance has been defined as a condition or attribute whereby an individual perceives that he or she is in some way superior to others and so has no need to show courtesy or respect,
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nor listen to the advice or feedback of others (Hareli & Weiner, 2000). Arrogance has also been associated with haughtiness, superciliousness and self-importance (Stafford, 2002), with such traits demonstrated through facial expressions or body language, words or actions (Johnson et al., 2010). While arrogant attitudes or behaviors have been associated with a range of personal characteristics, a particular focus is pride and vanity, exhibited through ‘exorbitant claims of rank, dignity, estimation or power which exalts the worth or importance of the person to an undue degree’ (Padua & Lerin, 2010, p. 77). While there is every reason for a person to be proud of their achievements (Tracy & Prehn, 2012), arrogance is often connected to self-aggrandisement that is not necessarily realitybased (Johnson et al., 2010). It is important to acknowledge the difference between arrogance and the personal qualities of self-confidence or selfassurance. For example, a confident person may have an authentic understanding of themselves and their capabilities, know the importance of self-reflection, and be willing to listen to constructive feedback about their attitudes, actions and achievements (Ingebrigsten et al., 2014). An arrogant person, on the other hand, will tend to overestimate their capabilities, be loath to listen to opinions that challenge their way of thinking, and exhibit attitudes or behaviors aimed at showcasing their inflated sense of self, while at the same time dismissing the achievements of others (Johnson et al., 2010). Arrogant attitudes or behaviors are not always the result of a sense of superiority or an inflated view of self. For example, a person may be harboring insecurities and low self-esteem, with arrogant attitudes or behaviors used to compensate for perceived or actual inadequacies (Johnson et al., 2010; Padua & Lerin, 2010). Arrogant behaviors may also be the result of a sense of entitlement, with the person confusing desires or opportunities or what they ‘deserve’, with needs or necessities (Donohue, 2012). This range of the causes of arrogance suggests the importance of considering the expression of arrogance rather than the reasons for the associated attitudes and behaviors. This suggestion is of particular relevance to workplace settings. For example, regardless of the motivation for an attitude or behavior, if a colleague dismisses or belittles others, if he or she is high-handed or undermining, haughty or self-serving, then problems will arise for those with whom that colleague interacts. In contrast, if a colleague is willing to listen to others, receive and give feedback, and share their skills and expertise for the benefit of the group, then workplace problems will be minimized and benefits maximized.
Arrogance as a Perception Perception is the subjective means by which people understand the world; it is influenced by factors such as family and cultural background, levels of education, social context, and professional role (Goldstein, 2009; Hungerford & Kench, 2013).
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Consequently, perceptions of the attitudes or behaviors of others – including those that may be interpreted as arrogant or otherwise–will differ. It is for this reason that some commentators suggest that people do not see themselves as arrogant; rather, arrogance is a personal characteristic that is perceived in others or by others (Haan, Britt, & Weinstein, 2007). For example, a person who is condescending in attitude may genuinely believe that he or she is surrounded by people who are too dim or jealous to recognize professional superiority (Carlson, 2013). This raises the question, is the condescending attitude the result of arrogance – or of insightlessness, grandiosity or narcissism? Alternatively, others may view the person who is condescending as arrogant when in fact they are insightless. For this reason, interpretation plays a key role in determining or recognizing arrogant attitudes or patterns of behavior (El-Alayli, Myers, Petersen, & Lystad, 2008). Nevertheless, the research literature has identified a number of general, perhaps universal trends in the way particular attitudes or behaviors are interpreted. For example, people who are shy or reserved are more likely to be viewed as arrogant (Gregg, Hart, Sedikides, & Kumashiro, 2008). Presumptions, then, are made about that person based on the observer’s understanding of people and how they ‘should’ behave in a variety of situations. Alternatively, the more a person’s success is attributed to internal, desirable and uncontrollable qualities, such as beauty or intelligence, the more likely the person will be viewed as arrogant (Haan et al., 2007). This suggests that the arrogance that results from successes earned through hard work is tolerated more than the arrogance that results from successes perceived as easier to come by. The notion – and the reality – of arrogance, then, is complex. For example, if arrogance is a state of being that is as much about the personal characteristics of an individual who displays arrogant attitudes or behaviors as it is about the personal perceptions of those who interact with the individual, then the study of arrogance in the workplace becomes far more challenging.
