Psychologicd Reports, 1975.37, 1267-1270. @ Psychological Reports 1975
CHANGES I N PATTERNS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTURBANCE AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS THEODORE
JACOB,LYNN REHM, A N D ROY NISENSON' University oof Pit~sburgh
Surnmcrsy.-Presenang problems in a university counseling center were assessed in 1955 (n = 194) and 1970 ( n = 206) as to their content, mode of symptom expression, and interpersonal effect of symptom. Disturbance reported in 1970 was stimulated more often by personal-social concerns than by academic matters than in 1955. Male students in 1970 were less troubled by academic failure and more troubled by uncertainty and/or dissatisfaction with vocational choice and future goals than in 1955. Problem content differentiated males and females in 1955 but not in 1970.
Survey of the past two decades indicates a period associated with extensive social conflict and violence on the one hand and a dramatic shift in the acceptance of novel and/or previously inhibited motives and life styles on the other. Perhaps nowhere have the associations or effects of such events been more apparent than among the youth in general and college age youth in particular (5, 6 ) . In conuast with the apparent calm and placidity of the fifties, che university campus of the sixties witnessed repeated confrontations between students and administrators, the emergence of greatly liberalized (and overtly expressed) attitudes toward sexual behavior, and the increasing tolerance for and wide-spread use of both "hard" and "soft" drugs. In light of these apparent changes in experienced frustration and hostility, as well as significant changes in sexual values during the past two decades, it was expected that disturbance expressed in 1970 as compared with 1955 ( a ) would be stimulated more often by personal and social problems than by academic concerns, ( b ) would be less differentiated on the basis of the individual's sex, ( c ) would be expressed more often by direct action and/or affect than by thought, and (d ) would be functionally self-indulging more often than selfdepriving.
METHOD The university counseling center from which the reported data were obtained (Carnegie-Mellon University) reflected considerable stability in both offered services and professional staff during the past 15 yr. of operation. In particular, a shift in emphasis from vocational guidance to social-emotional counseling occurred during the late 1940s and has continued until the present time. In addition, one of the three current counselors has been associated with the clinic during the past 20 yr, which has added considerable continuity and stability to the clinic's orientation. Finally, the proportion of males to females in the general university population (approximately 3300 students in 1955 and 4400 students in 1970) has remained quite stable over the past 15-yr. period. 'The authors would like to express their gratitude to Dr. Robert Morgan of the CarnegieMellon University Counseling Center for his continued cooperation in the completion of this project. Requests for reprints should be sent to Theodore Jacob, Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15260.
1268
T. JACOB, ET AL.
The counseling center's closed files of 1955-1956 and 1970-1971 were screened for client's sex, age, college status, and the presenting problem for which the client had sought help. The "presenting problem" was recorded as described by the client at the rime of iniiid contact without the counselor's interpretations or elaborations. In all, 194 files were obtained from 1955-1956 and 206 files from 1970-1971 which represented all cases for each academic year. Presenting problems were rated along three major categories-problem content, mode of symptom expression, and interpersonal effect of symptom. The problem content was adapted from Monks and Heath's classification of college students' problems ( I ) , including the three major divisions of academic, personal, and social problems, as well as several subdivisions within each of the three major divisions. Mode of symptom expression and the interpersonal effect of symptom were taken from Phillip's studies on the relationship between life style and psychopathology (3, 4 ) , the former including the three divisions of thought, action, and affect and the latter includ~ngthe three divisions of withdrawing from others, turning against others, and turning agalnst self.
