Consultation With the Police: The Psychiatrist as Organizational Change Agent Arnold L. Lieber
P
SYCHIATRIC
CONSULTATION with the police has been recognized as a vaiid goal of community psychiatry.’ The role of the police in community mental health has been explored by others-’ In April 1972, the author was hired as part-time Psychiatric Consultant by the City of Miami Police Department. The position was initially funded by a two year grant from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA). It was to be the first step in a broad-ranging program aimed at overhauling the entire structure and function of this department. The goal of this program was to convert a traditionally stratified, changeresistant city poiice agency to a flexible, smoothly functioning organization that would be responsive to the ever-changing needs and demands of the public it serves. Since very few police departments utilize the services of a psychiatrist or attempt major organizational change, the author’s role and function were not predetermined. Rather, they were left open-ended, to be carved out empirically based on his day-to-day experiences and his relationships with personnel at the various rank levels within the department. What follows is a discussion of the climate within the police department during the author’s tenure, the input of the consultant into innovative programs, the impact of the author’s role on the organizational change process and some guidelines for the consultant to an organization undergoing major change and/or development. CLIMATE
WITHIN
THE POLICE DEPARTMENT
Beginning in 1971, the City of Miami Police Department had embarked on an ambitious program of modernization sparked by a recently voted $20 million public bond issue. Stanford Research Institute was contracted to help install modern technology (computerized information systems, a communications network. and automated vehicle dispatch system) and to develop more effective management practices for this large city police system. The design and construction of a new headquarters facility was begun. The University of Miami and Florida International University were engaged to provide management development and training programs for middle and higher management. A concerted effort to tap into the community for feedback and direction in this effort was made by the establishment of a Police Community Resource Pool under LEAA sponsorship. During this time, a civil suit resulted in court-ordered mandates to eliminate racial and ethnic discrimination by modification of selection and promotion From the Deparznrenr of Ps.vchiatr_v. l’niversity of .~ianz~School of medicine, Miami, Fiarida. Arnold L. Lieber, M.D.: P.yvchiatric Consulfant, City of MiamiPolice Department. 1972 -1975: Clinical Assistant Professor of Psvchiatry. University oJ‘ Miami Schoo! oJ’ Medicine. currently in private practice at Group and Fami1.v Therapy Center. Miami. Florida. Address reprint requests to Arnold L. Lieher. M.D., Group and Family Therapy Center, 1444 Bi.vcayne Blvd., Suite 301. Miami, Fla. 33132.
Comprehensive /?sychiatry,Vol. 19. No. 1 (January/February).
1978
58
ARNOLD
L. LIEBER
procedures. In an unprecedented effort to reach out for professional guidance, the doors were flung open to outside expertise from many fields. All of these influences were brought to bear almost simultaneously on a department which was demoralized and embittered by racial strife, scapegoating of the police by the radical elements who came to public prominence in the late 1960s and the hiring by the City in 1969 of a liberal and progressive police chief from another large city police department (against the wishes of the men to have someone promoted from within the ranks). The organization, which at that time (1972) typified the bureaucratic “sleeping giant,” was jolted rudely out of its lethargy and, like an angry beast, began thrashing about madly in an effort to ward off these noxious irritants. The signs of organizational as well as personal discomfort were many as this closed autocratic-authoritarian system began to shift balance in the direction of openness and broad-based participation. In addition to persistent internal stresses, considerable external pressures were soon brought to bear by other city departments either envious of the funds and attention lavished on the police or fearful lest a similar disruptive situation befall them as well, and the Civil Service Board which was struggling to preserve its employee-centered influence and control in the areas of hiring, firing, promotion and arbitration, and city politicians who learned that exploiting police problems resulted in predictable public exposure. The chief of police, who planned, organized, and initiated the process of change with great administrative skill and foresight, was unable to bring to bear in this milieu the leadership necessary to guide an unwieldy organization through the thorny labyrinth of organizational change. After surviving an effort to unseat him by fractious members of the department abetted by the aforementions external pressure groups, he later resigned when the pressures of the change process threatened to overwhelm his personal coping mechanisms. A new chief, promoted from within the department, seemed to possess the requisite leadership style and commanded the loyalty of the department’s personnel. Progress during this hectic period was slow and faltering but unmistakeable signs of its presence began to appear. The new headquarters building, designed according to the input of the men who will be using it, gradually took shape and was occupied by the department in 1976. Management training programs emphasizing the participatory approach were presented to all personnel with the rank of sergeant or above; participatory management was introduced at all levels of the department. New objective selection and promotion examinations were designed and administered by the University of