Arrogance in the Workplace Arrogant attitudes and behaviors in professional settings can be exhibited by a range of people, including employees, leaders or managers, and also by organizations as a whole (Johnson et al., 2010). This is because the workplace provides a prime setting for people at all levels to showcase their professional achievements to others. Another reason for the prevalence of arrogance in the workplace is the competitive nature of some professional settings. As noted, ‘positional power, ego, or the need to look good to their superiors instead of doing what is really best’ (Haan et al., 2007, p. 86) can give rise to attitudes and behaviors that undermine rather that support or build up others. Moreover, arrogance is arguably a natural consequence in workplaces in which there is an expectation that people will attain high levels of achievement, where ‘winners’ are rewarded, ‘losers’ are discarded, and ‘dog eat dog’ approaches are the
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norm, and meeting performance expectations and achieving preidentified outcomes are the major focus (Levine, 2005; Ma & Karri, 2005). These kinds of values stand at odds with the philosophies that underpin contemporary mental health settings, particularly when considered in light of an historical context characterized by widespread abuse of power and control, to the detriment of people with mental illness (Dowbiggin, 2012). Since deinstitutionalization, mental health services in westernized countries across the globe have developed a focus on meeting the aspirations and needs of consumers, and this requires a shared vision and commitment by consumers and health professionals alike, to collaborate, cooperate and develop partnerships (Cleary et al., 2014). Practitioners who set themselves up as the experts, are paternalistic in the way they hand out advice, are dismissive of the opinions of others, including colleagues or consumers, and show themselves to be unable to receive feedback or selfreflect, are out-of-place in consumer-centered settings. Indeed, comments made by Sines (1994) some 20 years ago, are just as true today – that is, if staff and consumers alike are expected to adhere to dominant themes of time, order, regimentation and control, and if their own self interests are regarded as more important than the interests of others, then professional isolation and claims of arrogance may well surface. Sines (1994) attributes such situations to poor or ineffective leadership.
Arrogance and Leadership Not all leaders are arrogant. However, the very nature of leadership may well connect it with arrogance. For example, good leaders may exhibit confidence and self-assurance (Curran & Fitzpatrick, 2014). This could be perceived by some as arrogance when, in reality, it is a sign that the leader has the knowledge, skills, attitudes and experience to deal with the situations for which he or she is providing leadership. A good leader, however, will communicate effectively with all members of the team to promote team confidence in the integrity of the leadership they provide. On the other hand, while ‘being smart, bright and clever leads to competence’, this can also give rise to leaders who are ‘used to being right’ (Birchfield, 2013, p. 24). As such, leaders with limited awareness or insight, who are unable to reflect on their practice or listen to the thoughts or feedback of others, may find themselves perceived as arrogant by team members (Schafer, 2010). The consequences of this are deleterious. For example, there is evidence to suggest that leaders who exhibit arrogant attitudes or behaviors will often go on to negatively influence those around them, with the attitudes, actions, and interactions of these leaders permeating the attitudes, actions, and interactions of followers (Nevicka, De Hoogh, Van Vianen, & Ten Velden, 2013). Moreover, and as noted elsewhere (Bj¨orkdahl, Palmstierna, & Hansebo, 2010), such conditions can impede health professionals from delivering safe, therapeutic care, leaving them feel-
ing torn between their humanistic ideals and the harsh reality of everyday work. As a consequence, arrogant leaders are often connected to ineffective teams. For teams to operate effectively, members must work together in an environment marked by mutual respect and validation, together with communication processes that include learning from the experiences of all stakeholders (Johnson et al., 2010). Without these structures and process, teams will flounder. While the nuances of who or what makes a great leader remain at times elusive, many have agreed that it is arrogance that most often contributes to a leader’s downfall (Birchfield, 2013). Arrogant leaders do not often inspire loyalty, so much as fear (Kerfoot, 2005). Moreover, when an arrogant person loses power, they are unlikely to elicit sympathy, unlike a modest leader, who is more likely to receive support (Haan et al., 2007, p. 84). Likewise, arrogant leaders generate perceptions that they are controlling, whereas leaders who are generous and modest are viewed more favourably (Kerfoot, 2010). Tracy and Prehn (2012) argue that leaders who are arrogant but hard working are both respected and feared by followers. This suggests the fine line that is walked by many leaders who err on the side of arrogance, and also for the organizations who rely on such leaders to achieve change and generate desired outcomes.
Organizational Arrogance Organizations themselves are on occasion described as arrogant (Kerfoot, 2005). Such descriptions raise the question: What qualities are exhibited by arrogant organizations? Are these organizations populated by arrogant employees? Or is it the organizational entity itself that displays arrogant attitudes or behaviors, including dismissiveness of others, attitudes of selfsuperiority or self-importance, and condescension when dealing with the public or other organizations? Or is such arrogance a perception only, generated by the size, success, or approach of that organization? While there are perhaps no definitive answers to these questions, organizational arrogance can be determined in a number of ways. For example, Silverman, Johnson, McConnell, and Carr (n.d.) identify a close link between workplace arrogance and organizational outcomes, with the former detrimentally affecting the latter. Such outcomes are evident in mental health settings – when health professionals are more concerned with, for example, being right than hearing what others have to say or accepting consumers’ perceptions or experiences, outcomes for consumers will be challenged (Kerfoot, 2005, 2010). In contrast, Godkin and Allcorn (2009) argue that organizational arrogance occurs when arrogant attitudes and behaviours are nurtured by the organization to the extent where this arrogance is perpetuated by the ‘system of thoughts, feelings and intersubjectivit(ies)’ (Godkin & Allcorn, 2009, p. 41) that influence those who work for the organization. Gardner and Pierce (2011) go on to suggest that when such systems become
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1. Exceptional pride, and great hope is held for successes with leaders seeing few limitations as to what may be accomplished. 2. Feelings of exceptional entitlement support exploiting others. 3. When excessive pride is threatened and the pursuit of goals frustrated, envy and rage arise. 4. History of firings and demotions and of non-supporters and resistors being banished to ‘organizational Siberias’. 5. Management by intimidation is common. 6. Fear suppresses accurate reality testing and creativity. 7. Filtered information flows alter organizational reality and magical thinking is present. 8. Others are frequently blamed and scapegoated. 9. The sense of mood within the organization is unpredictable. 10. Many in the organization are alienated from the organization and its leadership group. 11. In and out group cliques and dynamics are polarized and there is evidence of distressing and destructive internal competition (Godkin & Allcorn, 2009, pp. 45–46).
