GAMES FOR HEALTH JOURNAL: Research, Development, and Clinical Applications Volume 3, Number 6, 2014 ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/g4h.2014.0040
Contribution of Active Videogame Play to Physical Activity Among College Students Catherine S. Gammon, MS,1 Karin A. Pfeiffer, PhD,1 Wei Peng, PhD,2 Darijan Suton, MS,1 and Brian Winn, PhD 2
Abstract
Background: Fewer than half of college students meet physical activity (PA) recommendations. Active videogames (AVGs) may increase PA. The contribution that AVGs make to total PA is unknown. This study aimed to examine the contribution of AVG play to total PA and to compare sedentary, light, and moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) on game-days and non–game-days. Materials and Methods: For 1 week, the PA of 42 students (mean age, 20.4 – 1.3 years) was assessed by accelerometry. During this week an AVG was played one to three times, for 30 minutes each. The percentage contribution of AVG play to MVPA was calculated. To compare PA on game-days versus non–game-days, t tests were used. Results: Students performed an average of 47.2 – 32.0 minutes of MVPA/day, during the monitored weekdays. MVPA during AVG play contributed 4.8 – 8.1 percent to total MVPA on game-days. The percentage of time spent in moderate PA was significantly higher on game-days (4.9 percent) than on non–game-days (3.3 percent). Conclusions: This is the first study to examine the contribution of AVG play to daily PA. These data support further investigation of AVGs as a means of increasing health-enhancing PA and reducing sedentary behavior among college students.
Introduction
T
he health benefits of physical activity (PA) are well documented for all age groups.1 The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has published PA guidelines, which recommend adults perform 150 minutes of moderateintensity PA (MPA) or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity PA (VPA), per week, to promote and maintain health.2 In addition, research indicates the negative influence of sedentary behavior (SED) on health.3 National surveys indicate that fewer than half of collegeage students meet PA guidelines.4 Findings also suggest high levels of SED among this age group.5 Thus, there is a need to identify ways of increasing PA and reducing SED among college students. Evidence suggests that 65 percent of college students are regular or occasional computer/videogame players.6 Although this activity is typically considered a sedentary pastime, a new type of ‘‘active videogame’’ (AVG) is emerging. AVGs incorporate PA into gameplay and require the player’s body movements to interact with the game system. AVGs are capable of eliciting health-enhancing PA.7 AVGs thus rep-
resent a promising means by which PA levels may be increased and SED levels decreased. There is mixed evidence regarding the efficacy of AVG interventions for increasing PA. Following the introduction of an AVG, some studies report significant increases in PA, whereas others report no significant changes.8 It has been suggested that a lack of PA change may be due to boredom when playing the AVG.9 There has been limited examination of the efficacy of motivational theory-based AVGs for increasing PA. These games incorporate features based on components of motivational theories, with the intention of increasing a player’s enjoyment of and drive to play the game. The videogame used in this study was newly created and based on self-determination theory (SDT).10 SDT identifies the importance of feelings of competence, autonomy, and relatedness for the maintenance and enhancement of motivation for an activity. The AVG used in this study incorporated a story line similar to those found in typical non-AVGs and was designed to elicit PA. A key step in establishing the efficacy of AVGs as an intervention tool is to quantify the contribution that playing an AVG makes to daily moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA
Departments of 1Kinesiology and 2Telecommunications, Information Studies, and Media, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
395
396
(MVPA) levels. AVGs elicit intermittent PA, so it cannot be assumed that 30 minutes of gameplay will equate to 30 minutes of MVPA. There is currently no research examining the contribution AVGs make to daily activity levels of college students. The objectives of this study were (1) to examine the contribution that playing an AVG makes to a college student’s daily PA levels and (2) to compare levels of SED and light PA (LPA), MPA, and VPA on days when students play AVGs (game-days) with those on days when they do not play AVGs (non–game-days). Materials and Methods Study design
Data were collected during the first week of a 4-week intervention examining the efficacy of an SDT-based AVG to increase PA levels of university students. Participants were instructed to play the AVG for 30 minutes, one to three times, during this 1-week monitoring period. Participants were required to make appointments to play the AVG at a campus-based facility. Participants
Participants were undergraduate students at a large Midwestern university. A recruitment e-mail was sent to 10,000 students. Inclusion criteria were non-international students 18–25 years of age, engaging in videogame play for at least 1 hour/month, and performing less than 225 minutes of MPA/ week. The International PA Questionnaire11 was used to assess whether students met the PA inclusion criteria. Of 1182 responding students, 134 met inclusion criteria and were randomly assigned to one of four gaming conditions (AVG with SDT features turned on, AVG with SDT features turned off, passive videogame with SDT features turned on, no videogame control group). Only students assigned to the two AVG conditions were included in the data analysis. Data analysis revealed that the demographic characteristics and PA data for participants in these two game conditions were not significantly different, and thus the data were combined to create one group. The final sample consisted of 72 participants. Written informed consent was provided by each student. The study was approved by the University Institutional Review Board. Anthropometric measures
Height and weight were measured according to standardized procedures.12 Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm, and weight was measured using an electronic scale to the nearest 0.1 kg (Seca, Hamburg, Germany). Body mass index was calculated from measured height and weight (weight [kg]/height [m2]).