Chicago Industrial Relations Center. A black member of the department was appointed to the rank of police major in December, 1973; in June, 1975, a Hispanic member was appointed major. Computer systems were developed for information storage and retrieval and for communication and dispatch functions. A minor restructuring of the organization itself evolved with more realistic lines of communication and interdependence being established between administrative and operational functions. The traditional selfconcept of the policeman as crimefighter was modified in this department to allow for the comfortable acceptance and integration of the service function which, in reality, most policemen are performing most of the time. Hence, a long standing police role conflict was exposed and altered in favor of an expanded and more flexible role concept for the individual police officer. The organization grudgingly shifted from a crisis-oriented to a problem-solving approach with a prevailing
PSYCHIATRIST
AS ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE
59
AGENT
spirit of quiet determination and cooperation. As such it began to resemble some of the more successful companies to be found in private industry. The new chief was appointed in late 1974. A honeymoon period followed during which morale was high. A new assistant chief and two new majors were appointed by the chief. A period of readjustment followed as new roles and new expectations were sorted out. During this period regular staff meetings were held and representatives of the employee organizations were invited; open communication was the rule. It was not long before some organizational unrest began to develop. The author alerted the chief to what he viewed as a power struggle brewing between the newly appointed senior staff and the old guard. Staff meetings began to be cancelled frequently and eventually they ceased altogether. The chief began to deal in “private” conferences and the author’s access to him became restricted. Major issues and decisions were left hanging till the last minute, then were often handled on a crisis basis. The contracts with two outside consultants were allowed to expire and the author’s contract. which expired in September 1975, was not renewed. Funding had been obtained for the hiring of a full-time psychologist. A recruiting effort was made but no suitable candidate was found. Finally, the funding was withdrawn by the city. The senior assistant chief later retired prematurely; his position was eliminated by the city, leaving only one assistant chief. The new power clique soon reintroduced an authoritarian milieu under the motto “let’s get back to basics.” Hence, over a period of five years, the organization had gone full cycle. The author left the department in late 1975, after completing work on a supervisors training program-the final phase of his projected input. The department was now aware that management alternatives did exist; the author hoped it would benefit from some of the changes brought about via their exploration of these alternatives. FUNCTIONS
OF THE PSYCHlATRlC
CONSULTANT
E.~tubl~sh~~entof‘Trusr and Rapporr The first six months of the author’s tenure were devoted to the establishment of trust and rapport between himself and various key personnel within the department. Unstructured interviews were held with each captain, major, and assistant chief. Riding assignments with offricers in the field provided an opportunity to observe the policemen in action. The functioning of each operational section was explained to the author by the section commander, who then introduced him to the people working for him. Though greeted at first with suspicion and guardedness. the author was able to overcome this initial resistance by conveying his sincere interest in learning their views, attitudes, and suggestions for practical improvements in their working milieu. Maintaining a low-key approach while learning the ropes proved conducive to gradual acceptance and comfortable relations with the personnel of all ranks.
Hu~~an Systems .-lnnl~sis and Problem IdentI~cat~on While Stanford Research Institute began comprehensive systems analyses of the technical system and the structure of the organization, the author undertook an analysis of the human subsystems involved in the day-to-day functioning of the department. The goal was to develop an understanding of the human relationships
60
ARNOLD
L. LIEBER
and the modes of communication that were employed in the working environment of this complex bureaucratic organ~ation. Over a period of a year there emerged an understanding of the police subculture, the pecking order of the rank hierarchy, the formal and the informal (grapevine) communication networks, the social and political cliques, the racial and ethnic grouping, the attitudes of policemen towards the chief, the administration, authority, control, use of force, racism, women, their own families, etc. This understanding of the human system, when combined with knowledge of the structure and function of the organization, paved the way for Problem id~nt~~cut~~n, the first step in a rational problem solving process. It soon became evident that this was a crisis-oriented organization which wasted a good deal of its energy spinning its wheels. The chief contributing factors were found to be a bureaucratic organizational structure that was stifling and in~exible, an archaic and unproductive form of pseudomilitary authoritarian management, role conflict at every rank level as a result of unclear expectations and inconsistent supervision, and a pervasive organizational paranoia resulting from the preceding three factors and fueled by disguised, subverted, or otherwise distorted communications among the personnel of all ranks. Once these critical problem areas were identified, priorities were established by the consultant and the chief of police. Subsequent efforts were aimed at dealing with these problems, starting first at the bottom of the organizational hierarchy. Field Training Instructor Program
