Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1990, 71, 403-408.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1990
COPING A N D JOB PERFORMANCE ' THOMAS A. WRIGHT Department of Managerial Sciences, Universio of Nevada-Reno Summary.-An organizational field study comprising 42 subjects examined the relationship between growth-oriented coping and subsequent job performance. Growth orientation was measured using the 7-item growth scaIe obtained from the Lazarus Ways of Coping Checklist. The hypothesized relationship between growth orientation and job ~erformancewas confirmed. Individuals obtaining high evaluations of managerial performance emphasized growth-oriented strategies in their behaviors. Further research directions are introduced.
The fact that various types of correctional institutions are unpleasant places for those incarcerated is well known and expected. That they are unpleasant and stressful places in which to work is a growing reality (Brodsky, 1982). Stress has been conceptualized from many different perspectives (Beehr & Newman, 1978), but a common theme is that it is ubiquitous. Similarly, the potentially stressful aspects of work in the criminal justice field have received much attention (Brodsky, 1982; Cheek & Miller, 1983; Long, Shouksmith, Voges, & Roache, 1986; Whitehead, 1987; Whitehead & Linquist, 1989). Not surprisingly, given the wide range of perspectives, the results of these investigations frequently have been vague and imprecise (Kasl, 19841. As a result, there have been changes in the focus and direction of stress-related research. Specifically, the role of coping in human adaptation is now receiving greater emphasis. The relationship between coping and specific adaptational outcome variables is not yet fully known. I t is acknowledged, however, that many of these outcomes are a product of effective coping rather than being simply a consequence of the presence or absence of stress (Holroyd & Lazarus, 1982). Coping is defined as the process of managing demands (external or internal) that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person (Lazarus, 1978). Following Folkman and Lazarus (1984), adaptation is viewed as a broader concept that includes routine modes of getting along. Adaptationd outcomes can be considered from a psychologicd, physiological, or behavioral perspective. Existing research on physiological and psychological adaptational outcomes is extensive (for a review, see Cox, 1978). By comparison, behavioral outcomes have received only limited attention. The two major functions of coping, problem-solving and the regulation 'Address correspondence to Department of Managerial Sciences, Mail Stop 028, University of Nevada-Reno, Reno, NV 89557-0016.
404
T. A. WRIGHT
of emotional distress, have been observed and discussed frequently (Mechanic, 1962; Murphy & Moriarity, 1976). Problem-solving involves changing the situation for the better, if ~ossible,either by altering the action one is responsible for or by altering the damaging or threatening environment. The regulation of emotional distress involves managing the somatic and subjective components of stress-related emotions (Lazarus, 1981). Recently, a large number of coping strategies, including growth-orientation, have been identified and explored in the literature (Folkman & Lazarus, 1984; Kessler, Price, & Wortrnan, 1985). Similarly, attempts have been made to link specific strategies of coping with selected outcome variables. For instance, individuals experiencing higher diastolic blood pressure coped with greater reliance on modes of coping characterized by wishful thinking, avoidance, and minimization of threat than individuals exhibiting lower blood pressure (Wright & Sweeney, 1989). Additionally, it is widely recognized that various forms of employees' withdrawal, such as absenteeism and turnover, involve significant adjustments in both attitude and behavior. For example, absenteeism has been portrayed as withdrawal from the stress of work, which allows employees to adapt or cope more adequately with their social surroundings (Manning & Osland, 1989). However, over-all, very little is known about the link between individual coping strategies and job-related outcome variables, such as job performance. In one of the only organizational studies, Anderson (1976) investigated the relationship among stress, coping behaviors, and performance. However, the reported performance measure used a subjective, one-item unidimensional scale. The strengths and weaknesses of this measurement approach to performance have been extensively investigated (Lee & Mowday, 1987). The role of intrinsic rewards such as growth, achievement, and competence to individual development has long been recognized (Lewin, 1936; White, 1959). Early research focused on the conceptualization of these constructs as needs or stable traits, where the focus was on various personality dispositions from which inferences regarding outcomes were made. This perspective has provided results which have been scattered and inconsistent (Oldham & Hackman, 1980; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1977). More recently, Zierden (1980) proposed that the goodness of fit between the individual's abihties and traits and the environment's demands and incentives is moderated by the individual's potential for growth. Conversely, it is widely recognized that a lack of stimulation and growth opportunities on the job can be distressing (Alderfer, 1972; Maslow, 1943). In this regard, Hackman and Oldham (1976) posit that individuals with high growth need strength will respond to job redesign efforts with work performance of high quality. The present study examines the relationship between em-
COPING AND JOB PERFORMANCE
405
ployees' growth orientation and job performance. Specifically, employees emphasizing a growth-oriented strategy of coping will obtain high supervisory performance evaluations.