GAMMON ET AL.
permitted identification of the AVG bout(s) in the accelerometer output. Data reduction
Accelerometers were initialized to save data in 1-second intervals. Data were re-integrated to 1-minute epochs to permit application of PA cutpoints. Consistent with previous literature, a minimum of 8 hours of accelerometer data/day13 for 3 weekdays (including at least 1 day when the AVG was played and at least 1 day when the AVG was not played) was required for participants to be included in statistical analyses; 42 participants had sufficient data. During the monitoring week, 9 participants played the AVG once, 27 participants played two times, and 6 participants played three times. Eight participants had 1 valid day of non–game-day data, 27 participants had 2 valid days of non–game-day data, 6 participants had 3 valid days of non–game-day data, and 1 participant had 4 valid days of non–game-day data. Weekend days were excluded from data analysis, as participants were not able to play the AVG on weekend days. Minutes and percentage of time spent in SED, LPA, MPA, and VPA were determined using Hendelman cutpoints.14 The counts per minute used to identify LPA, MPA, and VPA were 100–191, 192–7526, and q7527, respectively.14 SED was identified as activity registering less than 100 counts/ minute, consistent with previous literature.15 The Hendelman cutpoints were selected based on data indicating their ability to measure PA during lifestyle activities (authors’ unpublished data). Differences in total monitoring time were controlled for by converting time spent in different PA intensities into a percentage of total monitoring time. AVG
The newly created AVG was a fantasy role-play game based on Ancient Greek history and myth. Players were required to compete in athletic events and face challenges from minions and gods. Upper and lower body movements (using a Wiimote and dance pad, respectively) were required for gameplaying. All participants were provided with a familiarization session. Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to examine sample characteristics, PA levels, and time spent in SED, LPA, and MVPA: (1) during the 30-minute bout of AVG play, (2) on weekdays when the AVG was played (game-days), and (3) on weekdays when the AVG was not played (non–gamedays). Paired t tests were used to compare the percentages of time spent in SED, LPA, and MVPA on game-days versus non–game-days. Statistical significance was set at Pp0.05. Results
PA measurement
Descriptive characteristics
PA was assessed using Actigraph (Pensacola, FL) accelerometers (model GT3X) for 7 consecutive days. Participants were instructed to wear the accelerometer during all waking hours except when swimming and bathing. Gameplay time was recorded via a computerized game log using players’ first and last actions during gameplay sessions. This
The average age of participants was 20.4 – 1.3 years; 41 percent of the sample was male. Mean body mass index was within the healthy weight range (24.9 kg/m2). Participants excluded from data analysis because of insufficient accelerometer data did not differ from included participants on any anthropometric or demographic variables.
EXERGAME CONTRIBUTION TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
397
Table 1. Contribution of Active Videogame to Physical Activity on Game-Days
PA during videogame play (minutes/day) Game-day PA (minutes/day) Videogame contribution to game-day PA (%)a
Light PA
Moderate PA
Vigorous PA
MVPA
13.7 (6.8) 231.8 (99.7) 6.4 (3.4)
1.5 (2.7) 43.2 (24.6) 4.4 (7.5)
0.4 (1.5) 9.8 (22.7) 0.5 (1.9)
1.9 (3.7) 53.0 (37.8) 4.8 (8.1)
Data are mean (standard deviation) values. a Percentages were calculated for each participant and averaged for the group. MVPA, moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity; PA, physical activity.