The first and perhaps the most important action program initiated was the coordinating of the efforts of an interdisciplinary police team in the design and development of this innovative program. The goal of the program was to establish standardized, high quality on-the-job training and exacting performance evaluations for probationary officers who had completed their academic training and were working in the field for the first time. The objectives were: to provide new and impressionable officers with a field preceptor who would serve as positive role modeI; to enable some experienced and highly motivated officers to make a creative contribution to the department and to have a hand in its future development; and to inject a “good guy” subculture, thus providing an alternative for the new officer in terms of peer group identification. A select group of patrol officers distinguished by high motivation, personal integrity, and Flexibility were chosen to participate in this program. The principles of group participatory learning and management were utilized in preparing these individuals for their added responsibilities. Personal satisfaction derived from their creative contribution was used as chief reinforcer for their performance. This group functioned well and effectively; their input was highly valued in the final screening of future officers and they earned the praise of supervisors and senior staff. The group became self-perpetuating~ selecting the best of the new officers to undergo future training as Field Training Instructors. They achieved high status within the department and today’s new oflicer strives to join their ranks. The successful implementation of this program taught us several important lessons. If approached with the proper respect for his skills and abilities, the police officer is receptive to the input of outside experts, welcomes constructive change aimed at improving his lot and seizes the op~rtunity to take a direct hand in shaping his future working environment. He does not require tangible incentives (extra pay, time off, promise of promotion) to
PSYCHIATRIST
AS ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE
AGENT
61
take on added responsibilities. Increased job satisfaction, pride in his own accomplishments, and periodic recognition of his efforts are far more important to him. If given a choice, he will identify with a group of peers characterized by positive outlook and attitudes towards their work and their organization. The principles of group process are well suited to the education and training needs of the police as well as to the development of their communication and problem-solving skills. Participatory learning in small peer groups could be translated into functional team policing, shared responsibility at the operational levels and participatory management. The assignment of an interdisciplinary police team to develop this program resulted in the successful bridging of lone-standing communication gaps imposed by the organizational structure. Free-flowing communication to and from all operational levels was crucial to the success of this program; previous attempts by the training section to implement similar programs had failed due to seemingly insurmountable communication barriers. This breakthrough pointed out the mutual interdependence of several units which had no functioning communication channels and laid the groundwork for a future restructuring of the organization based on this functional interdependence. Senior StafS Managemen t Seminar By the time the FTI program was functioning smoothly, the author had been working with the police for nearly two years. At this point the chief decided it was time to focus on the management styles of the senior staff. He asked the author to conduct an intensive four day seminar involving himself, the two assistant chiefs. the seven majors, and the several outside consultants who were working with the department. The theme of the meeting was “Let’s take a look at where we have been, where we stand now, and where we hope to go in the future.” The meeting was held over a long weekend in January 1974, at a resort motel 80 miles west of Miami. Each member of the senior staff had received an individual briefing by the author and the author’s co-leader prior to the conference. Intensive group process evolved during this meeting. The affective mode was freely utilized to air pent-up grievances, resentments and hostilities. Personal conflicts and unfinished business between individuaIs on the staff and between members of the staff and the chief were aired and resolved. Role conflicts, which seemed to be universal, were uncovered and worked through. During this ventilation phase open, honest straightforward communication among the participants developed. Realistic lines of interdependence were revealed and an atmosphere of sharing developed which allowed recognition of personal as well as organizational goal-striving. This pointed the way toward a mutual support system based on trust and open communication. Having dispelled a considerable amount of mistrust and suspicion, it became apparent that there was little need for secretive or closed communication and that openness was far more productive of trust, loyalty. motivation and progress. Once this was accomplished the mode switched to a task-oriented and problem-solving approach. Valid problem-solving process was identified, then applied methodically by the group to the identification of problems critical to the future of the organization and to the establishment of priorities for dealing with them. They were able to recognize that they had created and now represented the “system” about which they so bitterly complained. It became clear that if the system was not viable. then as a united and committed staff they could demand change and would be. in fact.
