Complications of Infantile Hemangiomas Bernardo Gontijo MD, PhD PII: DOI: Reference:
S0738-081X(14)00036-4 doi: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2014.02.002 CID 6819
To appear in:
Clinics in Dermatology
Please cite this article as: Gontijo Bernardo, Complications of Infantile Hemangiomas, Clinics in Dermatology (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2014.02.002
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Complications of Infantile Hemangiomas
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Bernardo Gontijo, MD, PhD
Department of Dermatology, Federal University of Minas Gerais School of Medicine. Belo
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Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Correspondence Bernardo Gontijo
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Rua Domingos Vieira, 300 suite 505
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Brazil
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30150‐240 Belo Horizonte, MG
Email:
[email protected] Phone: + 55 31 9972‐4020 Conflict of interest: None
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Abstract
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Most infantile hemangiomas have a spontaneous and uneventful involution and, hence, may be treated expectantly. Others, however, will present some complication along
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their evolution that may require prompt therapeutic interventions. Ulceration is the most common complication and amblyopia is frequently associated with periocular tumors.
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Airways hemangiomas may be life‐threatening and disfigurement can heavily impact the
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patient’s quality of life.
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Introduction
Infantile hemangioma (IH) is the most common benign vascular tumor of infancy.
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With a unique and dynamic natural history, IH is typically absent or present only as a
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precursor lesion at birth. Virtually all hemangiomas are detectable at the end of the first month of life. A rapid proliferation phase ensues and, by the age of 3 months, 80% of tumor growth has been achieved.1 After the first year of life, an involution phase takes place over several months or years, resulting in varying degrees of resolution.
A small but significant subset of IHs present with complications at some point in their
evolution. In a large prospective study of 1058 children with IH, ulceration was the most frequent complication, observed in 23.2% of the patients followed by visual impairment (6.9%), airway obstruction (1.8%), auditory canal obstruction (1.1%), and cardiac compromise (0.4%). Size, location, and morphology (segmental) were the most important
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predictor factors of complication.2 Recognition or prediction of such complications is crucial to establish the need for treatment or further investigation and intervention.
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Ulceration
The pathogenesis of ulceration is still unclear but is thought to be the result of 1)
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ischemia and necrosis stemming from trauma and friction, and/or 2) rapid tumor growth exceeding its oxygenated blood supply. Large size, segmental distribution with a superficial
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component and location (lips, diaper area and neck) (Figure 1) are associated with a greater risk of ulceration.3,4 Resulting pain can be severe enough to cause sleep disturbance, feeding
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difficulties (when occurring on the lip) and pain with urination or defecation (genital
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location).
Surface breakage (erosion or ulceration) of lesions facilitates secondary bacterial
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infection and often coincides with the late proliferative phase (median age 4 months.)3 Of
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note, Maguiness et al demonstrated that early white discoloration (average age of 2.6 months) of IH, along with softening of the tumor, is highly predictive of impending ulceration (“early white hemangioma” sign).5 This whitening (Figure 2) is to be differentiated from the typically centrifugal discoloration that heralds spontaneous or treatment‐induced involution of IH (Figure 3) and usually begins after the completion of tumor growth (between the ages of 5 and 10 months).
Minor ulcers may require only local wound care with petrolatum gauze, topical
antibiotics, biocclusives (Figure 4), barrier creams and recombinant growth factor (becaplermin).
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Topical preparations of benzocaine, lidocaine or lidocaine/prilocaine eutectic
mixture should be applied sparingly due to potential toxicity. Methemoglobinemia can be
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developed by benzocaine and prilocaine and this risk may be increased when
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acetaminophen, a methemoglobin reductase inhibitor, is simultaneously administered. Some patients may require oral opiate derivatives (codeine, morphine).6,7
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Recent reports have highlighted the role of propranolol in expediting the healing of
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IH ulcerations (Figure 5), which may be partially explained by the rapid reduction of tumor size.8‐10 Interestingly, this β blocker is also able to induce faster pain relief, most likely due to
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its vasoconstriction properties.8 Therefore, early administration of propranolol may be helpful in preventing ulceration by halting tumor growth.
