Psychological Reports, 1990, 67, 35-42.
O Psychological Reports 1990
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLING ' ALEX BLASZCZYNSKI
NEIL McCONAGHY
ANNA FRANKOVA
Weiirnead Hospital
University of New Socrlh Ibler
Prince of Wales Hospital
Summary.-To test the hypothesis that pathological gamblers seek stimulation as a means of reducing aversive undenroused states of boredom andlor depression, the Beck Depression Inventory, Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale and a Boredom Proneness Scale were administered to 48 diagnosed pathological gamblers and a control group of 40 family physician patients. Analyses of variance showed pathological gamblers obtained significantly higher boredom proneness and depression scores than those of controls. That the Boredom Proneness Scale failed to correlate with the Zuckerman Boredom Susceptibility subscale suggested the two measure differing dimensions. Results indicated the possible existence of three subtypes of pathological gamblers, one group characterized by boredom, another by depression, and a third by a mixture of both depression and boredom.
I t has been suggested that human subjects function at differing levels of optimal arousal which can be estimated by assessment measures such as Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Eysenck, 1767; Zuckerman, 1783). An associated hypothesis was that the drive to reduce aversive states of under-arousal, i.e., depression or boredom, or excessive arousal, i.e., anxiety, motivated individuals to engage in addictive or habitual behaviours (Zuckerman, 1783; Marlatt & Gordon, 1785; Jacobs, 1786). Extending Zuckerman's (1783) theory, Anderson and Brown (1984) and Brown (1986) advanced a neoPavlovian two-factor model of gambling in which individual differences in autonomic, somatic and/or cortical arousal in interaction with irregular schedules of reinforcement produced pathological gambling behaviours. According to this model, pathological gamblers experienced under-stimulating lifestyles, the hypothesized end result of a combination of low environmental stimulation and high sensation-seeking person&ty traits. Gambling, a risk-taking activity associated with increased subjective and physiological arousal (Anderson & Brown, 1784; Leary & Dickerson, 1985), would be repeatedly sought by chronic understimulated gamblers. Studies of Blas~cz~nski,Wilson, and McConaghy (1786) and Blaszczynski (1788), replicated by Dickerson (1987) and Allcock and Grace (1788), have not supported Brown's (1786) hypothesis. Contrary to expectation, gamblers obtained significantly lower Zuckerman's (1983) Sensation Seeking Scale scores than normals. Blaszczynski, Wilson, and McConaghy 'Send correspondence to A. P. Blaszczynski, Department of Clinical Psychology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead 2145, Australia. N. McConaghy at University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033, Australia; A. Frankova at The Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick 2031, Australia.
36
A. BLASZCZYNSKI. ETAL.
(1986) argued that pathological gamblers were not necessarily sensation seekers but that avoidance of anxiety or dysphoric mood, in conjunction with a behaviour completion mechanism (McConaghy, 1980), was a major determinant of persistence in gambling activity. Negative emotional srates including boredom, loneliness, and dysphoria have been reported as common causes of relapse in substance and nonsubstance addictive behaviours (Marlatt & Gordon, 1985). Cumrnings, Gordon, and Marlatt (1980) earlier reported that 47% of a sample of 19 pathological gamblers identified such states as precipitants for relapse. McCormick (1988) described two subtypes of pathological gamblers characterised by chronic states of hypoarousal but differentiated according to the relative presence of depression or boredom. In Subtype A, the recurringly depressed pathological gambler, pervasive premorbid depressogenic cognitive styles in possible interaction with biochemical deficiencies were instrumental in establishing a need state relieved by the affect-enhancing excitement generated by gambling. Subtype B, on the other hand, was described as chronically understimulated, experiencing not dysphoria but excessive levels of boredom, low frustration tolerance and a need for varied stimulation and constant rearousal. As in Subtype A, the inherent arousal produced by gambling acted as a negative reinforcer reducing not dysphoric affect, but boredom thereby apparently reinforcing continued gambling. Boredom is a relatively neglected psychological construct defined as a state of "mental weariness and dissatisfaction produced by lack of interest or activity." Boredom-prone individuals are characterized as experiencing varying degrees of depression, hopelessness, loneliness, distractibility, lack of motivation, and general dissatisfaction (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). Although boredom and depression scores on psychometric scales correlate positively, the two constructs are considered as separate entities differing on dimensions of intensity and quality of mood (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). Poor tolerance for boredom independent of depression could be a pertinent factor contributing to repetitive gambling behaviour. Lyons (1985) in investigating this hypothesis administered the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1983) and the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erlbaugh, 1961) to 34 Gamblers Anonymous attenders and 28 social gamblers. The Boredom Susceptibility subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale purportedly measured the degree to which subjects avoided under-stimulated states. Analysis showed that pathological gamblers were significantly more depressed but not more susceptible to boredom than social gamblers. However, in a validation study of an alternative measure of the Boredom Proneness Scale in a sample of 233 undergraduate students, Farmer and Sundberg (1986) found a small but significant correlation between scores on
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN GAMBLING
37
it and on the Zuckerman Boredom Susceptibility subscale (r = 0.25, p < .01) but a larger correlation with a self-rating assessment of boredom proneness (r = 0.67, p < .001). Scores on the Boredom Proneness Scale were correlated significantly ( r = 0.44, p < .001) with scores on the Beck Depression Inventory, whereas the Boredom Susceptibility subscale scores did not (r=0.05). Hamilton, Haier, and Buchsbaum (1984) found scores on the Boredom Susceptibility subscale did not correlate (r = 0.04), with scores on boredom coping, a trait reflecting individuals' disposition to engage in activities to decrease boredom. Farmer and Sundberg suggested the two boredom scales assessed different aspects of boredom experience: Boredom Proneness emphasizing "one's connectedness with one's environment . . . as well as the ability to access adaptive resources and realize competencies" (p. 10) and Boredom Susceptibility, escape from understimulation and a reaction to the external events. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between boredom, depression and pathological gambling. It was hypothesized that pathological gamblers are more prone to boredom and depression than nongamblers.