PA levels and AVG play
Students performed an average of 47.2 – 32.0 minutes of MVPA, 217.6 – 82.6 minutes of LPA, and 605.8 – 114.0 minutes of SED per day, during the activity monitoring week. Contribution of AVG to PA
During AVG play, students accumulated an average of 13.7 minutes of LPA and 1.9 minutes of MVPA (Table 1). Playing the AVG contributed an average of 6.4, 4.4, 0.5, and 4.9 percent of students’ total LPA, MPA, VPA, and MVPA, respectively, on game-days. Game-days versus non–game-days
The comparison of time spent in different PA intensities between game-days and non–game-days is presented in Table 2. Percentage of time spent in MPA was significantly higher on game-days compared with non–game-days (P = 0.01). Discussion
This was the first study to examine the contribution of activity accumulated during 30 minutes of AVG play to total PA in college students. Activity performed during AVG play accounted for small proportions of LPA, MPA, and MVPA. Students engaged in significantly more MPA on game-days than on non–game-days. Results also suggest students spent less time in SED on game-days, although this finding was not statistically significant. These findings indicate the contribution that AVG play can make to total PA among college students. Although no other studies have quantified the contribution of AVGs to total PA levels, there are data examining the contribution of bouts of other activities. Research reports that
Table 2. Comparison of Percentage Time in Different Physical Activity Intensities on Game-Days and Non–Game-Days Game-days Sedentary Light PA Moderate PA Vigorous PA MVPA
68.0 26.0 4.8 1.1 6.0
(10.0) (11.0) (3.0) (2.7) (4.6)
Non–game-days 70.7 24.4 3.9 1.0 5.0
(7.9) (8.3) (2.8) (3.0) (4.4)
P value 0.06 0.28 0.01 0.82 0.07
Data are mean (standard deviation) percentage values. MVPA, moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity; PA, physical activity.
college students participating in marching band practice achieved the recommended number of steps per day on practice and football match days but did not achieve this PA level on non–practice/match days.16 Organized sports and physical education contributed 23 percent and 11 percent to 6–11-year-old boys’ daily MVPA, respectively.17 The average bout length of the organized sports participation in this study was longer than the AVG bout in the current study (65 versus 30 minutes, respectively), which reduces the comparability of the findings. Although the results suggest the contribution of AVG sessions to total MVPA is lower than other PA modes, the goals of various PA modes must be considered; the current AVG literature indicates that it may be more appropriate to view AVGs as a tool to reduce levels of SED, rather than one to increase MVPA.18 The AVG elicited mainly LPA, along with small amounts of MVPA, during gameplay. These findings are concordant with the conclusions of a recent systematic review examining energy expenditure associated with AVG play.19 It is encouraging that slight increases in LPA, MPA, and MVPA observed on game-days were accompanied by decreases in SED, suggesting that playing the AVG replaced SED instead of PA. These findings support the investigation of AVGs as a means of accumulating minutes of health-enhancing PA and reducing SED among college students. The results presented in this article represent data collected after week 1 of a 4-week intervention exposing college students to an AVG. MVPA levels measured immediately after the 4-week intervention period were higher than those measured after 1 week (authors’ unpublished data). These data indicate that greater effects may accompany longer exposure to an AVG. Despite efforts to recruit low-active individuals, results suggest the majority of participants met PA guidelines (47.2 minutes of MVPA/weekday). A reactivity effect could explain higher MVPA levels recorded during the experimental week, compared with the self-reports of MVPA obtained at study enrollment (which indicated that chosen participants achieved less than 225 minutes of MVPA/week).20,21 Although accelerometers do not provide PA feedback, participants would have been aware of behavioral monitoring and may have been motivated to increase PA above habitual levels. The contributions of AVG play to total PA presented in this article are thus likely to be conservative because of the high PA levels of participants during the experimental week. It should be noted that participants were restricted to 30 minutes of AVG play. Evidence suggests the length of the average videogame play bout among teenagers and college students is longer than 30 minutes.6 In natural settings, AVGs may be played for longer, resulting in greater amounts of SED being replaced with LPA and MVPA.
