The Journal of Psychology Interdisciplinary and Applied
ISSN: 0022-3980 (Print) 1940-1019 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20
Assessing the Factor Structure of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory Tina L. Rochelle & K. H. Yim To cite this article: Tina L. Rochelle & K. H. Yim (2015) Assessing the Factor Structure of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, The Journal of Psychology, 149:1, 29-41, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2013.837023 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2013.837023
Published online: 05 Jun 2014.
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Date: 15 October 2015, At: 22:00
The Journal of Psychology, 2015, 149(1), 29–41 C 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright doi: 10.1080/00223980.2013.837023
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Assessing the Factor Structure of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory TINA L. ROCHELLE K. H. YIM City University of Hong Kong
ABSTRACT. The purpose of the present study was to examine the factor structure and assess the reliability of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46 (CCMNI-46). Using a cohort of 254 Hong Kong-born Chinese males, scale reliability determination involved the internal consistencies of the entire instrument. Ages of respondents ranged from 18 to 81 years (M = 38.05; SD = 17.3). Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the psychometric properties of the CCMNI-46, thus confirming the multidimensional structure of the CMNI-46 and the replicability of the CMNI using a Hong Kong Chinese sample. All items loaded onto the corresponding factor with the exception of one item from the emotional control subscale. The overall reliability of the CCMNI-46 was lower than previous Western studies and may well reflect the subtle diversity of masculinity across cultures. The findings offered psychometric support for use of the CCMNI-46 in research and practice regarding Hong Kong Chinese masculinity. The CCMNI-46 provides a useful template for the operationalization of masculine norms in Chinese society. Keywords: masculinity, conformity to masculine norms, Chinese, Hong Kong
GENDER ROLES REFER TO THE SET OF SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL NORMS considered socially appropriate for males and females in society. These may vary greatly from culture to culture and across time. Theoretically, the examination of gender roles has shifted from its initial concentration on gender differences to more recently examining associations among gender-related ideologies, psychological well-being, and stress (Smiler, 2006). Understanding of masculinity from a psychological perspective has likewise evolved from initial perspectives of the construct as a personality trait being simply the base opposite of femininity, to adherence to a multidimensional set of socially and culturally constructed norms (Parent & Moradi, 2011). Research within the field of masculinity has flourished Address correspondence to Tina L. Rochelle, Department of Applied Social Studies, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong; [email protected] (e-mail). 29
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
30
The Journal of Psychology
in recent years, with masculine gender role-related constructs being linked to a wide range of issues for men, including: substance use and abuse (Liu & Iwamoto, 2007), reluctance to seek medical assistance (O’Brien, Hunt, & Hart, 2005), and poor health behavior (Courtenay, 2000). The purpose of the present study is to assess the factor structure of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, and to examine the adaptability of the measure for use in Chinese society. Hong Kong is a unique society as a result of the intermingling of different cultures; with its tiny land space and a population of more than seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated societies in the world. Despite being relatively mono-cultural with around 95% ethnic Chinese (Census & Statistics Department, 2010), Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where “East meets West,” reflecting the cultural mix of Hong Kong’s Chinese roots with influences from its time as a British colony. Hong Kong balances a modern way of life with traditional Chinese practices. In this sense, Hong Kong is a place with mixed culture, with both traditional and modern values. To a certain extent, Hong Kong Chinese are affected by the cultural beliefs of the West and the East. Traditional Chinese values and Western values meet and merge. As such, gender norms, as a by-product of culture, are sharpened and influenced by both Chinese and Western beliefs. From a traditional Chinese perspective, the traditional Chinese concept of “men for the exterior and women for the interior” sets the scene for traditional Chinese gender roles, clearly segregating the world of women and men in Chinese society. The traditional Chinese familial preference for sons over daughters further enhances this notion, and reinforces the superiority of males in Chinese society. Male and female behavior is governed by Confucian beliefs, which stresses the importance of individuals acting in accordance to the expectations of their role and position in society (Tang, Chua & O, 2010). The inequality of males and females need not to be questioned and is perceived to be important in the preservation of order and position in society in order to achieve harmony and peace. It is generally expected that behavior should conform to traditional standards. However, with the influence of the West, traditional gender norms may erode over time, and the influence of more radical, modern beliefs may create a relatively different structure of masculinity. Thus, the construction of masculinity in Hong Kong may consist of a mixture of both Western and traditional Chinese values. The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), originally developed by Mahalik and colleagues (2003), and recently revised by Parent and Moradi (2009; 2011), was developed as a measure to advance assessment of conformity to masculine norms among men. Research using the CMNI has generally concentrated on samples of men in predominantly Western countries and in relation to health risk behavior, such as poor dietary habits, alcohol and substance use, and unsafe sex (Hamilton & Mahalik, 2009; Liu & Iwamoto, 2007). A review of the literature reveals that the vast majority of studies have used samples of predominantly white, Caucasian middle-to-upper class in masculinity
Rochelle & Yim
31
research. Gender roles, particularly within the field of masculinity, have been dominated by Western conceptions and research related to the field. Although much research has been conducted within the field of masculinity, there is a dearth of research examining the construct of masculinity within the Chinese context.