METHOD Subjects Subjects were 48 (43 men and 5 women) consecutive pathological gamblers attending a specialized hospital pathological gambling behaviour therapy programme to reduce uncontrollable gambling urges and behaviour, and 40 (35 men and 5 women) patients attending a family physician for nongambling or nonaddictive related problems. All gamblers met DSM-I11 (APA, 1980) diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling, that is, a chronic preoccupation with gambling, a psychologicaI and emotional dependence on gambling, and a loss of control resulting in personal, marital, social, legal or financial dysfunction. The mean age of the gamblers was 39.0 yr. (SD = 10.4 yr.) and the family physician sample, 37.3 yr. (SD = 10.4 yr.). This difference did not reach significance (F,,,, = 2.83, ns). Of the 48 gamblers, 18 bet exclusively on horses, 13 exclusively on slot machines, and 17 on more than one form. Thirty-seven (92.5%) of the 40 family physician subjects reported no gambling while 3 described nonproblematic gambling of $Aus.lO, 8Aus.20, and bAus.30 per week, respectively. With respect to marital status, 50% of the subjects in both samples were single, 39.6% of the gamblers, and 42.5% of the family physician sample were married, and 10.4% of the gamblers and 7.5% of family physician sample were divorced (Xl = 0.25, ns).
38
A BLASZCZYNSKI, ETAL
Materials
AU subjects completed the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erlbaugh, 1961), the Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1979) and the Boredom Proneness Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986) in that order. The Beck Depression Inventory is a 21-item clinically derived self-assessment scale measuring depth of current depression conceptualised as "an abnormal state of the organism manifested by signs and symptoms such as low subjective mood, pessimistic and nihilistic attitudes, loss of spontaneity and specific negative signs" (Beck, 1967, p. 202). The Sensation Seeking Scale is a 40-item self-report questionnaire which aims to identify optimal functional levels of stimulation reflecting a biologically based personahty dimension. High sensation seekers become bored easily, are more sensitive to internal sensations, and less conforming to external constraints. The measure includes four subscales: Thrill and Adventure Seelung (TAS), associated with a propensity to engage in sports or physically dangerous pursuits; Experience Seeking (ES) involving changes in lifestyle and stimulation of the mind; Disinhibition (Dis), manifested by outgoing social behaviours and gambling; and Boredom Susceptib~lity (BS), characterized by an inability to tolerate repetitive experiences and monotony. The Boredom Proneness Scale was developed to assess an individual's proneness towards experiencing boredom. Although viewed as an independent construct but overlapping with depression, boredom-prone individuals are considered characteristically to exhibit a lack of interest and varying degrees of depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and distractibility. Validation studies of the scale demonstrated strong correlations between Boredom Proneness and self-report ratings and a Job Boredom Scale, but poor correlation with the Boredom Susceptibihty subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). The scale has a satisfactory test-retest reliability (r = 0.88). For the pathological gamblers and family physician sample means and standard deviations of scores on the psychological test measures are shown in Table 1. The mean Beck Depression Inventory score for the pathological gamblers fell within the category for depression and was significantly higher than that obtained by the family physician sample (F,,,, = 17.43, p = .0001). Similarly, the pathological gamblers' mean Boredom Proneness score was significantly higher than that of the family physician sample (F,,8, = 18.44, p < ,0001). The Boredom Proneness score of the family physician sample was comparable to the normative data reported for undergraduate male students (M = 10.44) by Farmer and Sundberg (1986). Groups did not l f f e r on mean Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Boredom
39
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN GAMBLING
Susceptibility, Disinhibition and Experience Seeking subscale or total score on the Sensation Seeking Scale. TABLE 1
Beck Boredom Thrill, Experience Depression Proneness Adventure SeekingSeeking In;entory
Disinhibition
Boredome Susceptibiliiy
Total Score
5.12 2.18
5.25 4.52
17.54 5.98
Pathological Gamblers
Family Physician Subjects M 7.45 9.40 5.59 SD 8.52