398
This article contributes novel findings to the AVG literature and adds to a limited number of studies that have used accelerometers to examine the contribution of a bout of structured PA to total PA. Weaknesses include the small sample size, laboratory setting of the study, and the high activity levels of the sample. In addition, the 8-hour monitoring period precludes the identification of activities performed outside of this 8-hour period and makes it difficult to identify the importance of AVG play to overall activity levels. Future research using a greater number of monitoring hours is required to examine this. In summary, this study indicates the contribution a bout of AVG play can make to total daily PA in college students. AVGs contributed small amounts of LPA, MPA, and MVPA to participants’ total daily activity levels, and significantly greater MPA levels were observed on game-days. Favorable, nonsignificant differences in SED, LPA, and MVPA levels were also observed on game-days. AVGs may generate important increases in health-enhancing PA levels and/or decreases in SED levels, particularly if the games are played for long periods of time. It is necessary to replicate this study among a less active cohort to evaluate the efficacy of AVGs as a PA intervention tool.
GAMMON ET AL.
8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Acknowledgments
15.
This research was supported by a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.
16.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist. References
1. Li J, Siegrist J. Physical activity and risk of cardiovascular disease—A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2012; 9:391–407. 2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. 2008. www .health.gov/PAGuidelines (accessed May 25, 2014). 3. Healy GN, Dunstan DW, Salmon J, et al. Objectively measured light intensity physical activity is independently associated with 2-h plasma glucose. Diabetes Care 2007; 30:1384–1389. 4. American College Health Association. American College Health Association–National College Health Assessment Spring 2008 reference group data report (abridged). J Am Coll Health 2009; 57:477–488. 5. Rouse PC, Biddle SJH. An ecological momentary assessment of the physical activity and sedentary behavior patterns of university students. Health Educ J 2010; 69:116–125. 6. Jones S. Let the Games Begin. 2003. http://pewinternet.org/ (accessed May 15, 2012). 7. Peng W, Lin J-H, Crouse J. Is playing exergames really exercising? A meta-analysis of energy expenditure in active
17. 18. 19.
20. 21.
video games. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2011; 14: 681–688. Biddiss E, Irwin J. Active video games to promote physical activity in children and youth: A systematic review. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2010; 164:664–672. Baranowski T, Baranowski J, Thompson D, et al. Video game play, child diet, and physical activity behavior change: A randomized clinical trial. Am J Prev Med 2011; 40:33–38. Deci EL, Ryan RM. Handbook of Self-Determination Research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press; 2002. Craig CL, Marshall AJ, Sjostrom M, et al. International Physical Activity Questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35:1381–1395. Lohman TG, Roche AF, Martorell R. Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books; 1988. Evenson K, Terry JW Jr. Assessment of differing definitions of accelerometer nonwear time. Res Q Exerc Sport 2009; 80:355–362. Hendelman D, Miller K, Baggett C, et al. Validity of accelerometry for the assessment of moderate intensity physical activity in the field. Med Sci Sports Exercise 2000; 32(9 Suppl):S442–S449. Wong SL, Colley R, Conner Gorber S, Tremblay M. Actical accelerometer sedentary activity thresholds for adults. J Phys Act Health 2011; 8:587–591. Cowen V. The contribution of marching band participation to overall physical activity for a sample of university students. Percept Motor Skills 2006; 103:457–460. Wickel EE, Eisenmann JC. Contribution of youth sport to total daily physical activity among 6- to 12-yr old boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39:1493–1500. LeBlanc AG, Chaput JP, McFarlane A, et al. Active video games and health indicators in children and youth: A systematic review. PLoS One 2013; 14: e65351. Peng W, Crouse J, Lin J-H. Using active video games for physical activity promotion: A systematic review of the current state of research. Heath Educ Behav 2013; 40:171– 192. Motl RW, McAuley E, Dlugonski, D. Reactivity in baseline accelerometer data from a physical activity behavioural intervention. Health Psychol 2012; 31:172–175. Behrens TK, Dinger, MK. Motion sensor reactivity in physically active young adults. Res Q Exerc Sport 2007; 78:1–8.
Address correspondence to: Catherine Gammon, MS Department of Kinesiology Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48823 E-mail: [email protected]
Contribution of Active Videogame Play to Physical Activity Among College Students Catherine S. Gammon, MS,1 Karin A. Pfeiffer, PhD,1 Wei Peng, PhD,2 Darijan Suton, MS,1 and Brian Winn, PhD 2
Abstract
Background: Fewer than half of college students meet physical activity (PA) recommendations. Active videogames (AVGs) may increase PA. The contribution that AVGs make to total PA is unknown. This study aimed to examine the contribution of AVG play to total PA and to compare sedentary, light, and moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) on game-days and non–game-days. Materials and Methods: For 1 week, the PA of 42 students (mean age, 20.4 – 1.3 years) was assessed by accelerometry. During this week an AVG was played one to three times, for 30 minutes each. The percentage contribution of AVG play to MVPA was calculated. To compare PA on game-days versus non–game-days, t tests were used. Results: Students performed an average of 47.2 – 32.0 minutes of MVPA/day, during the monitored weekdays. MVPA during AVG play contributed 4.8 – 8.1 percent to total MVPA on game-days. The percentage of time spent in moderate PA was significantly higher on game-days (4.9 percent) than on non–game-days (3.3 percent). Conclusions: This is the first study to examine the contribution of AVG play to daily PA. These data support further investigation of AVGs as a means of increasing health-enhancing PA and reducing sedentary behavior among college students.