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
Research Aims The present study has the following aims: 1. Translate the CMNI-46 into Chinese; 2. Test the suitability of the nine subscale factor structure of the Chinese CMNI-46 (CCMNI-46) by contrasting three models where: a. Subscales are uncorrelated; b. Subscales are correlated; c. Subscales are assumed to be multidimensional rather than unidimensional. 3. Evaluate the factor structure of the CCMNI-46 using a sample of Hong Kong Chinese males. Methodology Participants A total of 254 Hong Kong-born Chinese males took part in the study. All participants were Hong Kong-born Chinese males. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 81 years (M = 38.05; SD = 17.3). Fifty participants were age 18–20 years; 71 were age 21–30 years; 5 participants were age 31–40 years; 26 were age 41–50 years; 78 were age 51–60 years; 12 participants were age 61–70 years; 9 were age 71–80 years; and 3 participants were more than 80 years of age. Sexual orientation was assessed using a multiple-choice answer format, with three choices available: “Heterosexual”; “Homosexual”, or “Bisexual.” Twohundred-and-forty-six participants identified themselves as heterosexual, six participants identified themselves as bisexual, and one participant identified himself as homosexual, while one remaining participant did not disclose their sexual orientation. Measures Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-46) Participants completed the Chinese version of the CMNI-46 (CCMNI-46) (Parent & Moradi, 2009). The CMNI-46 is a recently-abbreviated version of the original CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003). The CMNI-46 has been shown to retain and build on the psychometric strengths of the original CMNI (CMNI94), offering greater efficiency while being around half the length (Parent & Moradi, 2011). The CMNI-46 contains nine subscales (see Table 1). A number of items in the CMNI-46 are reverse-coded. For example, “I like to talk about my
32
The Journal of Psychology
TABLE 1. Masculine Norms Assessed by the Conformity to Norms Inventory (CMNI) Subscale Name 1. Winning
Drive to win
2. Emotional Control
Emotional restriction and suppression Perceiving work as a significant life focus Indulgence in high-risk behaviours
3. Risk-Taking
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
Description
4. Violence 5. Power Over Women 6. Playboy 7. Self-Reliance
8. Primacy of Work 9. Heterosexual Self-presentation
Inclination for physical confrontations Aversion to the prospect of being gay, or being thought of as gay Desire for numerous or non-committed sexual relationships and emotional distance from sexual partners Reluctance to ask for help Perceived control over women at both the personal and social level
Sample Item “In general, I will do anything to win” “I like to talk about my feelings” “I frequently put myself in risky situations” “I am willing to get into a physical fight if necessary” “In general, I control the women in my life” “I would feel good if I had many sexual partners” “I never ask for help”
“I feel good when work is my first priority” “It would be awful if people thought I was gay”
Note. Adapted from “Confirmatory factor analysis of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory and development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46”, by M. C. Parent and B. Moradi (2009), Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 175–189.
feelings” (Emotional Control) and “Being thought of as gay is not a bad thing” (Heterosexual Self-Presentation). All items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = Strongly Disagree to 3 = Strongly Agree), with higher scores reflecting greater conformity to masculine norms. Cronbach’s alphas in the present sample were similar to those obtained in previous studies (see Table 2). Linguistic Presentation of the Measure The CCMNI-46 was presented in Traditional Chinese.1 The measure was translated from English into Traditional Chinese by a professional translator and back-translated by a second professional translator to ensure reliability. Every effort was made to ensure a sensitive but reliable translation. A pilot test was
1
2
3
4
.60∗∗
.21∗∗ .14∗ 1
.44∗∗ .53∗∗ .31∗∗ .53∗∗
.26∗∗ −.09
1
1
1.34
1.90
.26
.68
.79
.80
.79 .63 .76
.28∗∗ 1 .21∗∗ .17∗∗ 1 .19∗∗ −.13∗ .19∗∗
.65 .51 .66
.69 1.29 1.65
1
1.51
1.80
1.28 1.33 1.36
1.45 1.84 1.07
.25
.66
.65 .49 .54
.46 .49 .57
.85
.89
.80 .84 .80
.82 .83 .81
.78 .89
.65 .77 .71
.45 .54
SD
.52 .43 .63
1.66 1.45
M
1.22 .83 1.46
M .60 .63
10 .47 .47
9 1.65 1.37
8
α
7
α
6
SD
5
Note. Adapted from “An abbreviated tool for assessing conformity to masculine norms: Psychometric properties of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46,” by M. C. Parent & B. Moradi (2011), Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12, 339–353.