RESULTSAND DISCUSSION Two "blind" raters independently assigned presenting complaints to categories in each of the dimensions in the study. For the three major content categories-academic, personal, and social-raters agreed on 87% of the cases ( N = 400). For the nine subcategories within this content area, the same raters initially agreed on 77% of the cases. Ratings of mode of symptom expression and interpersonal effect of symptom were analyzed only for those cases which were classified as personal or social on the content dimension since these dimensions do not apply to academic problems. Reliability was 56% for mode of expression and 69% for problem effect. Whereas males comprised 77.8% of the 1955 clinic sample, they accounted for only 52.9% of the 1970 sample (x2= 27.28, df = 1, p < .001). In contrast, the percentages of males in the general college population were 72.4% in 1955 and 71.9% in 1970. Thus, in 1955, the clinic was tapping the male and female populations proportionately whereas there was a shift toward a larger ratio of females to males in 1970. As hypothesized, the percentage of academic problems decreased while both social and personal problems increased from 1955 to 1970 (x2= 37.19, df = 2, p < .001). Further analyses indicated that this shift was significant for males (x' = 32.03, df = 2, p < ,001) but nonsignificant for females (x2= 2.45, df = 2). Evaluation of changes in academic subcategories in 1955 versus 1970 indicated that problems related to "inadequate academic performance" greatly decreased while those related to "dissatisfaction with goals" increased in 1970, a significant finding for males (x" 24.83, df = 1, p < .001) but nonsignificant for females (x' = .84, df = 1 ) . Thus the shift in type of academic problem presented between 1955 and 1970 was due to males, who, in 1955, were seeking help in larger numbers because of inadequacies in academic performance. Two further analyses support the suggestion of little change in the report
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTURBANCE AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
1269
of social and personal problems between 1955 and 1970. First, sex by year analyses for cases with social problems and personal problems were nonsignificant, indicating that these categories were relatively stable while changes were occurring for the academic problems. Second, low frequency subcategories within the social and personal areas were collapsed and examined, but again, no statistically significant differences emerged. The distributions of content for males versus females were significantly .001) but nonsignificant in 1970 different in 1955 ( f = 16.07, df = 2, p (x2 = 1.24, df = 2 ) . As hypothesized, sex differences in content evident in 1955 were no longer evident in 1970. Despite the earlier finding of a disproportionate number of females versus males applying to the clinic in 1970, the distributions of problem content appear to be more similar in 1970 than in 1955. The hypothesis that in 1970 there would be a shift in the mode of problem expression (direct action greater chan affect or thought) was tested by comparing the distribution of modes of expression in 1955 and 1970. The resulting analysis was nonsignificant 2.08, df = 2 ) as were similar tests for each sex separately. The hypothesis that there would be less differentiation by sex in 1970 was examined through sex by category analyses for each year separately. Neither the 1955 nor the 1970 data yielded significant sex differences. It was hypothesized that there would be a shift in problem effect in 1970
CHANGES I N PATTERNS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTURBANCE AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS THEODORE
JACOB,LYNN REHM, A N D ROY NISENSON' University oof Pit~sburgh
Surnmcrsy.-Presenang problems in a university counseling center were assessed in 1955 (n = 194) and 1970 ( n = 206) as to their content, mode of symptom expression, and interpersonal effect of symptom. Disturbance reported in 1970 was stimulated more often by personal-social concerns than by academic matters than in 1955. Male students in 1970 were less troubled by academic failure and more troubled by uncertainty and/or dissatisfaction with vocational choice and future goals than in 1955. Problem content differentiated males and females in 1955 but not in 1970.
Survey of the past two decades indicates a period associated with extensive social conflict and violence on the one hand and a dramatic shift in the acceptance of novel and/or previously inhibited motives and life styles on the other. Perhaps nowhere have the associations or effects of such events been more apparent than among the youth in general and college age youth in particular (5, 6 ) . In conuast with the apparent calm and placidity of the fifties, che university campus of the sixties witnessed repeated confrontations between students and administrators, the emergence of greatly liberalized (and overtly expressed) attitudes toward sexual behavior, and the increasing tolerance for and wide-spread use of both "hard" and "soft" drugs. In light of these apparent changes in experienced frustration and hostility, as well as significant changes in sexual values during the past two decades, it was expected that disturbance expressed in 1970 as compared with 1955 ( a ) would be stimulated more often by personal and social problems than by academic concerns, ( b ) would be less differentiated on the basis of the individual's sex, ( c ) would be expressed more often by direct action and/or affect than by thought, and (d ) would be functionally self-indulging more often than selfdepriving.
METHOD The university counseling center from which the reported data were obtained (Carnegie-Mellon University) reflected considerable stability in both offered services and professional staff during the past 15 yr. of operation. In particular, a shift in emphasis from vocational guidance to social-emotional counseling occurred during the late 1940s and has continued until the present time. In addition, one of the three current counselors has been associated with the clinic during the past 20 yr, which has added considerable continuity and stability to the clinic's orientation. Finally, the proportion of males to females in the general university population (approximately 3300 students in 1955 and 4400 students in 1970) has remained quite stable over the past 15-yr. period. 'The authors would like to express their gratitude to Dr. Robert Morgan of the CarnegieMellon University Counseling Center for his continued cooperation in the completion of this project. Requests for reprints should be sent to Theodore Jacob, Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15260.