62
ARNOLD
L. LIEBER
the instrument of whatever change they agreed would be needed. They concluded with the statement “We have met the Modern Miami Police Department and it is us.” They terminated the process with a new sense of unity and commitment and with buoyant spirits. They agreed on the imminent need for an ongoing forum which would allow for the openness of communication, joint participation in problem-solving and decision-making and sharing of goals and aspirations that had been achieved during this meeting. This meeting, in essence a carefully conceived four-day marathon encounter group, was the turning point in a change process which up till then had been slow and faltering. The staff, emerging with new vigor and determination, were at once able to utilize the lessons they had learned from their group experience. They demanded a stake-holder’s share of the administrative responsibility for running the department. In the months that followed it became evident that they had made the transition from a crisis-oriented to a problem-solving approach and were functioning far more effectively as a unified staff group. In the course of this changeover, however, there occurred a sudden shift in the equilibrium of the system. This novel effort at a redistribution of power, authority, responsibility and level of functioning, was unfamiliar and frightening. As a result, the organization and all its personnel were thrown off balance. A tremendous amount of personal as well as organizational discomfort and anxiety developed. This was expressed in many different ways but the most remarkable manifestation was an unprecedented series of incidents involving public misbehavior of policemen which rocked the entire city to its core. Seizing this opportunity, antiadministration factions mobilized an all-out attack upon the chief. The grand jury began an investigation into “the morale problem” of the police department and political pressure was brought to bear upon the chief and the administration. With the aid of the press, which was able to maintain a balanced perspective, the chief survived a crisis of confidence. The mayor and the city commission then began “an extensive investigation into police problems” which culminated in a series of public hearings. Under enormous strain from public, political and internal department pressure, not to mention the stress of trying to alter his own long-crystallized management style, the chief at this time elected to retire in the interest of his personal well-being. There followed a period of quiet anticipation until the new chief was selected. It was prudently decided that the new chief would be promoted from within the department. The man selected possessed the leadership qualities to guide a large organization through an unsettling time. Then followed a series of new promotions, reassignment of the staff people, a settling down period, and a resumption of work. Some changes in the structure and function of the organization were made at this point without any noticeable resistance or backlash. Staff meetings were opened up to include representatives of the employee organizations, supervisors from ail ranks who wished to participate, any officer who wished to address a problem to the senior staff. As noted previously, this process was short-lived, giving way ultimately to traditiona authoritarian power struggling and subsequently resulting in an organizational retrogression. Other Functions ofthe Consultant
Following the management seminar, the author was asked to act as group process observer during weekly senior staff meetings. Feedback was elicited on a
PSYCHIATRIST
AS ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE
AGENT
63
regular basis by several individual members of the staff, including the chief. When the staff eventually melded into a smooth-functioning participatory group, this function was no longer necessary. Trouble shooting (the early recognition of potential or developing problems) was retatively easy from the author’s vantage, that of impartial observer with no emotiona stake in the day-to-day operation of the department. The flexibility to move freely among all ranks and departmental levels as well as to observe the influence of external factors (politics, the public, media, city government, etc.) allowed for the development of the broad information base essential to this function. Whereas initially the author would perform this function on an ad hoc basis, it soon became apparent that the staff should develop some in-house expertise in this area. After several abortive efforts in this direction, the groundwork for what was intended to be a permanent trouble shooting and problem-solving task force was laid. When the new chief took office he created the Inspection and Long Range Planning Unit that included these functions in its goals and objectives. At various times the author had input into the design and development of education and training programs. The author made himself available to the men for brief evaluation and referral of their individual problems. Supervisors requested consultation when dealing with problem officers. Evaluation of problem recruits was an ongoing function. The author was involved in a concerted effort to provide comprehensive psychological screening to all new police recruit candidates. He believes that management must seek a different type of person for today’s police work; one who is psychologically suited to changing demands and role expectations. Another task involved facilitating the efforts of a police team to revise and standardize the potice recruit selection process. This was necessary to insure high entrance standards in the face ofjudicial and political pressures to accept greater numbers of minority applicants.
SOME
GUIDELINES FOR THE PSYCHIATRIST
AS ORGANIZATIONAL
CONSULTANT
It is evident that the consultant’s role was a potpouri; it varied with the needs of the organization. Not all efforts were successful. Two projects which I, myself, initiated because of what seemed to me to be obvious departmental needs never came to fruition. A sense of timing was essential. Until the police were themselves able to recognize the need to address a particular issue, any attempt on my part to initiate efforts in that direction proved futile. Rather than initiate projects then, I concentrated my efforts on helping them to become aware of their needs and the alternative approaches for meeting them, Other factors which facilitated my functioning were as follows: (I) avoiding identification with any one office or person within the organization, (2) avoiding advocacy of any group or any main issue confronting the department, (3) remaining aloof from content when required to observe process, (4) being able to change roles depending upon the requirements of a given situation, (5) familiarity with learning theory, communications theory and group process, and ability to apply them to the needs of a large diverse group of people, (6) having a grasp of systems theory as it applies to the human functioning in a large organ~ation, (7) breaking out of the familiar one-to-one clinical mode of the psychotherapist, yet maintaining the therapist’s perspective regard-