Lessons for the Mental Health Context A healthy, functional organizational culture will contain opportunities for reflective and creative spaces where there is integrity and interpersonal authenticity, in contrast to destructive interpersonal qualities that may support arrogance in the organization and workplace (Kerfoot, 2005). Of course, it is important for the organizations and the people who comprise that organization to be successful. It is just as important, however, to be mindful of how these successes are celebrated. As already noted, the principles of collaboration, cooperation, partnership and good communication are essential to contemporary mental health service settings. For this reason, there is no place for arrogance in organizations that deliver health care to people with mental illness. Similarly, there is no place for arrogance in the mental health nursing profession. There is a place, however, for carefully considering the notion of arrogance, including the related attitudes and behaviors, together with the individual perceptions of these attitudes and behaviors and how they relate to ourselves and also the organizations in which we work. Such consideration would provide a means of raising awareness regarding the issues involved, including the power imbalances at play, for leaders, team members, and individual practitioners, and also a platform for determining the degree to which the characteristics of organizational arrogance may apply to the workplace in which these people are located. Indeed, until workplaces take the action required to recognize unacceptable attitudes and behaviors and adopt a ‘zero tolerance’ approach (Kerfoot, 2010; Middleby-Clements & Grenyer, 2007), arrogance will continue to pervade workplace culture, giving rise to increased staff turnover, bullying and toxic workplaces (Cleary & Horsfall, 2013; Cleary, Horsfall, & Walter, 2013).
With regard to organizations that deliver services to people with mental illness, perhaps the most problematic of the criteria listed above are those related to the excessive pride that restricts the vision of the organization, together with perceptions of organizational entitlement, leading to the possible exploitation of others. This is not to suggest that attitudes or behaviors arising from the other criteria identified by Godkin and Allcorn (2009) are not problematic. For example, where there is frequent blaming and scapegoating, together with a pervasive mood of unpredictability, then collaboration, cooperation and robust therapeutic relationships will not thrive. From a more strategic point of view, however, and in relation to criteria 1, organizations with limited vision for the future and restricted capacity to self-examine, will find it difficult to adapt to the changing needs of consumers and carers in contemporary contexts. Likewise, and with regard to criterion 2, the characteristic of entitlement does not fit well with the principles of advocacy for and the empowerment of consumers, which currently underpins the delivery of healthcare for people with mental illness and the achievement of positive health outcomes (Hungerford & Kench, 2013).
Clinical Supervision If arrogance is a state of being that is as much about the personal characteristics of an individual who displays arrogant attitudes or behaviours as it is about the personal perceptions of those around this individual (Padua & Lerin, 2010), then it behoves the mental health nurse to consider arrogance during their regular clinical supervision (Kaslow, Falender, & Grus, 2012). Related questions that individual leaders could consider with their supervisors as they reflect on their practice could include: what attitudes and behaviors am I exhibiting that may be interpreted by others as arrogant? How are these attitudes and behaviors affecting others, including the dynamics of the team I lead? Moreover, what can I do to change these attitudes and behaviors? Similarly, team members could reflect on their perceptions of others by considering how much they are influenced by their personal backgrounds or experiences, self-esteem, even selfperception. What is it that makes a leader or colleague seem arrogant? How have I communicated my concerns to the leader? How could I change the way I respond to the leader? As noted
entrenched, then arrogance within the organization emerges as an accepted, self-perpetuating behavior. Further, Godkin and Allcorn (2009, pp. 45–46) provide a quite prescriptive means of determining organizational arrogance, providing 11 characteristics or criteria. These are summarized below and suggest a variety of attitudes and behaviors of the people located within the organization and also those of the organization itself. Godkin and Allcorn (2009) conclude by suggesting that organizational arrogance is present when 7 of these 11 criteria are evident.
