544071 research-article2014
HPQ0010.1177/1359105314544071Journal of Health PsychologyXia et al.
Article
Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale: Psychometric properties in mainland China and development of a short form
Journal of Health Psychology 1–11 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1359105314544071 hpq.sagepub.com
Jie Xia1, Daxing Wu1, Jibiao Zhang1, Yuanchao Xu2 and Yunxuan Xu1
Abstract This study aimed to validate the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale in a sample of 730 adult Chinese individuals. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the bidimensionality of the scale with two factors, optimism and pessimism. The total scale and optimism and pessimism factors demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity. Population-based normative data and mean values for gender, age, and education were determined. Furthermore, we developed a 20-item short form of the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale with structural validity comparable to the full form. In summary, the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale is an appropriate and practical tool for epidemiological research in mainland China.
Keywords Chinese, optimism, pessimism, psychometric properties
Introduction Originating in the late 1940s and early 1950s, positive psychology generated interest in exploring the individual’s subjective positive experience (Seligman, 2005). As the main component of positive psychology, optimism has garnered increasing attention in clinical and health psychology, especially since the 1980s. Numerous studies have shown that optimism is associated with important health benefits (e.g. Lewis et al., 1995; Scheier et al., 2001; Segerstrom and Sephton, 2010). There are two main ways in which researchers have defined and operationalized optimism: “dispositional optimism” and “optimistic explanatory.” Scheier and Carver’s
(1985) dispositional model defined optimism and pessimism as generalized positive and negative outcome expectancies. Optimism, also termed dispositional optimism, reflects a generalized outcome expectation that good things will 1The
Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, P.R. China 2Changsha University, P.R. China Corresponding author: Daxing Wu, Medical Psychological Institute, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Road, Changsha, Hunan 410011, P.R. China. Email: [email protected]
Downloaded from hpq.sagepub.com at UNIV CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on October 7, 2015
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Journal of Health Psychology
happen, whereas pessimism reflects the opposite (Scheier and Carver, 1993). On the basis of attribution theory, Seligman (1991) applied optimism and pessimism to explanatory styles, defined as stable tendencies formulated to explain life events. An optimistic style attributes good events to internal, stable, and common reasons and bad events to external, unstable, and specific reasons, while a pessimistic style explains events in the opposite manner (Peterson and Steen, 2009). The Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier and Carver, 1985) has been the most widely used instrument to assess dispositional optimism. In 1994, a revised edition of the LOT (LOT-R) was developed by removing two coping items from the original LOT (Scheier et al., 1994). The LOT and LOT-R were designed as a unidimensional scale to measure the construct on a continuum with optimism and pessimism lying on separate poles. However, further study of the questionnaires has shown that the positively and negatively worded items split into two factors (Cheng and Hamid, 1997; Herzberg et al., 2006; Segerstrom et al., 2011). Furthermore, the scales may measure two constructs of optimism versus pessimism rather than a single bipolar dimension as claimed by Scheier et al. (1994). Finally, the construct of optimism may not be operationalized adequately by the two scales. In particular, the Chinese version of the LOT-R (CLOT-R) has inferior reliability (e.g. Lai et al., 1998; Lai and Yue, 2000; Liu and Cheng, 2007; Wu et al., 2011). Cronbach’s alpha for the mainland sample is lower than the acceptable level of 0.65 recommended by DeVellis (1991). A more reliable instrument is needed to better understand the constructs of optimism versus pessimism for mainland China and explore how optimism affects health benefits. The Optimism and Pessimism Scale (OPS) was developed by Dember et al. (1989), who believed that these traits would predict individual differences in conformity to the Pollyanna Principle, which connotes a tendency to favor pleasant over unpleasant information. The development and validation of this scale suggested that optimism
and pessimism are partially independent dimensions. In contrast to the LOT and LOT-R, the OPS conformed to the two constructs of optimism and pessimism, which may be best conceptualized as independent or at least partially independent constructs, as supported by abundant empirical data (Chang et al., 1994; Herzberg et al., 2006; Robinson-Whelen et al., 1997). The OPS has been shown to be reliable with alpha coefficients of 0.84 for optimism and 0.86 for pessimism. Test–retest reliability over a 2-week period was 0.75 for optimism and 0.84 for pessimism (Dember et al., 1989). Our group adapted and validated the Chinese version of OPS (OPSC) based on an undergraduate sample in the Hunan province of China. Our findings indicated that the OPS-C has satisfactory psychometric properties among college students: the alpha coefficients for the total score and Optimism and Pessimism subscales were 0.82, 0.79, and 0.75, and the test–retest reliability coefficients over a 4-week period were 0.72, 0.68, and 0.57 (Xu et al., 2010). Population-based studies of the psychometric properties of the OPS-C, as well as population-based norms, are largely lacking. The aims of this study were the following: (1) to examine the psychometric properties of OPS-C based on a sample of adults in mainland China; (2) to provide population-based norms to allow crossstudy comparison; and (3) to develop a short form of the OPS-C (OPS-C-SF) that is more practical and convenient to administer in community and clinical settings for research and clinical evaluation.