64
ARNOLD
L. LIEBER
ing the human needs, goals, and aspirations (not to mention individual psychopathology) of the people comprising the human system. These factors together with a knowledge of what motivates human behavior define the unique skills that a psychiatrist can bring to bear in the role of organizational consultant. Serving as an agent of change in an organization differs only in minor respects from the traditional role of the psychotherapist. In fact, the stages of this process are identical to those of psychotherapy: the establishment of trust and rapport, problem identification (via historical perspective and assessment of current functioning), and finally the slow, faltering evolution of change. As with traditional psychotherapy, an ability to accept setbacks with equanimity is also required. REFERENCES I. Elkins AM, Papanek GO: Consultation with the police: An example of community psychiatry practice. Am J Psychiatry 123531-535, 1966 2. Liberman R: Police as a community mental health resource. Community Ment Health J 5:l I l-120, 1969
3. Friedman MH: Community mental health education with police. Ment Hygiene 49: 182-186, 1965 4. Bard M. Berkowitz B: Training police as specialists in family crisis intervention. nity Ment Health J 3:315-317, 1967
Commu-
P
SYCHIATRIC
CONSULTATION with the police has been recognized as a vaiid goal of community psychiatry.’ The role of the police in community mental health has been explored by others-’ In April 1972, the author was hired as part-time Psychiatric Consultant by the City of Miami Police Department. The position was initially funded by a two year grant from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA). It was to be the first step in a broad-ranging program aimed at overhauling the entire structure and function of this department. The goal of this program was to convert a traditionally stratified, changeresistant city poiice agency to a flexible, smoothly functioning organization that would be responsive to the ever-changing needs and demands of the public it serves. Since very few police departments utilize the services of a psychiatrist or attempt major organizational change, the author’s role and function were not predetermined. Rather, they were left open-ended, to be carved out empirically based on his day-to-day experiences and his relationships with personnel at the various rank levels within the department. What follows is a discussion of the climate within the police department during the author’s tenure, the input of the consultant into innovative programs, the impact of the author’s role on the organizational change process and some guidelines for the consultant to an organization undergoing major change and/or development. CLIMATE
WITHIN
THE POLICE DEPARTMENT
Beginning in 1971, the City of Miami Police Department had embarked on an ambitious program of modernization sparked by a recently voted $20 million public bond issue. Stanford Research Institute was contracted to help install modern technology (computerized information systems, a communications network. and automated vehicle dispatch system) and to develop more effective management practices for this large city police system. The design and construction of a new headquarters facility was begun. The University of Miami and Florida International University were engaged to provide management development and training programs for middle and higher management. A concerted effort to tap into the community for feedback and direction in this effort was made by the establishment of a Police Community Resource Pool under LEAA sponsorship. During this time, a civil suit resulted in court-ordered mandates to eliminate racial and ethnic discrimination by modification of selection and promotion From the Deparznrenr of Ps.vchiatr_v. l’niversity of .~ianz~School of medicine, Miami, Fiarida. Arnold L. Lieber, M.D.: P.yvchiatric Consulfant, City of MiamiPolice Department. 1972 -1975: Clinical Assistant Professor of Psvchiatry. University oJ‘ Miami Schoo! oJ’ Medicine. currently in private practice at Group and Fami1.v Therapy Center. Miami. Florida. Address reprint requests to Arnold L. Lieher. M.D., Group and Family Therapy Center, 1444 Bi.vcayne Blvd., Suite 301. Miami, Fla. 33132.
Comprehensive /?sychiatry,Vol. 19. No. 1 (January/February).
1978
58
ARNOLD
L. LIEBER
procedures. In an unprecedented effort to reach out for professional guidance, the doors were flung open to outside expertise from many fields. All of these influences were brought to bear almost simultaneously on a department which was demoralized and embittered by racial strife, scapegoating of the police by the radical elements who came to public prominence in the late 1960s and the hiring by the City in 1969 of a liberal and progressive police chief from another large city police department (against the wishes of the men to have someone promoted from within the ranks). The organization, which at that time (1972) typified the bureaucratic “sleeping giant,” was jolted rudely out of its lethargy and, like an angry beast, began thrashing about madly in an effort to ward off these noxious irritants. The signs of organizational as well as personal discomfort were many as this closed autocratic-authoritarian system began to shift balance in the direction of openness and broad-based participation. In addition to persistent internal stresses, considerable external pressures were soon brought to bear by other city departments either envious of the funds and attention lavished on the police or fearful lest a similar disruptive situation befall them as well, and the Civil Service Board which was struggling to preserve its employee-centered influence and control in the areas of hiring, firing, promotion and arbitration, and city politicians who learned that exploiting police problems resulted in predictable public exposure. The chief of police, who planned, organized, and