2.87 1.85
5.02 2.46
The possibility that differences on depression, boredom proneness, and sensation-seeking scores existed among subgroups of gamblers was investigated. Gamblers were categorized according to form of gambling behaviour. One-way analyses of variance with a Least Significant Difference multiple comparison test set at p = .05 indicated no significance between group differences for the 18 horse-race, 13 slot-machine, and 17 mixed-form gamblers on Beck Depression Inventory, Boredom Proneness, or Sensation-seeking subscale scores. TABLE 2 PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR BECKDEPRESSION INVENTORY, SENSATION SEEKING, AND BOREDOM PRONENESS SCORESFOR48 PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLERS AND 40 FAMILYPHYSICIANS' PATENTS Measures 1. Beck Depression Inventory 2. Boredom Proneness 3. Boredom Susceptibility 4. Disinhibition 5. Experience Seeking 6. Thrill, Adventure Seeking 7. Total
1
0.66* -0.11 -0.05 0.18 0.18 0.54
2
3
4
5
6
-0.24 -0.12 0.04 0.33* -0.03
-0.47* 0.33 0.16 0.76*
0.42' 0.10 0.70'
0.46* 0.78*
0.56'
As seen in Table 2, although a significant correlation was found between Beck Depression Inventory and Boredom Proneness scores, no such relationship was observed for the Boredom Susceptibility or other Sensation-seeking subscale scores. There was a negative but insignificant correlation between the Boredom Proneness and Boredom Susceptibility scores.
40
A BLASZCZYNSKI, ETAL.
In the present study, pathological gamblers obtained significantly higher boredom proneness scores and, consistent with the literature (McCormick, Russo, Ramirez, & Taher, 1984; Blaszczynski, Wilson, & McConaghy, 1986; Blaszczynski & McConaghy, 1988, 1989), higher depression but not sensation-seelung scores compared with a control group of f a d y physician patients. This finding is consistent with the notion which has been put forward by Jacobs (1986) and Blaszczynski and McConaghy (1989) that pathological gambling is in part a maladaptive coping strategy to deal with affective disturbances. I t was further argued (Blaszczynski, Winter, & McConaghy, 1986), however, that gambling led to an elevation of positive mood and conversely a reduction in depression for horse-race but not slot-machine players who gambled to reduce anxiety states. The present results did not support this view. Classifying pathological gamblers according to forms of gambling yielded no significance between group differences or measures of depression, boredom process, or sensation-seeking. This finding suggests that some psychological parameters at least can be generalized to apply to gamblers irrespective of whether they indulge exclusively on horse-race gambling, slotmachine play or engage in multiple forms of gambling. According to Farmer and Sundberg (1986) boredom prone individuals are characterized by a proclivity towards amotivation and lack of effort, experience dissatisfaction with work, retain little sense of psychological well being, and are prone to depression. Replicating the finding of Sundberg and Farmer (1986) the Boredom Proneness measure in the present study correlated significantly with the Beck Depression Inventory. With respect to face validity, items of the Boredom Proneness scale tap nonaffectively laden components of personality. Nevertheless, Farmer and Sundberg's (1986) assertion that Boredom Proneness is a separate but overlapping construct to depression requires further empirical support. If it is correct, the correlation between scores on Beck Depression and Boredom Proneness found in this study suggests that in addition to the two subtypes of gamblers, hypothesized by McCormick (1988), one depressed and the other bored, a third group exists who are both depressed and prone to boredom. Some gamblers (McCorrnick Subtype A), if exposed to significant adverse life events or experiencing coping difficulties, report depression as the key factor causing their gambling. Some (McCorrnick Subtype B), if not exposed to similar conditions, report dissatisfaction and boredom as the key factor. The third group reports both factors. Failure of the scores on the Boredom Proneness Scale to correlate with those on Zuckerman's Boredom Susceptibility subscale which further, unlike the Boredom Proneness Scale, did not correlate significantly with scores on
BOREDOM PRONENESS I N GAMBLING
41