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by Johnson et al. (2010), many team members are unsure how to respond to arrogant individuals, and so exploring the dynamics involved with an experienced clinical supervisor may well assist the team member, not only to manage the situation more effectively, but improve outcomes for the team as a whole. Finally, mental health nurses would do well to learn from Tibetan Buddhism that offers specific advice on how to deal with arrogance, and use of compassion and humility that connects the arrogant person to others (Weber, 2006). Humility is a psychological quality of being humble (LaBouuff, Rowatt, Johnson, Tsang, & Willerton, 2012) and an important quality associated with other personal, social, organizational behaviours, such as self-control, inverse aggression and prejudice, and leadership (Collins, 2001). CONCLUSION When a person displays arrogant attitudes and behaviors, he or she is implying that they are superior to others. Such behaviors are dysfunctional and counter-productive within healthcare organizations, and impact detrimentally upon workplace culture. When successes occur and recognition is given by others, it is important to keep a sense of perspective and avoid arrogant attitudes and behaviors because arrogance has no place in contemporary leadership in learning organizations. It is perhaps to be expected that workplaces will contain people who display arrogant attitudes and behaviors. In this paper, we have highlighted how arrogance and self-serving attitudes can undermine the cohesiveness of workplaces, and undermine teamwork and professional relationships. It is important to consider the impact of arrogance on the workplace and its potential to impact negatively on staff, as well as consumers’ interactions and outcomes. Developing self-awareness and strategies to counter arrogant behavior is necessary for establishing and maintaining collegial professional practice environments. Declaration of Interest: The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper. REFERENCES Birchfield, R. (2013). Leadership: Arrogance watch. New Zealand Management, 60(2), 24. Bj¨orkdahl, A., Palmstierna, T., & Hansebo, G. (2010). The bulldozer and the ballet dancer: Aspects of nurses’ caring approaches in acute psychiatric intensive care. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 17(6), 510–518. Carlson, E. N. (2013). Honestly arrogant or simply misunderstood? Narcissists’ awareness of their narcissism. Self and Identity, 12(3), 259–277. Cleary, M. & Horsfall, J. (2013). Integrity and mental health nursing: factors to consider. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 34(9), 673–677. Cleary, M., Horsfall, J., & Walter, G. (2013). Academic careers and promotion: character and conduct deserve greater emphasis. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 69(8), 1675–1677. Cleary, M., Walter, G., & Hungerford, C. L. (2014). Recovery and the role of humility: Insights from a case study analysis. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 35(2), 108–113.
Collins, J. (2001). Level 5 leadership: The triumph of humility and fierce resolve. Harvard Business Review, 79, 67–76. Curran, C. & Fitzpatrick, T. (2014). Could this be the year to claim the corner office? Nursing Economics, 32(1), 49–50. Donohue, M. A. (2012). Complacency and the cycle of arrogance. New Jersey Nurse, 42(2), 2. Dowbiggin, I. (2012). Review of ‘madness is civilization: when the diagnosis was social, 1948–1980’. History of Psychiatry, 23(4), 510–511. El-Alayli, A., Myers, C., Petersen, T., & Lystad, A. (2008). ‘I don’t mean to sound arrogant, but. . .’ The effects of using disclaimers on person perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(1), 130–143. Gardner, D. G. & Pierce, J. L. (2011). A question of false self-esteem: Organization-based self-esteem and narcissism in organizational contexts. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 26(8), 682–699. Godkin, L. & Allcorn, S. (2009). Institutional narcissism, arrogant organization disorder and interruptions in organizational learning. Learning Organization, 16(1), 40–57. Goldstein, E. (2009). Sensation and perception. Wadsworth, CA: Cengage Learning. Gregg, A., Hart, C., Sedikides, C., & Kumashiro, M. (2008). Everyday conceptions of modesty: A protype analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 978–992. Haan, P., Britt, M. M., & Weinstein, A. (2007). Business students’ perceptions of arrogance in academia. Academic Journal Article from College Student Journal, 41(1), 82–92. Habermas, J. (1989). The theory of communicative action. Volume 2. Lifeworld and system: A critique of functionalist reason. Boston, MA: Beacon. Hareli, S. & Weiner, B. (2000). Accounts for success as determinants of perceived arrogance and modesty. Motivation and Emotion, 24(3), 215– 236. Hungerford, C. & Kench, T. (2013). The perceptions of health professionals of the implementation of recovery-oriented services: A case-study analysis. Journal of Mental Health Training, Education and Practice, 8(4), 208–218. Ingebrigsten, T., Georgiou, A., Clay-Williams, R., Magabri, F., Hordern, A., Prgomet, M., et al. (2014). The impact of clinical leadership on health information technology adoptions: A systematic review. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 83(6), 393–405. Johnson, R. E., Silverman, S. B., Shyamsunder, A., Swee, H. Y., Rodopman, O. B., Cho, E., et al. (2010). Acting superior but actually inferior?: Correlates and consequences of workplace arrogance. Human Performance, 23(5), 403–427. Kaslow, N., Falender, C., & Grus, C. (2012). Valuing and practicing competency-based supervision: A transformational leadership perspective. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 6(1), 47–54. Kerfoot, K. (2005). Building confident organizations by filling buckets, building infrastructures, and shining the flashlight. Pediatric Nursing, 31(1), 63–65. Kerfoot, K. (2010). Leaders, self-confidence, and hubris: What’s the difference? Nursing Economics, 28(5), 350–349. LaBouuff, J., Rowatt, W., Johnson, M., Tsang, J., & Willerton, G. (2012). Humble persons are more helpful than less humble persons: Evidence from three studies. Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(1), 16–29. Levine, D. (2005). The corrupt organization. Human Relations, 58(6), 723–740. Ma, H. & Karri, R. (2005). Leaders beware: Some sure ways to lose your competitive advantage. Organizational Dynamics, 34(1), 63–76. Middleby-Clements, J. & Grenyer, B. (2007). Zero tolerance approach to aggression and its impact upon mental health staff attitudes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41(2), 187–191. Nevicka, B., De Hoogh, A., Van Vianen, A., & Ten Velden, F. (2013). Uncertainty enhances the preference for narcissistic leaders. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(5), 370–380. Padua, R. N. & Lerin, M. M. (2010). Patterns and dynamics of an arrogancecompetence theory in organizations. Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, 6(2), 76–97. Schafer, J. (2010). The ineffective police leader: Acts of commission and omission. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(4), 737–746.