initiated the process of change with great administrative skill and foresight, was unable to bring to bear in this milieu the leadership necessary to guide an unwieldy organization through the thorny labyrinth of organizational change. After surviving an effort to unseat him by fractious members of the department abetted by the aforementions external pressure groups, he later resigned when the pressures of the change process threatened to overwhelm his personal coping mechanisms. A new chief, promoted from within the department, seemed to possess the requisite leadership style and commanded the loyalty of the department’s personnel. Progress during this hectic period was slow and faltering but unmistakeable signs of its presence began to appear. The new headquarters building, designed according to the input of the men who will be using it, gradually took shape and was occupied by the department in 1976. Management training programs emphasizing the participatory approach were presented to all personnel with the rank of sergeant or above; participatory management was introduced at all levels of the department. New objective selection and promotion examinations were designed and administered by the University of Chicago Industrial Relations Center. A black member of the department was appointed to the rank of police major in December, 1973; in June, 1975, a Hispanic member was appointed major. Computer systems were developed for information storage and retrieval and for communication and dispatch functions. A minor restructuring of the organization itself evolved with more realistic lines of communication and interdependence being established between administrative and operational functions. The traditional selfconcept of the policeman as crimefighter was modified in this department to allow for the comfortable acceptance and integration of the service function which, in reality, most policemen are performing most of the time. Hence, a long standing police role conflict was exposed and altered in favor of an expanded and more flexible role concept for the individual police officer. The organization grudgingly shifted from a crisis-oriented to a problem-solving approach with a prevailing
PSYCHIATRIST
AS ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE
59
AGENT
spirit of quiet determination and cooperation. As such it began to resemble some of the more successful companies to be found in private industry. The new chief was appointed in late 1974. A honeymoon period followed during which morale was high. A new assistant chief and two new majors were appointed by the chief. A period of readjustment followed as new roles and new expectations were sorted out. During this period regular staff meetings were held and representatives of the employee organizations were invited; open communication was the rule. It was not long before some organizational unrest began to develop. The author alerted the chief to what he viewed as a power struggle brewing between the newly appointed senior staff and the old guard. Staff meetings began to be cancelled frequently and eventually they ceased altogether. The chief began to deal in “private” conferences and the author’s access to him became restricted. Major issues and decisions were left hanging till the last minute, then were often handled on a crisis basis. The contracts with two outside consultants were allowed to expire and the author’s contract. which expired in September 1975, was not renewed. Funding had been obtained for the hiring of a full-time psychologist. A recruiting effort was made but no suitable candidate was found. Finally, the funding was withdrawn by the city. The senior assistant chief later retired prematurely; his position was eliminated by the city, leaving only one assistant chief. The new power clique soon reintroduced an authoritarian milieu under the motto “let’s get back to basics.” Hence, over a period of five years, the organization had gone full cycle. The author left the department in late 1975, after completing work on a supervisors training program-the final phase of his projected input. The department was now aware that management alternatives did exist; the author hoped it would benefit from some of the changes brought about via their exploration of these alternatives. FUNCTIONS
OF THE PSYCHlATRlC
CONSULTANT
E.~tubl~sh~~entof‘Trusr and Rapporr The first six months of the author’s tenure were devoted to the establishment of trust and rapport between himself and various key personnel within the department. Unstructured interviews were held with each captain, major, and assistant chief. Riding assignments with offricers in the field provided an opportunity to observe the policemen in action. The functioning of each operational section was explained to the author by the section commander, who then introduced him to the people working for him. Though greeted at first with suspicion and guardedness. the author was able to overcome this initial resistance by conveying his sincere interest in learning their views, attitudes, and suggestions for practical improvements in their working milieu. Maintaining a low-key approach while learning the ropes proved conducive to gradual acceptance and comfortable relations with the personnel of all ranks.
Hu~~an Systems .-lnnl~sis and Problem IdentI~cat~on While Stanford Research Institute began comprehensive systems analyses of the technical system and the structure of the organization, the author undertook an analysis of the human subsystems involved in the day-to-day functioning of the department. The goal was to develop an understanding of the human relationships
60
ARNOLD
L. LIEBER
and the modes of communication that were employed in the working environment of this complex bureaucratic organ~ation. Over a period of a year there emerged an understanding of the police subculture, the pecking order of the rank hierarchy, the formal and the informal (grapevine) communication networks, the social and political cliques, the racial and ethnic grouping, the attitudes of policemen towards the chief, the administration, authority, control, use of force, racism, women, their own families, etc. This understanding of the human system, when combined with knowledge of the structure and function of the organization, paved the way for Problem id~nt~~cut~~n, the first step in a rational problem solving process. It soon became evident that this was a crisis-oriented organization which wasted a good deal of its energy spinning its wheels. The chief contributing factors were found to be a bureaucratic organizational structure that was stifling and in~exible, an archaic and unproductive form of pseudomilitary authoritarian management, role conflict at every rank level as a result of unclear expectations and inconsistent supervision, and a pervasive organizational paranoia resulting from the preceding three factors and fueled by disguised, subverted, or otherwise distorted communications among the personnel of all ranks. Once these critical problem areas were identified, priorities were established by the consultant and the chief of police. Subsequent efforts were aimed at dealing with these problems, starting first at the bottom of the organizational hierarchy. Field Training Instructor Program