the Beck Depression Inventory indicates that these two boredom scales measure independent dimensions. The failure to find a correlation between Boredom Proneness and Boredom Susceptibility scales requires further explanation. One possible interpretation is that Zuckerman's Boredom susceptibility subscale assesses an individual's propensity to react to his environment by actively seelung enhanced levels of stimulation and excitement as a positive reinforcer in its own right. The Boredom Proneness, on the other hand, assesses an individual's intolerance of aversive underaroused states of boredom and/or depression. Thus, underaroused individuals may seek varied but not necessarily excitement-generating activities to reduce boredom. If so, then intolerance for boredom and seeking excitement should not necessarily be expected to correlate significantly. Pathological gamblers may persist at gambling as a means of reducing either or both of these two aversive moods. REFERENCES ALLCOCK, C., & GRACE,D. Pathological gamblers are neither impulsive nor sensation seekers. Australian and N m Zeahnd Journal of Psychiatry, 1988, 22, 307-311. AMERICANPSYCHIATRICAssoc~h-no~.Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (3rd ed.) Washington, DC: Author, 1980. ANDERSON, G., & BROWN, R. I. F. Real and laborator gambling, sensation seeking and arousal: towards a Pavlovian corn onent in general tgeories of gambling and gambling addico g ~75, , 401-411. tions. ~ritishJournal of ~ ~ c ~ o l1984, BECK,A. T. Depression, clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. New York: Paul B. Boeber, 1967. BECK,A. T., WARD,C. H., MENDELSON, M., MOCK,I., & ERLBAUGH, I. An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1961, 4, 561-571. BLASZCZYNSKI, A. Clinical studies in pathological gambling. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of New South Wales, 1988. BLASZCZYNSKI, A., & MCCONAGHY, N. Sensation seeking and pathological gambling. British Journal of Addiction, 1986, 81, 113-117. BLASZCZYNSKI, A. P., & MCCONAGHY, N. SCL9O assessed psychopathology in pathological gamblers. Psychological Reports, 1988, 62, 547-552. BLASZCZYNSKI, A,, & MCCONAGHY, N. Anxiety and/or depression in the pathogenesis of addictive gambling. The International Journal of the Addictions, 1989, 24, 337-350. BLASZCZYNSKI, A,, W~NTER, S. W., & MCCONAGHY, N. Plasma endorphin levels in pathological gambling. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 1986, 2, 3-14. BROWN,R. I. F. Arousal and sensation-seeking components i n the general explanation of gambling and gambling addictions. The International Journal of the Addictions, 1986, 21, 1001-1016. C ~ G SC.,, GORDON, J., & I~~ARLATT, G . A. Relapse: prevention and prediction. In W. R. Miller (Ed.), The addictive behaviours. Sydney: Pergamon, 1980. DICKERSON, M. G., HINCMY,J., & Fmm, J. Chasing, arousal and sensation seeking in off-course gamblers. British Journal of Addiction, 1986, 82, 673 -680. EYSENCK, H. The biological basis of personaliiy. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1967. FARMER,R., & SUNDBERG, N. D. Boredon-Proneness: the development of a new scale. Journal of Personaliiy Assessment, 1986, 50, 4-17. HAMILTON,J. E., HER, R. J., & BUCHSBAUM, M. S. Intrinsic enjoyment and boredom coping scale; validation with personality, evoked potential and attention measures. Personalio and Individua[ DifJerences, 1984, 5, 183-193. JACOBS,D. F. A general theory of addictions: a new theoretical model. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 1986, 2 , 15-31.
42
A. BLASZCZYNSKI, ETAL.
LEARY,K.,
& DICKERSON, M. G . Levels of arousal in high and low frequency gamblers. Behavior Research and Therapy, 1985, 635-641. LYONS,J. C. DiFferences in sensation seeking and in depression level between male social gamblers and male compulsive gamblers. In W. A. Eadington (Ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth National Conference on Gambling and Risk Taking. Reno, NV: University o f Nevada, Bureau of Business and Economic Research, 1985. Pp. 76-100. MAR LA^, G . A,, & GORDON, J . R. Relapse prevention. New York: Guilford, 1985. MCCONAGHY, N. Behaviour completion mechanisms rather than primary drives maintain behavioural patterns. Acto Nervosa Supplement (Prague), 1980, 22, 138-151. MCCORMICK,R. A. Pathological gambling; a parsimonious need state model. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 1988, 3, 257-263. MCCORMICK, R. A , , RUSSO,A. M., RAMIRU, L. F., & TABER, J. I. Affective disorders among pathological gamblers seeking treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1984, 141,
215-218.
ZUCKERMAN, M. Sensation seeking: beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1979.
ZUCKI~LMAN, M. Biological bases of sensation seeking, impulrivity and anxiety. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1983.