1. Winning 1 2. Emotional .00 1 Control 1 3. Risk Taking .15∗ −.08 .40∗∗ 1 4. Violence .24∗∗ .06 5. Power Over .14∗ .10 .14∗ .23∗∗ Women 6. Playboy .11 .12 .26∗ .27∗∗ 7. Self-Reliance .02 .45∗∗ −.08 .05 8. Primacy Of −.02 .01 −.04 −.06 Work 9. Heterosexual .14∗ .12 −.08 0.8 SelfPresentation 10. CCMNI-46 .43∗∗ .43∗∗ .36∗∗ .52∗∗ Total
Subscale
Parent & Moradi (2011)
Current Study
TABLE 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for the 46-item Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CCMNI)
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
Rochelle & Yim 33
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The Journal of Psychology
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
initially conducted prior to the full-scale implementation of the study to ensure the comprehensibility of the measure. Procedure Participants were recruited from a posting for the study through email announcements to undergraduate students at a large university in Hong Kong. Students interested in participating were required to recruit a male relative to the study, for example; brother, father or grandfather, in order to be eligible for participation in the study. Participants completed the survey independently, self-completing the measure before returning the survey to the research team. Prior to participation, all individuals received a participant information sheet detailing the aims of the study. All participants were required to give informed consent. Both the participant information sheet and the consent form, like the main measure, were presented in a bilingual format. Analysis Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 19 and Lisrel 8.8. The current study conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with maximum likelihood estimation to test the factor structure of the CCMNI-46. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was initially performed on the CCMNI-46. Descriptive statistics and correlations were also performed. Results Data Transformation Initially, the sample consisted of 254 cases. As the missing data percentage is low (
ISSN: 0022-3980 (Print) 1940-1019 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjrl20
Assessing the Factor Structure of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory Tina L. Rochelle & K. H. Yim To cite this article: Tina L. Rochelle & K. H. Yim (2015) Assessing the Factor Structure of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, The Journal of Psychology, 149:1, 29-41, DOI: 10.1080/00223980.2013.837023 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2013.837023
Published online: 05 Jun 2014.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 108
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjrl20 Download by: [University of Otago]
Date: 15 October 2015, At: 22:00
The Journal of Psychology, 2015, 149(1), 29–41 C 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright doi: 10.1080/00223980.2013.837023
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
Assessing the Factor Structure of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory TINA L. ROCHELLE K. H. YIM City University of Hong Kong
ABSTRACT. The purpose of the present study was to examine the factor structure and assess the reliability of the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46 (CCMNI-46). Using a cohort of 254 Hong Kong-born Chinese males, scale reliability determination involved the internal consistencies of the entire instrument. Ages of respondents ranged from 18 to 81 years (M = 38.05; SD = 17.3). Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the psychometric properties of the CCMNI-46, thus confirming the multidimensional structure of the CMNI-46 and the replicability of the CMNI using a Hong Kong Chinese sample. All items loaded onto the corresponding factor with the exception of one item from the emotional control subscale. The overall reliability of the CCMNI-46 was lower than previous Western studies and may well reflect the subtle diversity of masculinity across cultures. The findings offered psychometric support for use of the CCMNI-46 in research and practice regarding Hong Kong Chinese masculinity. The CCMNI-46 provides a useful template for the operationalization of masculine norms in Chinese society. Keywords: masculinity, conformity to masculine norms, Chinese, Hong Kong
GENDER ROLES REFER TO THE SET OF SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL NORMS considered socially appropriate for males and females in society. These may vary greatly from culture to culture and across time. Theoretically, the examination of gender roles has shifted from its initial concentration on gender differences to more recently examining associations among gender-related ideologies, psychological well-being, and stress (Smiler, 2006). Understanding of masculinity from a psychological perspective has likewise evolved from initial perspectives of the construct as a personality trait being simply the base opposite of femininity, to adherence to a multidimensional set of socially and culturally constructed norms (Parent & Moradi, 2011). Research within the field of masculinity has flourished Address correspondence to Tina L. Rochelle, Department of Applied Social Studies, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong; [email protected] (e-mail). 29
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
30
The Journal of Psychology