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In a series of 78 patients treated with pulsed dye laser alone, David et al obtained a
a 3‐4 week intervals.11
Bleeding, even when minimal, is often worrisome for the parents. In most cases
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91% success rate in healing ulceration after a mean number of 2.0 treatments carried out at
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hemorrhage can be controlled with direct pressure. Life‐threatening bleeding is fortunately unusual and may represent a surgical emergency.12 In a prospective study of 173 ulcerated IH, bleeding occurred in 41% of the lesions, but only two cases required blood transfusion.3 Visual impairment
Periocular IH is notably feared due to its risk of visual impairment. The most common
complication is amblyopia (“lazy eye”), defined as a visual disturbance, without a detectable organic lesion of the eye, arising from inadequate bilateral stimulation of the visual cortex of the brain. Refractive errors (astigmatism, myopia), strabismus, or occlusion of the visual
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axis, by reducing or suppressing the proper image transmission to the brain, are the leading causes of amblyopia and can all be hemangioma‐induced.13 The incidence of amblyopia in
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patients with periocular hemangioma has been reported to be as high as 73%. However, a
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recent population‐based study has estimated this rate to be 19%.14
Concerning the location, periocular hemangioma can be palpebral, extraconal and/or
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intraconal. Extraocular muscles (superior, inferior, lateral and medial rectus) appear in a
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cone‐shaped arrangement in the retrobulbar space. Lesions are considered extraconal or intraconal when located behind the bonny orbit, and outside or inside the muscle cone,
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respectively. There seems to be a strong association between extraconal and extraconal plus intraconal location and the risk of amblyopia and astigmatism. Palpebral lesions are
Diagnosis is straightforward and can generally be made on clinical grounds. In some
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also able to promote amblyopia and astigmatism in about 30% of patients.15
cases, however, visible lesions can be clinically deceiving, and apparently innocent
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presentations do not always correlate with the amount of retrobulbar involvement. The
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child pictured in Figure 6 was referred for consultation because her parents had noticed some prominent veins and a small lump on her upper eyelid, along with difficulty in fully opening her left eye. CT imaging revealed a significant extraconal and intraconal extension of the vascular tumor.
Conventional systemic treatment with corticosteroids and propranolol are the first
therapeutic options. Intralesional steroid injection is a particularly popular procedure among ophthalmologists, but serious side effects (central retinal artery occlusion, increased intraocular pressure) must be weighed. A 0.5% or 0.1% timolol maleate gel‐forming solution may represent an interesting choice for superficial lesions that are too small to cause ocular impairment but are too large from the parents’ viewpoint.16 Surgical removal, or debulking
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is recommended in cases of IH that prove unresponsive to medical treatment, that present circumscribed subcutaneous lesions, or that cause massive orbital deformity.17 Although
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small lesions, especially those on the lower eyelid, rarely induce visual dysfunctions, the
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potential to threaten or permanently compromise vision warrants close and regular opththalmological monitoring of virtually all IH of the orbit and eyelids. Doppler US, a
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commonly available and non‐invasive exam, is usually the first choice of imaging for
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diagnosis. MRI allows more precise determination of tumor size, extent and relationship to neighboring structures but requires sedation. CT scan provides a superior bony imaging but,
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due to its ionizing radiation and necessity of sedation, is currently less employed.
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Airway obstruction
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Based on the systematic analysis of photographic data, Haggstrom et al proposed
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four anatomic patterns (segments S1 to S4) for segmental facial hemangiomas. The
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frontotemporal S1 segment comprises the lateral forehead, anterior temporal scalp and lateral frontal scalp. S2 and S3 segments correspond to the maxillary and mandibular prominences, respectively, while the S4 segment encompasses the medial frontal scalp, nasal bridge, nasal tip, ala and philtrum.18 The recognition that IH involving the so called “beard area” (S3 segment: preauricular area, mandible, chin, lower lip and anterior neck) is a marker for high risk of airway hemangioma is well established in the literature. Bilateral presentation and involvement of multiple regions of the “beard area” (Figure 7) increase this risk.19 However, it should be kept in mind that airway hemangiomas have been demonstrated in association with extrafacial IH20, with facial IH outside the S3 segment21 , and even in the absence of cutaneous IH.