Accepted June 15, 1990.
O Psychological Reports 1990
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLING ' ALEX BLASZCZYNSKI
NEIL McCONAGHY
ANNA FRANKOVA
Weiirnead Hospital
University of New Socrlh Ibler
Prince of Wales Hospital
Summary.-To test the hypothesis that pathological gamblers seek stimulation as a means of reducing aversive undenroused states of boredom andlor depression, the Beck Depression Inventory, Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale and a Boredom Proneness Scale were administered to 48 diagnosed pathological gamblers and a control group of 40 family physician patients. Analyses of variance showed pathological gamblers obtained significantly higher boredom proneness and depression scores than those of controls. That the Boredom Proneness Scale failed to correlate with the Zuckerman Boredom Susceptibility subscale suggested the two measure differing dimensions. Results indicated the possible existence of three subtypes of pathological gamblers, one group characterized by boredom, another by depression, and a third by a mixture of both depression and boredom.
I t has been suggested that human subjects function at differing levels of optimal arousal which can be estimated by assessment measures such as Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Eysenck, 1767; Zuckerman, 1783). An associated hypothesis was that the drive to reduce aversive states of under-arousal, i.e., depression or boredom, or excessive arousal, i.e., anxiety, motivated individuals to engage in addictive or habitual behaviours (Zuckerman, 1783; Marlatt & Gordon, 1785; Jacobs, 1786). Extending Zuckerman's (1783) theory, Anderson and Brown (1984) and Brown (1986) advanced a neoPavlovian two-factor model of gambling in which individual differences in autonomic, somatic and/or cortical arousal in interaction with irregular schedules of reinforcement produced pathological gambling behaviours. According to this model, pathological gamblers experienced under-stimulating lifestyles, the hypothesized end result of a combination of low environmental stimulation and high sensation-seeking person&ty traits. Gambling, a risk-taking activity associated with increased subjective and physiological arousal (Anderson & Brown, 1784; Leary & Dickerson, 1985), would be repeatedly sought by chronic understimulated gamblers. Studies of Blas~cz~nski,Wilson, and McConaghy (1786) and Blaszczynski (1788), replicated by Dickerson (1987) and Allcock and Grace (1788), have not supported Brown's (1786) hypothesis. Contrary to expectation, gamblers obtained significantly lower Zuckerman's (1983) Sensation Seeking Scale scores than normals. Blaszczynski, Wilson, and McConaghy 'Send correspondence to A. P. Blaszczynski, Department of Clinical Psychology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead 2145, Australia. N. McConaghy at University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033, Australia; A. Frankova at The Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick 2031, Australia.
36
A. BLASZCZYNSKI. ETAL.
(1986) argued that pathological gamblers were not necessarily sensation seekers but that avoidance of anxiety or dysphoric mood, in conjunction with a behaviour completion mechanism (McConaghy, 1980), was a major determinant of persistence in gambling activity. Negative emotional srates including boredom, loneliness, and dysphoria have been reported as common causes of relapse in substance and nonsubstance addictive behaviours (Marlatt & Gordon, 1985). Cumrnings, Gordon, and Marlatt (1980) earlier reported that 47% of a sample of 19 pathological gamblers identified such states as precipitants for relapse. McCormick (1988) described two subtypes of pathological gamblers characterised by chronic states of hypoarousal but differentiated according to the relative presence of depression or boredom. In Subtype A, the recurringly depressed pathological gambler, pervasive premorbid depressogenic cognitive styles in possible interaction with biochemical deficiencies were instrumental in establishing a need state relieved by the affect-enhancing excitement generated by gambling. Subtype B, on the other hand, was described as chronically understimulated, experiencing not dysphoria but excessive levels of boredom, low frustration tolerance and a need for varied stimulation and constant rearousal. As in Subtype A, the inherent arousal produced by gambling acted as a negative reinforcer reducing not dysphoric affect, but boredom thereby apparently reinforcing continued gambling. Boredom is a relatively neglected psychological construct defined as a state of "mental weariness and dissatisfaction produced by lack of interest or activity." Boredom-prone individuals are characterized as experiencing varying degrees of depression, hopelessness, loneliness, distractibility, lack of motivation, and general dissatisfaction (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). Although boredom and depression scores on psychometric scales correlate positively, the two constructs are considered as separate entities differing on dimensions of intensity and quality of mood (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). Poor tolerance for boredom independent of depression could be a pertinent factor contributing to repetitive gambling behaviour. Lyons (1985) in investigating this hypothesis administered the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1983) and the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erlbaugh, 1961) to 34 Gamblers Anonymous attenders and 28 social gamblers. The Boredom Susceptibility subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale purportedly measured the degree to which subjects avoided under-stimulated states. Analysis showed that pathological gamblers were significantly more depressed but not more susceptible to boredom than social gamblers. However, in a validation study of an alternative measure of the Boredom Proneness Scale in a sample of 233 undergraduate students, Farmer and Sundberg (1986) found a small but significant correlation between scores on
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN GAMBLING
37
it and on the Zuckerman Boredom Susceptibility subscale (r = 0.25, p < .01) but a larger correlation with a self-rating assessment of boredom proneness (r = 0.67, p < .001). Scores on the Boredom Proneness Scale were correlated significantly ( r = 0.44, p < .001) with scores on the Beck Depression Inventory, whereas the Boredom Susceptibility subscale scores did not (r=0.05). Hamilton, Haier, and Buchsbaum (1984) found scores on the Boredom Susceptibility subscale did not correlate (r = 0.04), with scores on boredom coping, a trait reflecting individuals' disposition to engage in activities to decrease boredom. Farmer and Sundberg suggested the two boredom scales assessed different aspects of boredom experience: Boredom Proneness emphasizing "one's connectedness with one's environment . . . as well as the ability to access adaptive resources and realize competencies" (p. 10) and Boredom Susceptibility, escape from understimulation and a reaction to the external events. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between boredom, depression and pathological gambling. It was hypothesized that pathological gamblers are more prone to boredom and depression than nongamblers.