in recent years, with masculine gender role-related constructs being linked to a wide range of issues for men, including: substance use and abuse (Liu & Iwamoto, 2007), reluctance to seek medical assistance (O’Brien, Hunt, & Hart, 2005), and poor health behavior (Courtenay, 2000). The purpose of the present study is to assess the factor structure of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, and to examine the adaptability of the measure for use in Chinese society. Hong Kong is a unique society as a result of the intermingling of different cultures; with its tiny land space and a population of more than seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated societies in the world. Despite being relatively mono-cultural with around 95% ethnic Chinese (Census & Statistics Department, 2010), Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where “East meets West,” reflecting the cultural mix of Hong Kong’s Chinese roots with influences from its time as a British colony. Hong Kong balances a modern way of life with traditional Chinese practices. In this sense, Hong Kong is a place with mixed culture, with both traditional and modern values. To a certain extent, Hong Kong Chinese are affected by the cultural beliefs of the West and the East. Traditional Chinese values and Western values meet and merge. As such, gender norms, as a by-product of culture, are sharpened and influenced by both Chinese and Western beliefs. From a traditional Chinese perspective, the traditional Chinese concept of “men for the exterior and women for the interior” sets the scene for traditional Chinese gender roles, clearly segregating the world of women and men in Chinese society. The traditional Chinese familial preference for sons over daughters further enhances this notion, and reinforces the superiority of males in Chinese society. Male and female behavior is governed by Confucian beliefs, which stresses the importance of individuals acting in accordance to the expectations of their role and position in society (Tang, Chua & O, 2010). The inequality of males and females need not to be questioned and is perceived to be important in the preservation of order and position in society in order to achieve harmony and peace. It is generally expected that behavior should conform to traditional standards. However, with the influence of the West, traditional gender norms may erode over time, and the influence of more radical, modern beliefs may create a relatively different structure of masculinity. Thus, the construction of masculinity in Hong Kong may consist of a mixture of both Western and traditional Chinese values. The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), originally developed by Mahalik and colleagues (2003), and recently revised by Parent and Moradi (2009; 2011), was developed as a measure to advance assessment of conformity to masculine norms among men. Research using the CMNI has generally concentrated on samples of men in predominantly Western countries and in relation to health risk behavior, such as poor dietary habits, alcohol and substance use, and unsafe sex (Hamilton & Mahalik, 2009; Liu & Iwamoto, 2007). A review of the literature reveals that the vast majority of studies have used samples of predominantly white, Caucasian middle-to-upper class in masculinity
Rochelle & Yim
31
research. Gender roles, particularly within the field of masculinity, have been dominated by Western conceptions and research related to the field. Although much research has been conducted within the field of masculinity, there is a dearth of research examining the construct of masculinity within the Chinese context.
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
Research Aims The present study has the following aims: 1. Translate the CMNI-46 into Chinese; 2. Test the suitability of the nine subscale factor structure of the Chinese CMNI-46 (CCMNI-46) by contrasting three models where: a. Subscales are uncorrelated; b. Subscales are correlated; c. Subscales are assumed to be multidimensional rather than unidimensional. 3. Evaluate the factor structure of the CCMNI-46 using a sample of Hong Kong Chinese males. Methodology Participants A total of 254 Hong Kong-born Chinese males took part in the study. All participants were Hong Kong-born Chinese males. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 81 years (M = 38.05; SD = 17.3). Fifty participants were age 18–20 years; 71 were age 21–30 years; 5 participants were age 31–40 years; 26 were age 41–50 years; 78 were age 51–60 years; 12 participants were age 61–70 years; 9 were age 71–80 years; and 3 participants were more than 80 years of age. Sexual orientation was assessed using a multiple-choice answer format, with three choices available: “Heterosexual”; “Homosexual”, or “Bisexual.” Twohundred-and-forty-six participants identified themselves as heterosexual, six participants identified themselves as bisexual, and one participant identified himself as homosexual, while one remaining participant did not disclose their sexual orientation. Measures Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-46) Participants completed the Chinese version of the CMNI-46 (CCMNI-46) (Parent & Moradi, 2009). The CMNI-46 is a recently-abbreviated version of the original CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003). The CMNI-46 has been shown to retain and build on the psychometric strengths of the original CMNI (CMNI94), offering greater efficiency while being around half the length (Parent & Moradi, 2011). The CMNI-46 contains nine subscales (see Table 1). A number of items in the CMNI-46 are reverse-coded. For example, “I like to talk about my
32
The Journal of Psychology
TABLE 1. Masculine Norms Assessed by the Conformity to Norms Inventory (CMNI) Subscale Name 1. Winning
Drive to win
2. Emotional Control
Emotional restriction and suppression Perceiving work as a significant life focus Indulgence in high-risk behaviours
3. Risk-Taking
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
Description
4. Violence 5. Power Over Women 6. Playboy 7. Self-Reliance
8. Primacy of Work 9. Heterosexual Self-presentation
Inclination for physical confrontations Aversion to the prospect of being gay, or being thought of as gay Desire for numerous or non-committed sexual relationships and emotional distance from sexual partners Reluctance to ask for help Perceived control over women at both the personal and social level
Sample Item “In general, I will do anything to win” “I like to talk about my feelings” “I frequently put myself in risky situations” “I am willing to get into a physical fight if necessary” “In general, I control the women in my life” “I would feel good if I had many sexual partners” “I never ask for help”
“I feel good when work is my first priority” “It would be awful if people thought I was gay”
Note. Adapted from “Confirmatory factor analysis of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory and development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46”, by M. C. Parent and B. Moradi (2009), Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 175–189.