Introduction
T
he health benefits of physical activity (PA) are well documented for all age groups.1 The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has published PA guidelines, which recommend adults perform 150 minutes of moderateintensity PA (MPA) or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity PA (VPA), per week, to promote and maintain health.2 In addition, research indicates the negative influence of sedentary behavior (SED) on health.3 National surveys indicate that fewer than half of collegeage students meet PA guidelines.4 Findings also suggest high levels of SED among this age group.5 Thus, there is a need to identify ways of increasing PA and reducing SED among college students. Evidence suggests that 65 percent of college students are regular or occasional computer/videogame players.6 Although this activity is typically considered a sedentary pastime, a new type of ‘‘active videogame’’ (AVG) is emerging. AVGs incorporate PA into gameplay and require the player’s body movements to interact with the game system. AVGs are capable of eliciting health-enhancing PA.7 AVGs thus rep-
resent a promising means by which PA levels may be increased and SED levels decreased. There is mixed evidence regarding the efficacy of AVG interventions for increasing PA. Following the introduction of an AVG, some studies report significant increases in PA, whereas others report no significant changes.8 It has been suggested that a lack of PA change may be due to boredom when playing the AVG.9 There has been limited examination of the efficacy of motivational theory-based AVGs for increasing PA. These games incorporate features based on components of motivational theories, with the intention of increasing a player’s enjoyment of and drive to play the game. The videogame used in this study was newly created and based on self-determination theory (SDT).10 SDT identifies the importance of feelings of competence, autonomy, and relatedness for the maintenance and enhancement of motivation for an activity. The AVG used in this study incorporated a story line similar to those found in typical non-AVGs and was designed to elicit PA. A key step in establishing the efficacy of AVGs as an intervention tool is to quantify the contribution that playing an AVG makes to daily moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA
Departments of 1Kinesiology and 2Telecommunications, Information Studies, and Media, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
395
396
(MVPA) levels. AVGs elicit intermittent PA, so it cannot be assumed that 30 minutes of gameplay will equate to 30 minutes of MVPA. There is currently no research examining the contribution AVGs make to daily activity levels of college students. The objectives of this study were (1) to examine the contribution that playing an AVG makes to a college student’s daily PA levels and (2) to compare levels of SED and light PA (LPA), MPA, and VPA on days when students play AVGs (game-days) with those on days when they do not play AVGs (non–game-days). Materials and Methods Study design
Data were collected during the first week of a 4-week intervention examining the efficacy of an SDT-based AVG to increase PA levels of university students. Participants were instructed to play the AVG for 30 minutes, one to three times, during this 1-week monitoring period. Participants were required to make appointments to play the AVG at a campus-based facility. Participants
Participants were undergraduate students at a large Midwestern university. A recruitment e-mail was sent to 10,000 students. Inclusion criteria were non-international students 18–25 years of age, engaging in videogame play for at least 1 hour/month, and performing less than 225 minutes of MPA/ week. The International PA Questionnaire11 was used to assess whether students met the PA inclusion criteria. Of 1182 responding students, 134 met inclusion criteria and were randomly assigned to one of four gaming conditions (AVG with SDT features turned on, AVG with SDT features turned off, passive videogame with SDT features turned on, no videogame control group). Only students assigned to the two AVG conditions were included in the data analysis. Data analysis revealed that the demographic characteristics and PA data for participants in these two game conditions were not significantly different, and thus the data were combined to create one group. The final sample consisted of 72 participants. Written informed consent was provided by each student. The study was approved by the University Institutional Review Board. Anthropometric measures
Height and weight were measured according to standardized procedures.12 Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm, and weight was measured using an electronic scale to the nearest 0.1 kg (Seca, Hamburg, Germany). Body mass index was calculated from measured height and weight (weight [kg]/height [m2]).