ARROGANCE IN THE WORKPLACE Silverman, S. B., Johnson, R. E., McConnell, N., & Carr, A. (n.d.). Arrogance: A formula for leadership failure. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.siop.org/tip/july12/04silverman. aspx Sines, D. (1994). The arrogance of power: A reflection on contemporary mental health nursing practice. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 20(5), 894– 903.
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Stafford, D. J. (2002). Arrogance: Harmful to our business. Foodservice Equipment & Supplies, 55(1), 66. Tracy, J. L. & Prehn, C. (2012). Arrogant or self-confident? The use of contextual knowledge to differentiate hubristic and authentic pride from a single nonverbal expression. Cognition and Emotion, 26(1), 14–24. Weber, S. (2006). Doubt, arrogance and humility. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 42(2), 213–223.
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Arrogance in the Workplace: Implications for Mental Health Nurses Michelle Cleary, RN, PhD University of Western Sydney, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Garry Walter, MBBS, BMedSc, PhD University of Sydney and Northern Sydney Local Health District, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Jan Sayers, RN, PhD University of Western Sydney, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Violeta Lopez, RN, PhD National University of Singapore, Alice Lee Centre for Nursing Studies, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Singapore City, Singapore
Catherine Hungerford, RN, PhD University of Canberra, Disciplines of Nursing and Midwifery, Faculty of Health, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Cultures of performativity may contribute to organizational and individual arrogance. Workplace organizations have individuals who at various times will display arrogance, which may manifest in behaviours, such as an exaggerated sense of self-importance, dismissiveness of others, condescending behaviors and an impatient manner. Arrogance is not a flattering label and irrespective of the reason or the position of power, in the context of organizational behaviors, may not be useful and may even be detrimental to the work environment. Thus, it is timely to reflect on the implications of arrogance in the workplace. Advocacy and empowerment can be undermined and relationships adversely impacted, including the achievement of positive consumer outcomes. This paper provides an introduction to arrogance, and then discusses arrogance to promote awareness of the potential consequences of arrogance and its constituent behaviors.
INTRODUCTION Arrogant attitudes and behaviors, including self-superiority, self-importance, or treating others dismissively or condescendingly, are not uncommon in the workplace (Johnson et al., 2010). While these attitudes or behaviors may be a product of the organizations for which people work, arrogance is nevertheless detrimental to collegial relationships, team work, partnerships and, ultimately, organizational outcomes (Padua & Lerin, Address correspondence to Michelle Cleary, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
2010). Specific to the mental health context, arrogance can also adversely affect therapeutic relationships, undermine advocacy for and the empowerment of consumers and, as such, challenge the outcomes of consumer-centered approaches to health care (Cleary, Walter, & Hungerford, 2014). The need to improve the culture of mental health organizations is well acknowledged (Cleary & Horsfall, 2013), but papers addressing issues related to arrogance are largely absent from the mental health nursing literature. This paper explores the notion of arrogance in mental health service settings, with a view to raising awareness in mental health nurses of the issues involved. To enable the alignment of core values of the individual and their professional behavior, arrogance is considered as both a state of being and also a perception within a critical social theoretical paradigm (e.g. Habermas, 1989). The ways in which arrogant attitudes or behaviors can affect people in their workplaces are also considered, to encourage personal and practice reflection and discussion on the implications of arrogance in the workplace. In conclusion, consideration is given to the different options for managing the arrogant attitudes or behaviors of others, including the attitudes and behaviors exhibited by people in positions of leadership. What Is Arrogance? Arrogance has been defined as a condition or attribute whereby an individual perceives that he or she is in some way superior to others and so has no need to show courtesy or respect,
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nor listen to the advice or feedback of others (Hareli & Weiner, 2000). Arrogance has also been associated with haughtiness, superciliousness and self-importance (Stafford, 2002), with such traits demonstrated through facial expressions or body language, words or actions (Johnson et al., 2010). While arrogant attitudes or behaviors have been associated with a range of personal characteristics, a particular focus is pride and vanity, exhibited through ‘exorbitant claims of rank, dignity, estimation or power which exalts the worth or importance of the person to an undue degree’ (Padua & Lerin, 2010, p. 77). While there is every reason for a person to be proud of their achievements (Tracy & Prehn, 2012), arrogance is often connected to self-aggrandisement that is not necessarily realitybased (Johnson et al., 2010). It is important to acknowledge the difference between arrogance and the personal qualities of self-confidence or selfassurance. For example, a confident person may have an authentic understanding of themselves and their capabilities, know the importance of self-reflection, and be willing to listen to constructive feedback about their attitudes, actions and achievements (Ingebrigsten et al., 2014). An arrogant person, on the other hand, will tend to overestimate their capabilities, be loath to listen to opinions that challenge their way of thinking, and exhibit attitudes or behaviors aimed at showcasing their inflated sense of self, while at the same time dismissing the achievements of others (Johnson et al., 2010). Arrogant attitudes or behaviors are not always the result of a sense of superiority or an inflated view of self. For example, a person may be harboring insecurities and low self-esteem, with arrogant attitudes or behaviors used to compensate for perceived or actual inadequacies (Johnson et al., 2010; Padua & Lerin, 2010). Arrogant behaviors may also be the result of a sense of entitlement, with the person confusing desires or opportunities or what they ‘deserve’, with needs or necessities (Donohue, 2012). This range of the causes of arrogance suggests the importance of considering the expression of arrogance rather than the reasons for the associated attitudes and behaviors. This suggestion is of particular relevance to workplace settings. For example, regardless of the motivation for an attitude or behavior, if a colleague dismisses or belittles others, if he or she is high-handed or undermining, haughty or self-serving, then problems will arise for those with whom that colleague interacts. In contrast, if a colleague is willing to listen to others, receive and give feedback, and share their skills and expertise for the benefit of the group, then workplace problems will be minimized and benefits maximized.