Method Participants Using a stratified sampling approach, participants aged 18 years and older were recruited from six regions of mainland China: Liaoning (northeast), Shandong (north), Henan (north), Hunan (central south), Hubei (central south), and Fujian (southeast). From 840 initial participants who completed questionnaires, a total of 730 complete data sets were available for
Downloaded from hpq.sagepub.com at UNIV CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on October 7, 2015
3
Xia et al. analysis. The sample comprised 334 males and 396 females, ranging in age from 18 to 85 years with a mean age of 36.7 years (standard deviation (SD) = 15.49 years). Two weeks after the initial administration, 50 participants were reassessed to investigate test–retest reliability. This sample comprised 19 males and 31 females, ranging in age from 18 to 73 years with a mean age of 35.44 years (SD = 13.36 years).
Instruments The OPS-C. The OPS-C was adapted by Xu et al. (2010) from the original OPS using a back-translation procedure (Brislin, 1970). Specifically, the OPS was independently forward-translated into Chinese by three psychology graduate students, and these forward-translations were reviewed by a clinical psychologist. Two English major graduate students then back-translated the Chinese translation into English, and this version was compared with the original OPS for language and interpretation. Modifications were made to eliminate all discrepancies between the two versions until consensus within the translation group was reached. The OPS-C consists of 18 items measuring optimism, 18 items measuring pessimism, and 20 filler items. Individuals respond on a 4-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Items within each subscale are summed to provide separate scores for Optimism and Pessimism subscales. Scores are reversed for each subscale so that higher scores indicate more of the construct being measured. To compare the fitness of the instrument between one-factor and two-factor models, the OPS-C was also scored as a combined scale by reversing the scores on optimistic items and then summing with scores on the pessimism items, so that lower scores reflected more pessimism and higher scores more optimism. An earlier study by our group indicated that the psychometric properties of the OPS-C were sound among a sample of undergraduates in the Hunan region of mainland China (Xu et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2013). The CLOT-R. The CLOT-R was adapted by Lai et al. (1998) from the LOT-R, consisting of
three positively worded, three negatively worded, and four filler items. Participants responded to the items on a 5-point Likert scale. Optimism and Pessimism subscales were calculated by summing the scores of the corresponding items. The total sum score was calculated by adding the raw scores of the Optimism subscale with the inverted pessimism raw scores. The results demonstrated that the CLOT-R was a reliable and valid measurement of dispositional optimism among Hong Kong Chinese (Lai et al., 1998; Lai and Yue, 2000). The Chinese short version of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale. The Chinese short version of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-C21) was developed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995). Our study team developed a simplified Chinese version (Wen et al., 2012). The instrument consists of 21 items, comprising three subscales of seven items each for depression, anxiety, and stress. Respondents use a 4-point combined severity/frequency scale to rate the extent to which they have experienced each item over the past week. Total scores for each subscale are calculated by summing the scores of relevant items and multiplying by two, yielding scores from 0 to 42, with higher scores indicating more severe levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. An earlier study by our group showed DASS-C21 to be reliable in a community-based population in mainland China with alpha coefficients of 0.77 for depression, 0.79 for anxiety, and 0.76 for stress (Wen et al., 2012).