GAMMON ET AL.
permitted identification of the AVG bout(s) in the accelerometer output. Data reduction
Accelerometers were initialized to save data in 1-second intervals. Data were re-integrated to 1-minute epochs to permit application of PA cutpoints. Consistent with previous literature, a minimum of 8 hours of accelerometer data/day13 for 3 weekdays (including at least 1 day when the AVG was played and at least 1 day when the AVG was not played) was required for participants to be included in statistical analyses; 42 participants had sufficient data. During the monitoring week, 9 participants played the AVG once, 27 participants played two times, and 6 participants played three times. Eight participants had 1 valid day of non–game-day data, 27 participants had 2 valid days of non–game-day data, 6 participants had 3 valid days of non–game-day data, and 1 participant had 4 valid days of non–game-day data. Weekend days were excluded from data analysis, as participants were not able to play the AVG on weekend days. Minutes and percentage of time spent in SED, LPA, MPA, and VPA were determined using Hendelman cutpoints.14 The counts per minute used to identify LPA, MPA, and VPA were 100–191, 192–7526, and q7527, respectively.14 SED was identified as activity registering less than 100 counts/ minute, consistent with previous literature.15 The Hendelman cutpoints were selected based on data indicating their ability to measure PA during lifestyle activities (authors’ unpublished data). Differences in total monitoring time were controlled for by converting time spent in different PA intensities into a percentage of total monitoring time. AVG
The newly created AVG was a fantasy role-play game based on Ancient Greek history and myth. Players were required to compete in athletic events and face challenges from minions and gods. Upper and lower body movements (using a Wiimote and dance pad, respectively) were required for gameplaying. All participants were provided with a familiarization session. Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to examine sample characteristics, PA levels, and time spent in SED, LPA, and MVPA: (1) during the 30-minute bout of AVG play, (2) on weekdays when the AVG was played (game-days), and (3) on weekdays when the AVG was not played (non–gamedays). Paired t tests were used to compare the percentages of time spent in SED, LPA, and MVPA on game-days versus non–game-days. Statistical significance was set at Pp0.05. Results
PA measurement
Descriptive characteristics
PA was assessed using Actigraph (Pensacola, FL) accelerometers (model GT3X) for 7 consecutive days. Participants were instructed to wear the accelerometer during all waking hours except when swimming and bathing. Gameplay time was recorded via a computerized game log using players’ first and last actions during gameplay sessions. This
The average age of participants was 20.4 – 1.3 years; 41 percent of the sample was male. Mean body mass index was within the healthy weight range (24.9 kg/m2). Participants excluded from data analysis because of insufficient accelerometer data did not differ from included participants on any anthropometric or demographic variables.
EXERGAME CONTRIBUTION TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
397
Table 1. Contribution of Active Videogame to Physical Activity on Game-Days
PA during videogame play (minutes/day) Game-day PA (minutes/day) Videogame contribution to game-day PA (%)a
Light PA
Moderate PA
Vigorous PA
MVPA
13.7 (6.8) 231.8 (99.7) 6.4 (3.4)
1.5 (2.7) 43.2 (24.6) 4.4 (7.5)
0.4 (1.5) 9.8 (22.7) 0.5 (1.9)
1.9 (3.7) 53.0 (37.8) 4.8 (8.1)
Data are mean (standard deviation) values. a Percentages were calculated for each participant and averaged for the group. MVPA, moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity; PA, physical activity.