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Hoarse cry, biphasic (inspiration and expiration) stridor and noisy breathing are
classic signs of subglottic hemangiomas. Since many of these lesions are, in practice,
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accidentally diagnosed during bronchoscopy, respiratory symptoms should prompt
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otolaryngologic evaluation regardless of the presence of cutaneous IH.21,22
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Disfigurement
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The dogma of the non‐interventional approach to IH, which reigned over many
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decades in the past, was undoubtedly responsible for numerous cases of severe and permanent disfigurement coupled with an enormous impact in these patients’ quality of
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life. Knowledge gathered in recent years, together with the availability of novel therapeutic
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modalities, allow for the proper management of IH with reduced, or even suppressed, unpleasant aesthetic results. Along with ulceration, prevention of disfigurement is the most
Some anatomic areas are more prone to disfigurement. Ulceration on the lip may
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common reason for active treatment.18
result in permanent distortion and lesions on the nasal tip may cause either the splaying or the collapse of the alar cartilage (Figure 8). Even small‐sized IH, if sessile or pedunculated, can heal with significant fibrofatty tissue residuum (Figure 9).4 The breast area in girls is another site of concern. If the breast bud is included or very close to the IH, or the tumor is removed by aggressive surgical intervention, permanent breast atrophy may take place. Other complications
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Huang et al reported a case of severe hypothyroidism in a three‐month‐old infant
with massive hepatic hemangiomas and high levels of type 3 iodothyronine deiododinase
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(D3) activity in the hemangioma tissue. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of thyroxine to
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reverse tri‐iodothyronine as well as the conversion of tri‐iodothyronine to 3,3’‐ diiodothyronine, both of which are biologically inactive.23 The authors postulated that the
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degradation of the thyroid hormone generated by the intense enzymatic activity of the
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tumor exceeds the infant’s gland capacity to synthesize it.
Few cases of IH‐induced hypothyroidism have been published since then.
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Characteristically, these are associated with large visceral hemangiomas (liver, parotid).24 High output cardiac failure is a life‐threatening complication generally related to high
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flow tumors such as hepatic hemangiomas. Since patients with neonatal hemangiomatosis,
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particularly those with more than five cutaneous IH, and large segmental hemangiomas present a higher risk of visceral hemangiomas, screening imaging with Doppler US should be
Obstruction of the external auditory canal may lead to otitis and decreased auditory
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considered under these circumstances.
conduction with speech delay.25
[Structural anomalies associated with IH (PHACE, PELVIS, and LUMBAR syndromes)
are discussed in the article by Blei and Guarini.] Conclusions
Complications of IH vary widely in severity, ranging from pain of ulceration to
functional impairment and to life‐threatening airway obstruction. Size, location and morphology are important predictor factors of complication, as well as early clinical signs
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such as whitening of the hemangioma heralding ulceration and hoarse cry and biphasic stridor indicative of airway tumors. Recognition or prediction of complications is
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fundamental to prompt adequate treatment and investigation.
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References
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1. Chang LC, Haggstrom AN, Drolet BA et al. Growth characteristics of infantile
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hemangiomas: implications for management. Pediatrics 2008;122:360‐7. 2. Haggstrom AN, Drolet BA, Baselga E et al. Prospective study of infantile
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hemangiomas: clinical characteristics predicting complications and treatment.
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Pediatrics 2006;118:882‐7.
3. Chamlin SL, Haggstrom AN, Drolet BA et al. Multicenter prospective study of
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ulcerated hemangiomas. J Pediatr 2007;151:684‐9.
Child 2012;97:266‐71
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4. Maguiness SM, Frieden IJ. Management of difficult infantile hemangiomas. Arch Dis
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5. Maguiness SM, Hoffman WY, McCalmont TH et al. Early white discoloration of infantile hemangioma: a sign of impending ulceration. Arch Dermatol
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2010;146:1235‐9.