Procedure Trained researchers traveled to different regions to identify volunteers. No compensation was given. Participants were asked to sign a consent form and were administered a brief demographic questionnaire (assessing gender, age, ethnicity, and education level), the OPSC, the CLOT-R, and the DASS-C21 in a counterbalanced order. The trained experimenters introduced the questionnaires to the participants and carefully explained the instructions
Downloaded from hpq.sagepub.com at UNIV CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on October 7, 2015
4
Journal of Health Psychology
Table 1. Demographic information for the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale. Optimism
N Total sample Gender Male Female t Age (years) 18–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 ≥60 F LSD Education (years) ≤6 7–9 10–13 ≥14 F LSD
Pessimism
Total score
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
730
54.16
5.67
41.77
5.75
102.39
8.56
334 396
54.37 53.99 0.91
5.74 5.61
42.03 41.56 1.12
5.74 5.76
102.34 102.43 –0.15
8.65 8.50
93 209 152 119 86 71
54.13 54.05 54.05 53.87 54.40 55.00 0.43
5.64 5.65 5.96 4.84 6.11 5.95
40.57 5.19 40.58 5.67 41.92 6.09 42.10 5.63 42.43 4.75 45.20 5.80 8.37** > * > * > * > * > * > ** > ** > ** > ** > **
103.56 103.47 102.12 101.76 101.97 99.80 2.53* > ** > **
6.99 8.71 9.92 7.98 7.51 8.49
44.69 42.35 41.96 40.95 8.26** > * > ** > **
99.07 102.09 102.04 103.30 4.58** > * > * > **
61 112 214 343
53.75 54.44 54.00 54.25 0.28
6.25 5.91 5.78 5.42
6.95 5.54 5.51 5.55 > * > *
8.14 8.29 8.47 8.65
LSD: least significant difference. *p
HPQ0010.1177/1359105314544071Journal of Health PsychologyXia et al.
Article
Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale: Psychometric properties in mainland China and development of a short form
Journal of Health Psychology 1–11 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1359105314544071 hpq.sagepub.com
Jie Xia1, Daxing Wu1, Jibiao Zhang1, Yuanchao Xu2 and Yunxuan Xu1
Abstract This study aimed to validate the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale in a sample of 730 adult Chinese individuals. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the bidimensionality of the scale with two factors, optimism and pessimism. The total scale and optimism and pessimism factors demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity. Population-based normative data and mean values for gender, age, and education were determined. Furthermore, we developed a 20-item short form of the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale with structural validity comparable to the full form. In summary, the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale is an appropriate and practical tool for epidemiological research in mainland China.
Keywords Chinese, optimism, pessimism, psychometric properties
Introduction Originating in the late 1940s and early 1950s, positive psychology generated interest in exploring the individual’s subjective positive experience (Seligman, 2005). As the main component of positive psychology, optimism has garnered increasing attention in clinical and health psychology, especially since the 1980s. Numerous studies have shown that optimism is associated with important health benefits (e.g. Lewis et al., 1995; Scheier et al., 2001; Segerstrom and Sephton, 2010). There are two main ways in which researchers have defined and operationalized optimism: “dispositional optimism” and “optimistic explanatory.” Scheier and Carver’s
(1985) dispositional model defined optimism and pessimism as generalized positive and negative outcome expectancies. Optimism, also termed dispositional optimism, reflects a generalized outcome expectation that good things will 1The
Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, P.R. China 2Changsha University, P.R. China Corresponding author: Daxing Wu, Medical Psychological Institute, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Road, Changsha, Hunan 410011, P.R. China. Email: [email protected]
Downloaded from hpq.sagepub.com at UNIV CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on October 7, 2015
2
Journal of Health Psychology