1268
T. JACOB, ET AL.
The counseling center's closed files of 1955-1956 and 1970-1971 were screened for client's sex, age, college status, and the presenting problem for which the client had sought help. The "presenting problem" was recorded as described by the client at the rime of iniiid contact without the counselor's interpretations or elaborations. In all, 194 files were obtained from 1955-1956 and 206 files from 1970-1971 which represented all cases for each academic year. Presenting problems were rated along three major categories-problem content, mode of symptom expression, and interpersonal effect of symptom. The problem content was adapted from Monks and Heath's classification of college students' problems ( I ) , including the three major divisions of academic, personal, and social problems, as well as several subdivisions within each of the three major divisions. Mode of symptom expression and the interpersonal effect of symptom were taken from Phillip's studies on the relationship between life style and psychopathology (3, 4 ) , the former including the three divisions of thought, action, and affect and the latter includ~ngthe three divisions of withdrawing from others, turning against others, and turning agalnst self.
RESULTSAND DISCUSSION Two "blind" raters independently assigned presenting complaints to categories in each of the dimensions in the study. For the three major content categories-academic, personal, and social-raters agreed on 87% of the cases ( N = 400). For the nine subcategories within this content area, the same raters initially agreed on 77% of the cases. Ratings of mode of symptom expression and interpersonal effect of symptom were analyzed only for those cases which were classified as personal or social on the content dimension since these dimensions do not apply to academic problems. Reliability was 56% for mode of expression and 69% for problem effect. Whereas males comprised 77.8% of the 1955 clinic sample, they accounted for only 52.9% of the 1970 sample (x2= 27.28, df = 1, p < .001). In contrast, the percentages of males in the general college population were 72.4% in 1955 and 71.9% in 1970. Thus, in 1955, the clinic was tapping the male and female populations proportionately whereas there was a shift toward a larger ratio of females to males in 1970. As hypothesized, the percentage of academic problems decreased while both social and personal problems increased from 1955 to 1970 (x2= 37.19, df = 2, p < .001). Further analyses indicated that this shift was significant for males (x' = 32.03, df = 2, p < ,001) but nonsignificant for females (x2= 2.45, df = 2). Evaluation of changes in academic subcategories in 1955 versus 1970 indicated that problems related to "inadequate academic performance" greatly decreased while those related to "dissatisfaction with goals" increased in 1970, a significant finding for males (x" 24.83, df = 1, p < .001) but nonsignificant for females (x' = .84, df = 1 ) . Thus the shift in type of academic problem presented between 1955 and 1970 was due to males, who, in 1955, were seeking help in larger numbers because of inadequacies in academic performance. Two further analyses support the suggestion of little change in the report
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTURBANCE AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
1269
of social and personal problems between 1955 and 1970. First, sex by year analyses for cases with social problems and personal problems were nonsignificant, indicating that these categories were relatively stable while changes were occurring for the academic problems. Second, low frequency subcategories within the social and personal areas were collapsed and examined, but again, no statistically significant differences emerged. The distributions of content for males versus females were significantly .001) but nonsignificant in 1970 different in 1955 ( f = 16.07, df = 2, p (x2 = 1.24, df = 2 ) . As hypothesized, sex differences in content evident in 1955 were no longer evident in 1970. Despite the earlier finding of a disproportionate number of females versus males applying to the clinic in 1970, the distributions of problem content appear to be more similar in 1970 than in 1955. The hypothesis that in 1970 there would be a shift in the mode of problem expression (direct action greater chan affect or thought) was tested by comparing the distribution of modes of expression in 1955 and 1970. The resulting analysis was nonsignificant 2.08, df = 2 ) as were similar tests for each sex separately. The hypothesis that there would be less differentiation by sex in 1970 was examined through sex by category analyses for each year separately. Neither the 1955 nor the 1970 data yielded significant sex differences. It was hypothesized that there would be a shift in problem effect in 1970