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6. Yan C. Pain management for ulcerated hemangiomas. Ped Dermatol 2008;25:586‐9. 7. Strand M, Smidt AC. Pain management for ulcerated hemangiomas. Ped Dermatol 2012;29:124‐6
8. Saint‐Jean M, Léauté‐Labrèze C, Mazereeuw‐Hautier J et al. Propranolol for treatment of ulcerated infantile hemangiomas. J Am Acad Dermatol 2011;64:827‐32. 9. Hernans DJJ, van Beynum IM, Kool LJS et al. Propranolol, a very promising treatment for ulceration in infantile hemangiomas: a study of 20 cases with matched historical controls. J Am Acad Dermatol 2011; 64:833‐8. 10. Hong E, Fischer G. Propranolol for recalcitrant ulcerated hemangioma of infancy. Ped Dermatol 2012;29:64‐7.
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11. David LR, Malek MM, Argenta LC. Efficacy of pulsed dye laser therapy for the treatment of ulcerated hemangiomas: a review of 78 patients. Br J Plast Surg
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21. Suh K, Rosbe KW, Meyer AK et al. Extensive airway hemangiomas in two patients without beard hemangiomas. Ped Dermatol 2011;28:347‐8.
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22. Léauté‐Labrèze C, Prey S, Ezzedine K. infantile hemangioma: Part II. Risks,
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complications and treatment. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2011;25:1254‐60 23. Huang SA, Tu HM, Harney, JW et al. Severe hypothyroidism caused by type 3
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24. Vigone MC, Cortinovis F, Rabbiosi S et al. Difficult treatment of consumptive hypothyroidism in a child with massive parotid hemangioma. J Pediatr Endocr Met
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Risk factor
Workup
Treatment
Bacterial culture
Softening
Size,
Early
segmental
blanching
distribution,
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s,
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surgery Oral
exophthalmos location
ophthalmologic
Propranolor
,incomplete
evaluations,
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or
opening
of
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closing
US, intralesional
MRI
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corticosteroid ,
topical
timolol, laser
the eyes cry Location
Laryngoscopy
Oral
Airway
Hoarse
obstruction
Biphasic
(“beard
Propanolol,
stridor,
area”)
oral
Noisy
corticosteroid
breathing
, laser
Desfigurement
Size,
MRI may be used Oral
location
to assess breast Propanolol,
(nasal
laser,
Regular
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impairment
Size,
oral
corticosteroid
area)
Strabismus,
care,
oral
neck, diaper
Visual
Local wound
propranolol,
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location (lip,
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Ulceration
Signs
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Complication
tip, bud involvement
oral
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breast)
corticosteroid ,
Hypothyroidis
May be oligo Large
m
or
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surgery Thyroid US, TSH, fT4, US for visceral
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visceral
. In severe a
sleepiness,
look,
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dull
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cases,
hemangioma
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asymptomatic hemangiom
puffy
face,
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muscle atony thick
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and
tongue
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Cardiac failure
Liver
Chest
tachypnea,
hemangiom
echocardiography,
shortness of a,
large US
breath,
segmental
cyanosis
hemangiom a
ray,
Tachycardia,
for
X
visceral
hemangioma
laser,
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Fig. 1 Ulcerated IH of the lip.
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Fig. 2 Whitening and ulceration in a 4‐month‐old child.
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Fig. 3 Treatment‐induced atrophy and discoloration. Blanching progresses radially and centrifugally.
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Fig. 4 A, Ulceration. B, After 3 weeks of treatment with biocclusive dressing. A B
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Fig. 5 A, Large ulcerated IH of the parotid region. B, After 4 weeks of treatment with oral propranolol (3mg/kg/day)
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Fig. 6 A, Visible vessels, discrete elevation of the upper eyelid and false ptosis. B, Contrast CT shows significant retrobulbar involvement.
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Fig. 7 Bilateral IH overlying all regions of the “beard area”. This child, however, did not develop airway hemangioma.
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Fig. 8 Drooping of the nasal tip secondary to cartilage impairment.
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Fig. 9 A, IH of the forehead. B, Conservative approach resulting in fibrofatty residuum.
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