happen, whereas pessimism reflects the opposite (Scheier and Carver, 1993). On the basis of attribution theory, Seligman (1991) applied optimism and pessimism to explanatory styles, defined as stable tendencies formulated to explain life events. An optimistic style attributes good events to internal, stable, and common reasons and bad events to external, unstable, and specific reasons, while a pessimistic style explains events in the opposite manner (Peterson and Steen, 2009). The Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier and Carver, 1985) has been the most widely used instrument to assess dispositional optimism. In 1994, a revised edition of the LOT (LOT-R) was developed by removing two coping items from the original LOT (Scheier et al., 1994). The LOT and LOT-R were designed as a unidimensional scale to measure the construct on a continuum with optimism and pessimism lying on separate poles. However, further study of the questionnaires has shown that the positively and negatively worded items split into two factors (Cheng and Hamid, 1997; Herzberg et al., 2006; Segerstrom et al., 2011). Furthermore, the scales may measure two constructs of optimism versus pessimism rather than a single bipolar dimension as claimed by Scheier et al. (1994). Finally, the construct of optimism may not be operationalized adequately by the two scales. In particular, the Chinese version of the LOT-R (CLOT-R) has inferior reliability (e.g. Lai et al., 1998; Lai and Yue, 2000; Liu and Cheng, 2007; Wu et al., 2011). Cronbach’s alpha for the mainland sample is lower than the acceptable level of 0.65 recommended by DeVellis (1991). A more reliable instrument is needed to better understand the constructs of optimism versus pessimism for mainland China and explore how optimism affects health benefits. The Optimism and Pessimism Scale (OPS) was developed by Dember et al. (1989), who believed that these traits would predict individual differences in conformity to the Pollyanna Principle, which connotes a tendency to favor pleasant over unpleasant information. The development and validation of this scale suggested that optimism
and pessimism are partially independent dimensions. In contrast to the LOT and LOT-R, the OPS conformed to the two constructs of optimism and pessimism, which may be best conceptualized as independent or at least partially independent constructs, as supported by abundant empirical data (Chang et al., 1994; Herzberg et al., 2006; Robinson-Whelen et al., 1997). The OPS has been shown to be reliable with alpha coefficients of 0.84 for optimism and 0.86 for pessimism. Test–retest reliability over a 2-week period was 0.75 for optimism and 0.84 for pessimism (Dember et al., 1989). Our group adapted and validated the Chinese version of OPS (OPSC) based on an undergraduate sample in the Hunan province of China. Our findings indicated that the OPS-C has satisfactory psychometric properties among college students: the alpha coefficients for the total score and Optimism and Pessimism subscales were 0.82, 0.79, and 0.75, and the test–retest reliability coefficients over a 4-week period were 0.72, 0.68, and 0.57 (Xu et al., 2010). Population-based studies of the psychometric properties of the OPS-C, as well as population-based norms, are largely lacking. The aims of this study were the following: (1) to examine the psychometric properties of OPS-C based on a sample of adults in mainland China; (2) to provide population-based norms to allow crossstudy comparison; and (3) to develop a short form of the OPS-C (OPS-C-SF) that is more practical and convenient to administer in community and clinical settings for research and clinical evaluation.
Method Participants Using a stratified sampling approach, participants aged 18 years and older were recruited from six regions of mainland China: Liaoning (northeast), Shandong (north), Henan (north), Hunan (central south), Hubei (central south), and Fujian (southeast). From 840 initial participants who completed questionnaires, a total of 730 complete data sets were available for
Downloaded from hpq.sagepub.com at UNIV CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on October 7, 2015
3
Xia et al. analysis. The sample comprised 334 males and 396 females, ranging in age from 18 to 85 years with a mean age of 36.7 years (standard deviation (SD) = 15.49 years). Two weeks after the initial administration, 50 participants were reassessed to investigate test–retest reliability. This sample comprised 19 males and 31 females, ranging in age from 18 to 73 years with a mean age of 35.44 years (SD = 13.36 years).