Arrogance as a Perception Perception is the subjective means by which people understand the world; it is influenced by factors such as family and cultural background, levels of education, social context, and professional role (Goldstein, 2009; Hungerford & Kench, 2013).
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Consequently, perceptions of the attitudes or behaviors of others – including those that may be interpreted as arrogant or otherwise–will differ. It is for this reason that some commentators suggest that people do not see themselves as arrogant; rather, arrogance is a personal characteristic that is perceived in others or by others (Haan, Britt, & Weinstein, 2007). For example, a person who is condescending in attitude may genuinely believe that he or she is surrounded by people who are too dim or jealous to recognize professional superiority (Carlson, 2013). This raises the question, is the condescending attitude the result of arrogance – or of insightlessness, grandiosity or narcissism? Alternatively, others may view the person who is condescending as arrogant when in fact they are insightless. For this reason, interpretation plays a key role in determining or recognizing arrogant attitudes or patterns of behavior (El-Alayli, Myers, Petersen, & Lystad, 2008). Nevertheless, the research literature has identified a number of general, perhaps universal trends in the way particular attitudes or behaviors are interpreted. For example, people who are shy or reserved are more likely to be viewed as arrogant (Gregg, Hart, Sedikides, & Kumashiro, 2008). Presumptions, then, are made about that person based on the observer’s understanding of people and how they ‘should’ behave in a variety of situations. Alternatively, the more a person’s success is attributed to internal, desirable and uncontrollable qualities, such as beauty or intelligence, the more likely the person will be viewed as arrogant (Haan et al., 2007). This suggests that the arrogance that results from successes earned through hard work is tolerated more than the arrogance that results from successes perceived as easier to come by. The notion – and the reality – of arrogance, then, is complex. For example, if arrogance is a state of being that is as much about the personal characteristics of an individual who displays arrogant attitudes or behaviors as it is about the personal perceptions of those who interact with the individual, then the study of arrogance in the workplace becomes far more challenging.
Arrogance in the Workplace Arrogant attitudes and behaviors in professional settings can be exhibited by a range of people, including employees, leaders or managers, and also by organizations as a whole (Johnson et al., 2010). This is because the workplace provides a prime setting for people at all levels to showcase their professional achievements to others. Another reason for the prevalence of arrogance in the workplace is the competitive nature of some professional settings. As noted, ‘positional power, ego, or the need to look good to their superiors instead of doing what is really best’ (Haan et al., 2007, p. 86) can give rise to attitudes and behaviors that undermine rather that support or build up others. Moreover, arrogance is arguably a natural consequence in workplaces in which there is an expectation that people will attain high levels of achievement, where ‘winners’ are rewarded, ‘losers’ are discarded, and ‘dog eat dog’ approaches are the
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norm, and meeting performance expectations and achieving preidentified outcomes are the major focus (Levine, 2005; Ma & Karri, 2005). These kinds of values stand at odds with the philosophies that underpin contemporary mental health settings, particularly when considered in light of an historical context characterized by widespread abuse of power and control, to the detriment of people with mental illness (Dowbiggin, 2012). Since deinstitutionalization, mental health services in westernized countries across the globe have developed a focus on meeting the aspirations and needs of consumers, and this requires a shared vision and commitment by consumers and health professionals alike, to collaborate, cooperate and develop partnerships (Cleary et al., 2014). Practitioners who set themselves up as the experts, are paternalistic in the way they hand out advice, are dismissive of the opinions of others, including colleagues or consumers, and show themselves to be unable to receive feedback or selfreflect, are out-of-place in consumer-centered settings. Indeed, comments made by Sines (1994) some 20 years ago, are just as true today – that is, if staff and consumers alike are expected to adhere to dominant themes of time, order, regimentation and control, and if their own self interests are regarded as more important than the interests of others, then professional isolation and claims of arrogance may well surface. Sines (1994) attributes such situations to poor or ineffective leadership.