METHOD Subjects Subjects were 48 (43 men and 5 women) consecutive pathological gamblers attending a specialized hospital pathological gambling behaviour therapy programme to reduce uncontrollable gambling urges and behaviour, and 40 (35 men and 5 women) patients attending a family physician for nongambling or nonaddictive related problems. All gamblers met DSM-I11 (APA, 1980) diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling, that is, a chronic preoccupation with gambling, a psychologicaI and emotional dependence on gambling, and a loss of control resulting in personal, marital, social, legal or financial dysfunction. The mean age of the gamblers was 39.0 yr. (SD = 10.4 yr.) and the family physician sample, 37.3 yr. (SD = 10.4 yr.). This difference did not reach significance (F,,,, = 2.83, ns). Of the 48 gamblers, 18 bet exclusively on horses, 13 exclusively on slot machines, and 17 on more than one form. Thirty-seven (92.5%) of the 40 family physician subjects reported no gambling while 3 described nonproblematic gambling of $Aus.lO, 8Aus.20, and bAus.30 per week, respectively. With respect to marital status, 50% of the subjects in both samples were single, 39.6% of the gamblers, and 42.5% of the family physician sample were married, and 10.4% of the gamblers and 7.5% of family physician sample were divorced (Xl = 0.25, ns).
38
A BLASZCZYNSKI, ETAL
Materials
AU subjects completed the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erlbaugh, 1961), the Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1979) and the Boredom Proneness Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986) in that order. The Beck Depression Inventory is a 21-item clinically derived self-assessment scale measuring depth of current depression conceptualised as "an abnormal state of the organism manifested by signs and symptoms such as low subjective mood, pessimistic and nihilistic attitudes, loss of spontaneity and specific negative signs" (Beck, 1967, p. 202). The Sensation Seeking Scale is a 40-item self-report questionnaire which aims to identify optimal functional levels of stimulation reflecting a biologically based personahty dimension. High sensation seekers become bored easily, are more sensitive to internal sensations, and less conforming to external constraints. The measure includes four subscales: Thrill and Adventure Seelung (TAS), associated with a propensity to engage in sports or physically dangerous pursuits; Experience Seeking (ES) involving changes in lifestyle and stimulation of the mind; Disinhibition (Dis), manifested by outgoing social behaviours and gambling; and Boredom Susceptib~lity (BS), characterized by an inability to tolerate repetitive experiences and monotony. The Boredom Proneness Scale was developed to assess an individual's proneness towards experiencing boredom. Although viewed as an independent construct but overlapping with depression, boredom-prone individuals are considered characteristically to exhibit a lack of interest and varying degrees of depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and distractibility. Validation studies of the scale demonstrated strong correlations between Boredom Proneness and self-report ratings and a Job Boredom Scale, but poor correlation with the Boredom Susceptibihty subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). The scale has a satisfactory test-retest reliability (r = 0.88). For the pathological gamblers and family physician sample means and standard deviations of scores on the psychological test measures are shown in Table 1. The mean Beck Depression Inventory score for the pathological gamblers fell within the category for depression and was significantly higher than that obtained by the family physician sample (F,,,, = 17.43, p = .0001). Similarly, the pathological gamblers' mean Boredom Proneness score was significantly higher than that of the family physician sample (F,,8, = 18.44, p < ,0001). The Boredom Proneness score of the family physician sample was comparable to the normative data reported for undergraduate male students (M = 10.44) by Farmer and Sundberg (1986). Groups did not l f f e r on mean Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Boredom
39
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN GAMBLING
Susceptibility, Disinhibition and Experience Seeking subscale or total score on the Sensation Seeking Scale. TABLE 1
Beck Boredom Thrill, Experience Depression Proneness Adventure SeekingSeeking In;entory
Disinhibition
Boredome Susceptibiliiy
Total Score
5.12 2.18
5.25 4.52
17.54 5.98
Pathological Gamblers
Family Physician Subjects M 7.45 9.40 5.59 SD 8.52