PA levels and AVG play
Students performed an average of 47.2 – 32.0 minutes of MVPA, 217.6 – 82.6 minutes of LPA, and 605.8 – 114.0 minutes of SED per day, during the activity monitoring week. Contribution of AVG to PA
During AVG play, students accumulated an average of 13.7 minutes of LPA and 1.9 minutes of MVPA (Table 1). Playing the AVG contributed an average of 6.4, 4.4, 0.5, and 4.9 percent of students’ total LPA, MPA, VPA, and MVPA, respectively, on game-days. Game-days versus non–game-days
The comparison of time spent in different PA intensities between game-days and non–game-days is presented in Table 2. Percentage of time spent in MPA was significantly higher on game-days compared with non–game-days (P = 0.01). Discussion
This was the first study to examine the contribution of activity accumulated during 30 minutes of AVG play to total PA in college students. Activity performed during AVG play accounted for small proportions of LPA, MPA, and MVPA. Students engaged in significantly more MPA on game-days than on non–game-days. Results also suggest students spent less time in SED on game-days, although this finding was not statistically significant. These findings indicate the contribution that AVG play can make to total PA among college students. Although no other studies have quantified the contribution of AVGs to total PA levels, there are data examining the contribution of bouts of other activities. Research reports that
Table 2. Comparison of Percentage Time in Different Physical Activity Intensities on Game-Days and Non–Game-Days Game-days Sedentary Light PA Moderate PA Vigorous PA MVPA
68.0 26.0 4.8 1.1 6.0
(10.0) (11.0) (3.0) (2.7) (4.6)
Non–game-days 70.7 24.4 3.9 1.0 5.0
(7.9) (8.3) (2.8) (3.0) (4.4)
P value 0.06 0.28 0.01 0.82 0.07
Data are mean (standard deviation) percentage values. MVPA, moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity; PA, physical activity.
college students participating in marching band practice achieved the recommended number of steps per day on practice and football match days but did not achieve this PA level on non–practice/match days.16 Organized sports and physical education contributed 23 percent and 11 percent to 6–11-year-old boys’ daily MVPA, respectively.17 The average bout length of the organized sports participation in this study was longer than the AVG bout in the current study (65 versus 30 minutes, respectively), which reduces the comparability of the findings. Although the results suggest the contribution of AVG sessions to total MVPA is lower than other PA modes, the goals of various PA modes must be considered; the current AVG literature indicates that it may be more appropriate to view AVGs as a tool to reduce levels of SED, rather than one to increase MVPA.18 The AVG elicited mainly LPA, along with small amounts of MVPA, during gameplay. These findings are concordant with the conclusions of a recent systematic review examining energy expenditure associated with AVG play.19 It is encouraging that slight increases in LPA, MPA, and MVPA observed on game-days were accompanied by decreases in SED, suggesting that playing the AVG replaced SED instead of PA. These findings support the investigation of AVGs as a means of accumulating minutes of health-enhancing PA and reducing SED among college students. The results presented in this article represent data collected after week 1 of a 4-week intervention exposing college students to an AVG. MVPA levels measured immediately after the 4-week intervention period were higher than those measured after 1 week (authors’ unpublished data). These data indicate that greater effects may accompany longer exposure to an AVG. Despite efforts to recruit low-active individuals, results suggest the majority of participants met PA guidelines (47.2 minutes of MVPA/weekday). A reactivity effect could explain higher MVPA levels recorded during the experimental week, compared with the self-reports of MVPA obtained at study enrollment (which indicated that chosen participants achieved less than 225 minutes of MVPA/week).20,21 Although accelerometers do not provide PA feedback, participants would have been aware of behavioral monitoring and may have been motivated to increase PA above habitual levels. The contributions of AVG play to total PA presented in this article are thus likely to be conservative because of the high PA levels of participants during the experimental week. It should be noted that participants were restricted to 30 minutes of AVG play. Evidence suggests the length of the average videogame play bout among teenagers and college students is longer than 30 minutes.6 In natural settings, AVGs may be played for longer, resulting in greater amounts of SED being replaced with LPA and MVPA.
398
This article contributes novel findings to the AVG literature and adds to a limited number of studies that have used accelerometers to examine the contribution of a bout of structured PA to total PA. Weaknesses include the small sample size, laboratory setting of the study, and the high activity levels of the sample. In addition, the 8-hour monitoring period precludes the identification of activities performed outside of this 8-hour period and makes it difficult to identify the importance of AVG play to overall activity levels. Future research using a greater number of monitoring hours is required to examine this. In summary, this study indicates the contribution a bout of AVG play can make to total daily PA in college students. AVGs contributed small amounts of LPA, MPA, and MVPA to participants’ total daily activity levels, and significantly greater MPA levels were observed on game-days. Favorable, nonsignificant differences in SED, LPA, and MVPA levels were also observed on game-days. AVGs may generate important increases in health-enhancing PA levels and/or decreases in SED levels, particularly if the games are played for long periods of time. It is necessary to replicate this study among a less active cohort to evaluate the efficacy of AVGs as a PA intervention tool.
GAMMON ET AL.
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10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Acknowledgments
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This research was supported by a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.
16.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist. References
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Address correspondence to: Catherine Gammon, MS Department of Kinesiology Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48823 E-mail: [email protected]