Instruments The OPS-C. The OPS-C was adapted by Xu et al. (2010) from the original OPS using a back-translation procedure (Brislin, 1970). Specifically, the OPS was independently forward-translated into Chinese by three psychology graduate students, and these forward-translations were reviewed by a clinical psychologist. Two English major graduate students then back-translated the Chinese translation into English, and this version was compared with the original OPS for language and interpretation. Modifications were made to eliminate all discrepancies between the two versions until consensus within the translation group was reached. The OPS-C consists of 18 items measuring optimism, 18 items measuring pessimism, and 20 filler items. Individuals respond on a 4-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Items within each subscale are summed to provide separate scores for Optimism and Pessimism subscales. Scores are reversed for each subscale so that higher scores indicate more of the construct being measured. To compare the fitness of the instrument between one-factor and two-factor models, the OPS-C was also scored as a combined scale by reversing the scores on optimistic items and then summing with scores on the pessimism items, so that lower scores reflected more pessimism and higher scores more optimism. An earlier study by our group indicated that the psychometric properties of the OPS-C were sound among a sample of undergraduates in the Hunan region of mainland China (Xu et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2013). The CLOT-R. The CLOT-R was adapted by Lai et al. (1998) from the LOT-R, consisting of
three positively worded, three negatively worded, and four filler items. Participants responded to the items on a 5-point Likert scale. Optimism and Pessimism subscales were calculated by summing the scores of the corresponding items. The total sum score was calculated by adding the raw scores of the Optimism subscale with the inverted pessimism raw scores. The results demonstrated that the CLOT-R was a reliable and valid measurement of dispositional optimism among Hong Kong Chinese (Lai et al., 1998; Lai and Yue, 2000). The Chinese short version of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale. The Chinese short version of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-C21) was developed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995). Our study team developed a simplified Chinese version (Wen et al., 2012). The instrument consists of 21 items, comprising three subscales of seven items each for depression, anxiety, and stress. Respondents use a 4-point combined severity/frequency scale to rate the extent to which they have experienced each item over the past week. Total scores for each subscale are calculated by summing the scores of relevant items and multiplying by two, yielding scores from 0 to 42, with higher scores indicating more severe levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. An earlier study by our group showed DASS-C21 to be reliable in a community-based population in mainland China with alpha coefficients of 0.77 for depression, 0.79 for anxiety, and 0.76 for stress (Wen et al., 2012).
Procedure Trained researchers traveled to different regions to identify volunteers. No compensation was given. Participants were asked to sign a consent form and were administered a brief demographic questionnaire (assessing gender, age, ethnicity, and education level), the OPSC, the CLOT-R, and the DASS-C21 in a counterbalanced order. The trained experimenters introduced the questionnaires to the participants and carefully explained the instructions
Downloaded from hpq.sagepub.com at UNIV CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA on October 7, 2015
4
Journal of Health Psychology
Table 1. Demographic information for the Chinese version of the Optimism and Pessimism Scale. Optimism
N Total sample Gender Male Female t Age (years) 18–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 ≥60 F LSD Education (years) ≤6 7–9 10–13 ≥14 F LSD
Pessimism
Total score
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
730
54.16
5.67
41.77
5.75
102.39
8.56
334 396
54.37 53.99 0.91
5.74 5.61
42.03 41.56 1.12
5.74 5.76
102.34 102.43 –0.15
8.65 8.50
93 209 152 119 86 71
54.13 54.05 54.05 53.87 54.40 55.00 0.43
5.64 5.65 5.96 4.84 6.11 5.95
40.57 5.19 40.58 5.67 41.92 6.09 42.10 5.63 42.43 4.75 45.20 5.80 8.37** > * > * > * > * > * > ** > ** > ** > ** > **
103.56 103.47 102.12 101.76 101.97 99.80 2.53* > ** > **
6.99 8.71 9.92 7.98 7.51 8.49
44.69 42.35 41.96 40.95 8.26** > * > ** > **
99.07 102.09 102.04 103.30 4.58** > * > * > **
61 112 214 343
53.75 54.44 54.00 54.25 0.28
6.25 5.91 5.78 5.42
6.95 5.54 5.51 5.55 > * > *
8.14 8.29 8.47 8.65
LSD: least significant difference. *p