2.87 1.85
5.02 2.46
The possibility that differences on depression, boredom proneness, and sensation-seeking scores existed among subgroups of gamblers was investigated. Gamblers were categorized according to form of gambling behaviour. One-way analyses of variance with a Least Significant Difference multiple comparison test set at p = .05 indicated no significance between group differences for the 18 horse-race, 13 slot-machine, and 17 mixed-form gamblers on Beck Depression Inventory, Boredom Proneness, or Sensation-seeking subscale scores. TABLE 2 PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR BECKDEPRESSION INVENTORY, SENSATION SEEKING, AND BOREDOM PRONENESS SCORESFOR48 PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLERS AND 40 FAMILYPHYSICIANS' PATENTS Measures 1. Beck Depression Inventory 2. Boredom Proneness 3. Boredom Susceptibility 4. Disinhibition 5. Experience Seeking 6. Thrill, Adventure Seeking 7. Total
1
0.66* -0.11 -0.05 0.18 0.18 0.54
2
3
4
5
6
-0.24 -0.12 0.04 0.33* -0.03
-0.47* 0.33 0.16 0.76*
0.42' 0.10 0.70'
0.46* 0.78*
0.56'
As seen in Table 2, although a significant correlation was found between Beck Depression Inventory and Boredom Proneness scores, no such relationship was observed for the Boredom Susceptibility or other Sensation-seeking subscale scores. There was a negative but insignificant correlation between the Boredom Proneness and Boredom Susceptibility scores.
40
A BLASZCZYNSKI, ETAL.
In the present study, pathological gamblers obtained significantly higher boredom proneness scores and, consistent with the literature (McCormick, Russo, Ramirez, & Taher, 1984; Blaszczynski, Wilson, & McConaghy, 1986; Blaszczynski & McConaghy, 1988, 1989), higher depression but not sensation-seelung scores compared with a control group of f a d y physician patients. This finding is consistent with the notion which has been put forward by Jacobs (1986) and Blaszczynski and McConaghy (1989) that pathological gambling is in part a maladaptive coping strategy to deal with affective disturbances. I t was further argued (Blaszczynski, Winter, & McConaghy, 1986), however, that gambling led to an elevation of positive mood and conversely a reduction in depression for horse-race but not slot-machine players who gambled to reduce anxiety states. The present results did not support this view. Classifying pathological gamblers according to forms of gambling yielded no significance between group differences or measures of depression, boredom process, or sensation-seeking. This finding suggests that some psychological parameters at least can be generalized to apply to gamblers irrespective of whether they indulge exclusively on horse-race gambling, slotmachine play or engage in multiple forms of gambling. According to Farmer and Sundberg (1986) boredom prone individuals are characterized by a proclivity towards amotivation and lack of effort, experience dissatisfaction with work, retain little sense of psychological well being, and are prone to depression. Replicating the finding of Sundberg and Farmer (1986) the Boredom Proneness measure in the present study correlated significantly with the Beck Depression Inventory. With respect to face validity, items of the Boredom Proneness scale tap nonaffectively laden components of personality. Nevertheless, Farmer and Sundberg's (1986) assertion that Boredom Proneness is a separate but overlapping construct to depression requires further empirical support. If it is correct, the correlation between scores on Beck Depression and Boredom Proneness found in this study suggests that in addition to the two subtypes of gamblers, hypothesized by McCormick (1988), one depressed and the other bored, a third group exists who are both depressed and prone to boredom. Some gamblers (McCorrnick Subtype A), if exposed to significant adverse life events or experiencing coping difficulties, report depression as the key factor causing their gambling. Some (McCorrnick Subtype B), if not exposed to similar conditions, report dissatisfaction and boredom as the key factor. The third group reports both factors. Failure of the scores on the Boredom Proneness Scale to correlate with those on Zuckerman's Boredom Susceptibility subscale which further, unlike the Boredom Proneness Scale, did not correlate significantly with scores on
BOREDOM PRONENESS I N GAMBLING
41