Arrogance and Leadership Not all leaders are arrogant. However, the very nature of leadership may well connect it with arrogance. For example, good leaders may exhibit confidence and self-assurance (Curran & Fitzpatrick, 2014). This could be perceived by some as arrogance when, in reality, it is a sign that the leader has the knowledge, skills, attitudes and experience to deal with the situations for which he or she is providing leadership. A good leader, however, will communicate effectively with all members of the team to promote team confidence in the integrity of the leadership they provide. On the other hand, while ‘being smart, bright and clever leads to competence’, this can also give rise to leaders who are ‘used to being right’ (Birchfield, 2013, p. 24). As such, leaders with limited awareness or insight, who are unable to reflect on their practice or listen to the thoughts or feedback of others, may find themselves perceived as arrogant by team members (Schafer, 2010). The consequences of this are deleterious. For example, there is evidence to suggest that leaders who exhibit arrogant attitudes or behaviors will often go on to negatively influence those around them, with the attitudes, actions, and interactions of these leaders permeating the attitudes, actions, and interactions of followers (Nevicka, De Hoogh, Van Vianen, & Ten Velden, 2013). Moreover, and as noted elsewhere (Bj¨orkdahl, Palmstierna, & Hansebo, 2010), such conditions can impede health professionals from delivering safe, therapeutic care, leaving them feel-
ing torn between their humanistic ideals and the harsh reality of everyday work. As a consequence, arrogant leaders are often connected to ineffective teams. For teams to operate effectively, members must work together in an environment marked by mutual respect and validation, together with communication processes that include learning from the experiences of all stakeholders (Johnson et al., 2010). Without these structures and process, teams will flounder. While the nuances of who or what makes a great leader remain at times elusive, many have agreed that it is arrogance that most often contributes to a leader’s downfall (Birchfield, 2013). Arrogant leaders do not often inspire loyalty, so much as fear (Kerfoot, 2005). Moreover, when an arrogant person loses power, they are unlikely to elicit sympathy, unlike a modest leader, who is more likely to receive support (Haan et al., 2007, p. 84). Likewise, arrogant leaders generate perceptions that they are controlling, whereas leaders who are generous and modest are viewed more favourably (Kerfoot, 2010). Tracy and Prehn (2012) argue that leaders who are arrogant but hard working are both respected and feared by followers. This suggests the fine line that is walked by many leaders who err on the side of arrogance, and also for the organizations who rely on such leaders to achieve change and generate desired outcomes.
Organizational Arrogance Organizations themselves are on occasion described as arrogant (Kerfoot, 2005). Such descriptions raise the question: What qualities are exhibited by arrogant organizations? Are these organizations populated by arrogant employees? Or is it the organizational entity itself that displays arrogant attitudes or behaviors, including dismissiveness of others, attitudes of selfsuperiority or self-importance, and condescension when dealing with the public or other organizations? Or is such arrogance a perception only, generated by the size, success, or approach of that organization? While there are perhaps no definitive answers to these questions, organizational arrogance can be determined in a number of ways. For example, Silverman, Johnson, McConnell, and Carr (n.d.) identify a close link between workplace arrogance and organizational outcomes, with the former detrimentally affecting the latter. Such outcomes are evident in mental health settings – when health professionals are more concerned with, for example, being right than hearing what others have to say or accepting consumers’ perceptions or experiences, outcomes for consumers will be challenged (Kerfoot, 2005, 2010). In contrast, Godkin and Allcorn (2009) argue that organizational arrogance occurs when arrogant attitudes and behaviours are nurtured by the organization to the extent where this arrogance is perpetuated by the ‘system of thoughts, feelings and intersubjectivit(ies)’ (Godkin & Allcorn, 2009, p. 41) that influence those who work for the organization. Gardner and Pierce (2011) go on to suggest that when such systems become
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1. Exceptional pride, and great hope is held for successes with leaders seeing few limitations as to what may be accomplished. 2. Feelings of exceptional entitlement support exploiting others. 3. When excessive pride is threatened and the pursuit of goals frustrated, envy and rage arise. 4. History of firings and demotions and of non-supporters and resistors being banished to ‘organizational Siberias’. 5. Management by intimidation is common. 6. Fear suppresses accurate reality testing and creativity. 7. Filtered information flows alter organizational reality and magical thinking is present. 8. Others are frequently blamed and scapegoated. 9. The sense of mood within the organization is unpredictable. 10. Many in the organization are alienated from the organization and its leadership group. 11. In and out group cliques and dynamics are polarized and there is evidence of distressing and destructive internal competition (Godkin & Allcorn, 2009, pp. 45–46).
Lessons for the Mental Health Context A healthy, functional organizational culture will contain opportunities for reflective and creative spaces where there is integrity and interpersonal authenticity, in contrast to destructive interpersonal qualities that may support arrogance in the organization and workplace (Kerfoot, 2005). Of course, it is important for the organizations and the people who comprise that organization to be successful. It is just as important, however, to be mindful of how these successes are celebrated. As already noted, the principles of collaboration, cooperation, partnership and good communication are essential to contemporary mental health service settings. For this reason, there is no place for arrogance in organizations that deliver health care to people with mental illness. Similarly, there is no place for arrogance in the mental health nursing profession. There is a place, however, for carefully considering the notion of arrogance, including the related attitudes and behaviors, together with the individual perceptions of these attitudes and behaviors and how they relate to ourselves and also the organizations in which we work. Such consideration would provide a means of raising awareness regarding the issues involved, including the power imbalances at play, for leaders, team members, and individual practitioners, and also a platform for determining the degree to which the characteristics of organizational arrogance may apply to the workplace in which these people are located. Indeed, until workplaces take the action required to recognize unacceptable attitudes and behaviors and adopt a ‘zero tolerance’ approach (Kerfoot, 2010; Middleby-Clements & Grenyer, 2007), arrogance will continue to pervade workplace culture, giving rise to increased staff turnover, bullying and toxic workplaces (Cleary & Horsfall, 2013; Cleary, Horsfall, & Walter, 2013).