feelings” (Emotional Control) and “Being thought of as gay is not a bad thing” (Heterosexual Self-Presentation). All items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = Strongly Disagree to 3 = Strongly Agree), with higher scores reflecting greater conformity to masculine norms. Cronbach’s alphas in the present sample were similar to those obtained in previous studies (see Table 2). Linguistic Presentation of the Measure The CCMNI-46 was presented in Traditional Chinese.1 The measure was translated from English into Traditional Chinese by a professional translator and back-translated by a second professional translator to ensure reliability. Every effort was made to ensure a sensitive but reliable translation. A pilot test was
1
2
3
4
.60∗∗
.21∗∗ .14∗ 1
.44∗∗ .53∗∗ .31∗∗ .53∗∗
.26∗∗ −.09
1
1
1.34
1.90
.26
.68
.79
.80
.79 .63 .76
.28∗∗ 1 .21∗∗ .17∗∗ 1 .19∗∗ −.13∗ .19∗∗
.65 .51 .66
.69 1.29 1.65
1
1.51
1.80
1.28 1.33 1.36
1.45 1.84 1.07
.25
.66
.65 .49 .54
.46 .49 .57
.85
.89
.80 .84 .80
.82 .83 .81
.78 .89
.65 .77 .71
.45 .54
SD
.52 .43 .63
1.66 1.45
M
1.22 .83 1.46
M .60 .63
10 .47 .47
9 1.65 1.37
8
α
7
α
6
SD
5
Note. Adapted from “An abbreviated tool for assessing conformity to masculine norms: Psychometric properties of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46,” by M. C. Parent & B. Moradi (2011), Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12, 339–353.
1. Winning 1 2. Emotional .00 1 Control 1 3. Risk Taking .15∗ −.08 .40∗∗ 1 4. Violence .24∗∗ .06 5. Power Over .14∗ .10 .14∗ .23∗∗ Women 6. Playboy .11 .12 .26∗ .27∗∗ 7. Self-Reliance .02 .45∗∗ −.08 .05 8. Primacy Of −.02 .01 −.04 −.06 Work 9. Heterosexual .14∗ .12 −.08 0.8 SelfPresentation 10. CCMNI-46 .43∗∗ .43∗∗ .36∗∗ .52∗∗ Total
Subscale
Parent & Moradi (2011)
Current Study
TABLE 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for the 46-item Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CCMNI)
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
Rochelle & Yim 33
34
The Journal of Psychology
Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 22:00 15 October 2015
initially conducted prior to the full-scale implementation of the study to ensure the comprehensibility of the measure. Procedure Participants were recruited from a posting for the study through email announcements to undergraduate students at a large university in Hong Kong. Students interested in participating were required to recruit a male relative to the study, for example; brother, father or grandfather, in order to be eligible for participation in the study. Participants completed the survey independently, self-completing the measure before returning the survey to the research team. Prior to participation, all individuals received a participant information sheet detailing the aims of the study. All participants were required to give informed consent. Both the participant information sheet and the consent form, like the main measure, were presented in a bilingual format. Analysis Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 19 and Lisrel 8.8. The current study conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with maximum likelihood estimation to test the factor structure of the CCMNI-46. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was initially performed on the CCMNI-46. Descriptive statistics and correlations were also performed. Results Data Transformation Initially, the sample consisted of 254 cases. As the missing data percentage is low (