The first and perhaps the most important action program initiated was the coordinating of the efforts of an interdisciplinary police team in the design and development of this innovative program. The goal of the program was to establish standardized, high quality on-the-job training and exacting performance evaluations for probationary officers who had completed their academic training and were working in the field for the first time. The objectives were: to provide new and impressionable officers with a field preceptor who would serve as positive role modeI; to enable some experienced and highly motivated officers to make a creative contribution to the department and to have a hand in its future development; and to inject a “good guy” subculture, thus providing an alternative for the new officer in terms of peer group identification. A select group of patrol officers distinguished by high motivation, personal integrity, and Flexibility were chosen to participate in this program. The principles of group participatory learning and management were utilized in preparing these individuals for their added responsibilities. Personal satisfaction derived from their creative contribution was used as chief reinforcer for their performance. This group functioned well and effectively; their input was highly valued in the final screening of future officers and they earned the praise of supervisors and senior staff. The group became self-perpetuating~ selecting the best of the new officers to undergo future training as Field Training Instructors. They achieved high status within the department and today’s new oflicer strives to join their ranks. The successful implementation of this program taught us several important lessons. If approached with the proper respect for his skills and abilities, the police officer is receptive to the input of outside experts, welcomes constructive change aimed at improving his lot and seizes the op~rtunity to take a direct hand in shaping his future working environment. He does not require tangible incentives (extra pay, time off, promise of promotion) to
PSYCHIATRIST
AS ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE
AGENT
61
take on added responsibilities. Increased job satisfaction, pride in his own accomplishments, and periodic recognition of his efforts are far more important to him. If given a choice, he will identify with a group of peers characterized by positive outlook and attitudes towards their work and their organization. The principles of group process are well suited to the education and training needs of the police as well as to the development of their communication and problem-solving skills. Participatory learning in small peer groups could be translated into functional team policing, shared responsibility at the operational levels and participatory management. The assignment of an interdisciplinary police team to develop this program resulted in the successful bridging of lone-standing communication gaps imposed by the organizational structure. Free-flowing communication to and from all operational levels was crucial to the success of this program; previous attempts by the training section to implement similar programs had failed due to seemingly insurmountable communication barriers. This breakthrough pointed out the mutual interdependence of several units which had no functioning communication channels and laid the groundwork for a future restructuring of the organization based on this functional interdependence. Senior StafS Managemen t Seminar By the time the FTI program was functioning smoothly, the author had been working with the police for nearly two years. At this point the chief decided it was time to focus on the management styles of the senior staff. He asked the author to conduct an intensive four day seminar involving himself, the two assistant chiefs. the seven majors, and the several outside consultants who were working with the department. The theme of the meeting was “Let’s take a look at where we have been, where we stand now, and where we hope to go in the future.” The meeting was held over a long weekend in January 1974, at a resort motel 80 miles west of Miami. Each member of the senior staff had received an individual briefing by the author and the author’s co-leader prior to the conference. Intensive group process evolved during this meeting. The affective mode was freely utilized to air pent-up grievances, resentments and hostilities. Personal conflicts and unfinished business between individuaIs on the staff and between members of the staff and the chief were aired and resolved. Role conflicts, which seemed to be universal, were uncovered and worked through. During this ventilation phase open, honest straightforward communication among the participants developed. Realistic lines of interdependence were revealed and an atmosphere of sharing developed which allowed recognition of personal as well as organizational goal-striving. This pointed the way toward a mutual support system based on trust and open communication. Having dispelled a considerable amount of mistrust and suspicion, it became apparent that there was little need for secretive or closed communication and that openness was far more productive of trust, loyalty. motivation and progress. Once this was accomplished the mode switched to a task-oriented and problem-solving approach. Valid problem-solving process was identified, then applied methodically by the group to the identification of problems critical to the future of the organization and to the establishment of priorities for dealing with them. They were able to recognize that they had created and now represented the “system” about which they so bitterly complained. It became clear that if the system was not viable. then as a united and committed staff they could demand change and would be. in fact.