With regard to organizations that deliver services to people with mental illness, perhaps the most problematic of the criteria listed above are those related to the excessive pride that restricts the vision of the organization, together with perceptions of organizational entitlement, leading to the possible exploitation of others. This is not to suggest that attitudes or behaviors arising from the other criteria identified by Godkin and Allcorn (2009) are not problematic. For example, where there is frequent blaming and scapegoating, together with a pervasive mood of unpredictability, then collaboration, cooperation and robust therapeutic relationships will not thrive. From a more strategic point of view, however, and in relation to criteria 1, organizations with limited vision for the future and restricted capacity to self-examine, will find it difficult to adapt to the changing needs of consumers and carers in contemporary contexts. Likewise, and with regard to criterion 2, the characteristic of entitlement does not fit well with the principles of advocacy for and the empowerment of consumers, which currently underpins the delivery of healthcare for people with mental illness and the achievement of positive health outcomes (Hungerford & Kench, 2013).
Clinical Supervision If arrogance is a state of being that is as much about the personal characteristics of an individual who displays arrogant attitudes or behaviours as it is about the personal perceptions of those around this individual (Padua & Lerin, 2010), then it behoves the mental health nurse to consider arrogance during their regular clinical supervision (Kaslow, Falender, & Grus, 2012). Related questions that individual leaders could consider with their supervisors as they reflect on their practice could include: what attitudes and behaviors am I exhibiting that may be interpreted by others as arrogant? How are these attitudes and behaviors affecting others, including the dynamics of the team I lead? Moreover, what can I do to change these attitudes and behaviors? Similarly, team members could reflect on their perceptions of others by considering how much they are influenced by their personal backgrounds or experiences, self-esteem, even selfperception. What is it that makes a leader or colleague seem arrogant? How have I communicated my concerns to the leader? How could I change the way I respond to the leader? As noted
entrenched, then arrogance within the organization emerges as an accepted, self-perpetuating behavior. Further, Godkin and Allcorn (2009, pp. 45–46) provide a quite prescriptive means of determining organizational arrogance, providing 11 characteristics or criteria. These are summarized below and suggest a variety of attitudes and behaviors of the people located within the organization and also those of the organization itself. Godkin and Allcorn (2009) conclude by suggesting that organizational arrogance is present when 7 of these 11 criteria are evident.
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by Johnson et al. (2010), many team members are unsure how to respond to arrogant individuals, and so exploring the dynamics involved with an experienced clinical supervisor may well assist the team member, not only to manage the situation more effectively, but improve outcomes for the team as a whole. Finally, mental health nurses would do well to learn from Tibetan Buddhism that offers specific advice on how to deal with arrogance, and use of compassion and humility that connects the arrogant person to others (Weber, 2006). Humility is a psychological quality of being humble (LaBouuff, Rowatt, Johnson, Tsang, & Willerton, 2012) and an important quality associated with other personal, social, organizational behaviours, such as self-control, inverse aggression and prejudice, and leadership (Collins, 2001). CONCLUSION When a person displays arrogant attitudes and behaviors, he or she is implying that they are superior to others. Such behaviors are dysfunctional and counter-productive within healthcare organizations, and impact detrimentally upon workplace culture. When successes occur and recognition is given by others, it is important to keep a sense of perspective and avoid arrogant attitudes and behaviors because arrogance has no place in contemporary leadership in learning organizations. It is perhaps to be expected that workplaces will contain people who display arrogant attitudes and behaviors. In this paper, we have highlighted how arrogance and self-serving attitudes can undermine the cohesiveness of workplaces, and undermine teamwork and professional relationships. It is important to consider the impact of arrogance on the workplace and its potential to impact negatively on staff, as well as consumers’ interactions and outcomes. Developing self-awareness and strategies to counter arrogant behavior is necessary for establishing and maintaining collegial professional practice environments. Declaration of Interest: The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper. REFERENCES Birchfield, R. (2013). Leadership: Arrogance watch. New Zealand Management, 60(2), 24. Bj¨orkdahl, A., Palmstierna, T., & Hansebo, G. (2010). The bulldozer and the ballet dancer: Aspects of nurses’ caring approaches in acute psychiatric intensive care. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 17(6), 510–518. Carlson, E. N. (2013). Honestly arrogant or simply misunderstood? Narcissists’ awareness of their narcissism. Self and Identity, 12(3), 259–277. Cleary, M. & Horsfall, J. (2013). Integrity and mental health nursing: factors to consider. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 34(9), 673–677. Cleary, M., Horsfall, J., & Walter, G. (2013). Academic careers and promotion: character and conduct deserve greater emphasis. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 69(8), 1675–1677. Cleary, M., Walter, G., & Hungerford, C. L. (2014). Recovery and the role of humility: Insights from a case study analysis. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 35(2), 108–113.
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