the Beck Depression Inventory indicates that these two boredom scales measure independent dimensions. The failure to find a correlation between Boredom Proneness and Boredom Susceptibility scales requires further explanation. One possible interpretation is that Zuckerman's Boredom susceptibility subscale assesses an individual's propensity to react to his environment by actively seelung enhanced levels of stimulation and excitement as a positive reinforcer in its own right. The Boredom Proneness, on the other hand, assesses an individual's intolerance of aversive underaroused states of boredom and/or depression. Thus, underaroused individuals may seek varied but not necessarily excitement-generating activities to reduce boredom. If so, then intolerance for boredom and seeking excitement should not necessarily be expected to correlate significantly. Pathological gamblers may persist at gambling as a means of reducing either or both of these two aversive moods. REFERENCES ALLCOCK, C., & GRACE,D. Pathological gamblers are neither impulsive nor sensation seekers. Australian and N m Zeahnd Journal of Psychiatry, 1988, 22, 307-311. AMERICANPSYCHIATRICAssoc~h-no~.Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (3rd ed.) Washington, DC: Author, 1980. ANDERSON, G., & BROWN, R. I. F. Real and laborator gambling, sensation seeking and arousal: towards a Pavlovian corn onent in general tgeories of gambling and gambling addico g ~75, , 401-411. tions. ~ritishJournal of ~ ~ c ~ o l1984, BECK,A. T. Depression, clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. New York: Paul B. Boeber, 1967. BECK,A. T., WARD,C. H., MENDELSON, M., MOCK,I., & ERLBAUGH, I. An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1961, 4, 561-571. BLASZCZYNSKI, A. Clinical studies in pathological gambling. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of New South Wales, 1988. BLASZCZYNSKI, A., & MCCONAGHY, N. Sensation seeking and pathological gambling. British Journal of Addiction, 1986, 81, 113-117. BLASZCZYNSKI, A. P., & MCCONAGHY, N. SCL9O assessed psychopathology in pathological gamblers. Psychological Reports, 1988, 62, 547-552. BLASZCZYNSKI, A,, & MCCONAGHY, N. Anxiety and/or depression in the pathogenesis of addictive gambling. The International Journal of the Addictions, 1989, 24, 337-350. BLASZCZYNSKI, A,, W~NTER, S. W., & MCCONAGHY, N. Plasma endorphin levels in pathological gambling. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 1986, 2, 3-14. BROWN,R. I. F. Arousal and sensation-seeking components i n the general explanation of gambling and gambling addictions. The International Journal of the Addictions, 1986, 21, 1001-1016. C ~ G SC.,, GORDON, J., & I~~ARLATT, G . A. Relapse: prevention and prediction. In W. R. Miller (Ed.), The addictive behaviours. Sydney: Pergamon, 1980. DICKERSON, M. G., HINCMY,J., & Fmm, J. Chasing, arousal and sensation seeking in off-course gamblers. British Journal of Addiction, 1986, 82, 673 -680. EYSENCK, H. The biological basis of personaliiy. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1967. FARMER,R., & SUNDBERG, N. D. Boredon-Proneness: the development of a new scale. Journal of Personaliiy Assessment, 1986, 50, 4-17. HAMILTON,J. E., HER, R. J., & BUCHSBAUM, M. S. Intrinsic enjoyment and boredom coping scale; validation with personality, evoked potential and attention measures. Personalio and Individua[ DifJerences, 1984, 5, 183-193. JACOBS,D. F. A general theory of addictions: a new theoretical model. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 1986, 2 , 15-31.
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LEARY,K.,
& DICKERSON, M. G . Levels of arousal in high and low frequency gamblers. Behavior Research and Therapy, 1985, 635-641. LYONS,J. C. DiFferences in sensation seeking and in depression level between male social gamblers and male compulsive gamblers. In W. A. Eadington (Ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth National Conference on Gambling and Risk Taking. Reno, NV: University o f Nevada, Bureau of Business and Economic Research, 1985. Pp. 76-100. MAR LA^, G . A,, & GORDON, J . R. Relapse prevention. New York: Guilford, 1985. MCCONAGHY, N. Behaviour completion mechanisms rather than primary drives maintain behavioural patterns. Acto Nervosa Supplement (Prague), 1980, 22, 138-151. MCCORMICK,R. A. Pathological gambling; a parsimonious need state model. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 1988, 3, 257-263. MCCORMICK, R. A , , RUSSO,A. M., RAMIRU, L. F., & TABER, J. I. Affective disorders among pathological gamblers seeking treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1984, 141,
215-218.
ZUCKERMAN, M. Sensation seeking: beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1979.
ZUCKI~LMAN, M. Biological bases of sensation seeking, impulrivity and anxiety. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1983.
Accepted June 15, 1990.