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the instrument of whatever change they agreed would be needed. They concluded with the statement “We have met the Modern Miami Police Department and it is us.” They terminated the process with a new sense of unity and commitment and with buoyant spirits. They agreed on the imminent need for an ongoing forum which would allow for the openness of communication, joint participation in problem-solving and decision-making and sharing of goals and aspirations that had been achieved during this meeting. This meeting, in essence a carefully conceived four-day marathon encounter group, was the turning point in a change process which up till then had been slow and faltering. The staff, emerging with new vigor and determination, were at once able to utilize the lessons they had learned from their group experience. They demanded a stake-holder’s share of the administrative responsibility for running the department. In the months that followed it became evident that they had made the transition from a crisis-oriented to a problem-solving approach and were functioning far more effectively as a unified staff group. In the course of this changeover, however, there occurred a sudden shift in the equilibrium of the system. This novel effort at a redistribution of power, authority, responsibility and level of functioning, was unfamiliar and frightening. As a result, the organization and all its personnel were thrown off balance. A tremendous amount of personal as well as organizational discomfort and anxiety developed. This was expressed in many different ways but the most remarkable manifestation was an unprecedented series of incidents involving public misbehavior of policemen which rocked the entire city to its core. Seizing this opportunity, antiadministration factions mobilized an all-out attack upon the chief. The grand jury began an investigation into “the morale problem” of the police department and political pressure was brought to bear upon the chief and the administration. With the aid of the press, which was able to maintain a balanced perspective, the chief survived a crisis of confidence. The mayor and the city commission then began “an extensive investigation into police problems” which culminated in a series of public hearings. Under enormous strain from public, political and internal department pressure, not to mention the stress of trying to alter his own long-crystallized management style, the chief at this time elected to retire in the interest of his personal well-being. There followed a period of quiet anticipation until the new chief was selected. It was prudently decided that the new chief would be promoted from within the department. The man selected possessed the leadership qualities to guide a large organization through an unsettling time. Then followed a series of new promotions, reassignment of the staff people, a settling down period, and a resumption of work. Some changes in the structure and function of the organization were made at this point without any noticeable resistance or backlash. Staff meetings were opened up to include representatives of the employee organizations, supervisors from ail ranks who wished to participate, any officer who wished to address a problem to the senior staff. As noted previously, this process was short-lived, giving way ultimately to traditiona authoritarian power struggling and subsequently resulting in an organizational retrogression. Other Functions ofthe Consultant
Following the management seminar, the author was asked to act as group process observer during weekly senior staff meetings. Feedback was elicited on a
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regular basis by several individual members of the staff, including the chief. When the staff eventually melded into a smooth-functioning participatory group, this function was no longer necessary. Trouble shooting (the early recognition of potential or developing problems) was retatively easy from the author’s vantage, that of impartial observer with no emotiona stake in the day-to-day operation of the department. The flexibility to move freely among all ranks and departmental levels as well as to observe the influence of external factors (politics, the public, media, city government, etc.) allowed for the development of the broad information base essential to this function. Whereas initially the author would perform this function on an ad hoc basis, it soon became apparent that the staff should develop some in-house expertise in this area. After several abortive efforts in this direction, the groundwork for what was intended to be a permanent trouble shooting and problem-solving task force was laid. When the new chief took office he created the Inspection and Long Range Planning Unit that included these functions in its goals and objectives. At various times the author had input into the design and development of education and training programs. The author made himself available to the men for brief evaluation and referral of their individual problems. Supervisors requested consultation when dealing with problem officers. Evaluation of problem recruits was an ongoing function. The author was involved in a concerted effort to provide comprehensive psychological screening to all new police recruit candidates. He believes that management must seek a different type of person for today’s police work; one who is psychologically suited to changing demands and role expectations. Another task involved facilitating the efforts of a police team to revise and standardize the potice recruit selection process. This was necessary to insure high entrance standards in the face ofjudicial and political pressures to accept greater numbers of minority applicants.
SOME
GUIDELINES FOR THE PSYCHIATRIST
AS ORGANIZATIONAL
CONSULTANT
It is evident that the consultant’s role was a potpouri; it varied with the needs of the organization. Not all efforts were successful. Two projects which I, myself, initiated because of what seemed to me to be obvious departmental needs never came to fruition. A sense of timing was essential. Until the police were themselves able to recognize the need to address a particular issue, any attempt on my part to initiate efforts in that direction proved futile. Rather than initiate projects then, I concentrated my efforts on helping them to become aware of their needs and the alternative approaches for meeting them, Other factors which facilitated my functioning were as follows: (I) avoiding identification with any one office or person within the organization, (2) avoiding advocacy of any group or any main issue confronting the department, (3) remaining aloof from content when required to observe process, (4) being able to change roles depending upon the requirements of a given situation, (5) familiarity with learning theory, communications theory and group process, and ability to apply them to the needs of a large diverse group of people, (6) having a grasp of systems theory as it applies to the human functioning in a large organ~ation, (7) breaking out of the familiar one-to-one clinical mode of the psychotherapist, yet maintaining the therapist’s perspective regard-
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ing the human needs, goals, and aspirations (not to mention individual psychopathology) of the people comprising the human system. These factors together with a knowledge of what motivates human behavior define the unique skills that a psychiatrist can bring to bear in the role of organizational consultant. Serving as an agent of change in an organization differs only in minor respects from the traditional role of the psychotherapist. In fact, the stages of this process are identical to those of psychotherapy: the establishment of trust and rapport, problem identification (via historical perspective and assessment of current functioning), and finally the slow, faltering evolution of change. As with traditional psychotherapy, an ability to accept setbacks with equanimity is also required. REFERENCES I. Elkins AM, Papanek GO: Consultation with the police: An example of community psychiatry practice. Am J Psychiatry 123531-535, 1966 2. Liberman R: Police as a community mental health resource. Community Ment Health J 5:l I l-120, 1969
3. Friedman MH: Community mental health education with police. Ment Hygiene 49: 182-186, 1965 4. Bard M. Berkowitz B: Training police as specialists in family crisis intervention. nity Ment Health J 3:315-317, 1967
Commu-