METHOD Research Setting and Subjects Forty-two (42) criminal justice staff personnel employed at a juvenile detention center by a major city in a large metropolitan area in California participated in this study. The center is a short-term lock-up detention facility for juveniles who fall under the jurisdiction of the Superior Court of that county. Specifically, these supervisory staff personnel are responsible for the direct supervision of the juveniles while they are incarcerated at the center. This supervision involves primarily those duties pertaining to the custodial function. The subjects were primarily male (83%), and all were younger than 45 yr. of age. The mean age of this sample was 30.1 yr. (SD=6.1), with a mean job tenure of 2.7 yr. (SD = 2.3). Measures All data were collected on-site by the author. Growth was assessed though the use of the growth scale obtained from the Ways of Coping instrument (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). This scale was chosen because of its extensive use and acceptance in the field (Ways of Coping Checklist, 1980, 1983, 1985). The items used are identical to ones that have been previously identified and validated (Coyne, Aldwin, & Lazarus, 1981). The instructions ask that subjects refer to a recent event self-described as the most stressful and indicate whether or not the strategies contained in the checklist were used in dealing with the event in question. The growth scale contains seven items which attempt to measure the extent to which an individual values opportunities to learn and grow, to be creative, and to utilize the full range of their talents (e.g., "Told yourself things that helped you to feel better," "You were inspired to do something creative," "Changed or grew as a person in a good way," "Came out of the experience better than when you went in," "Found new faith or some important truth about life," "Rediscovered what is important in life," "Changed something about yourself so that you could deal with the situation better"). The rationale underlying this approach follows that of Billings and Moos (1984). They posit that the way in which an individual copes with a stressful event is representative of the way one copes with stressful events in general. More specifically, research has shown that individuals use certain forms of coping, such as growth orientation, more consistently than other forms such as self-blame (Aldwin, Folkman, Schaefer, Coyne, & Lazarus, 1980; Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & DeLongis, 1986). Performance was measured through the use of supervisory ratings. All 42
406
T. A. WRIGHT
employees worked under, and were rated by, the same supervisor, eliminating the issue of interrater reliability. The composite rating was composed of separate ratings for three dimensions that research (Wright, 1984) has indicated are important performance indicators for the job in question. Specifically, a panel of experts, composed of three departmental administrators, unanimously identified three dimensions of performance relevant for the work group sampled. The three dimensions-support, goal emphasis, and team building-were measured using a five-point scale ranging from "never" to "always" regarding the extent that the employee emphasized a particular dimension. The three dimensions were summed to form an over-d, aggregate measure of performance.
RESULTS The hypothesized relationship between job performance and growth-oriented coping was supported. That is, a one-tailed test indicated performance was significantly correlated with growth-oriented coping (R2= 10.4%; t40= 2.15, p = .02), with an adjusted R2 of 8.1%. The results were obtained using
SAS PROC CORR. TABLE 1
PEARSON CORRELATION hlA~mFORPERFORMANCE MEASURES Measures
2
3
Corn-
M
SD
3.79 3.50 9
0.98 0.94 0.92
Range
posite 1. Support 2. Goal Emphasis 3. Team Building
,808'
.643* .742*
,905" .938* .874*
2-5 2-5 2-5
Performance is defined as the sum of three separate performance measures: support, goal emphasis, and team building. A Pearson correlation matrix of the three separate performance measures is given in Table 1. Note that the three measures are all highly and positively correlated, which provides the justification for the summation of the three measures into an over-all performance measure.
DISCUSSION The hypothesized relationship between a specific coping strategy and managerial performance evaluations was supported. Employees given higher performance evaluations by their supervisors coped with greater emphasis on a growth-oriented strategy than those receiving lower evaluations. This finding needs to be further examined and refined in other work settings. I n more conventional organizations, for example, problem-focused coping strategies could be expected to be positively related to job performance. I n the hghly programmed, bureaucratic structure of the present work setting, the
COPING AND JOB PERFORMANCE
407
need for a problem-focused style of coping is minimal. In this type of work environment, preordained rules, regulations, and procedures dramatically curtail decision making on the part of individual employees. The results presented are correlational, which imposes limitations on their interpretation. Nevertheless, a specific coping strategy has been linked directly to a specific adaptational outcome. Previously, such connections have been tentative (Folkman & Lazarus, 1984) and alluded to primarily in theory (Wolff, Friedman, Hofer, & Mason, 1964) or in clinical settings (Brodsky, 1982). If this relationship can be duplicated in other settings, important implications exist for selection, placement, employees' motivation, and job redesign projects. REFERENCES ALDERFER, C. P (1972) Existence, relatedness, and growth: human needs in organizational settings. New York: Free Press. ALDWIN,C., FOLKMAN, S., SCHAEFER,C., COYNE,J. C., & LAZARUS, R. S. (1980) Ways of Coping: a rocess measure. Pa er presented at the meeting of the American ~s~cholo~icaf~ssociation, ~ontreJ ANDERSON,C. R. (1976) Coping behaviors as intervening mechanisms in the inverted-U stress-performance relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 30-34. BEEHR,T. A., & NEWMAN, J. E. (1978) ob stress, employee health and organizational effectiveness: a facet analysis, mode and literature review. Personnel Psychology, 31, 665-699. BILLINGS,A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1984) Coping, stress, and social resources among adults with unipolar depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 877-891. BRODSKY,C. M. (1982) Work stress in correctional institutions. Journal of Prisons and Jail Health, 2, 74-102. CHEEK,F, E., & MILLER,M. (1983) The experience of stress for corrections officers: a double-bind theory of correctional stress. Journal of Criminal Justice, 11, 105-120. Cox, T. (1978) Stms. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press. COYNE,J. C., ALDMM, C., & LAZARUS, R. S. (1981) Depression and coping in stressful episodes. Journal of Abnormal P~ychology,90, 439-447. FOLKMAN, S., & LAZARUS,R. S. (1980) An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239. FOLKMAN,S., & LAZARUS, R. S. (1984) Coping and adaptation. In W. D. Gentry (Ed.), The handbook ofbehavioral medicine. New York: Guilford. Pp. 282-325. FOLKMAN,S., LAZARUS, R. S., GRUEN,R. J., & D E ~ N G I A. S , (1986) Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 571-579. HACKMAN, J. R., & OLDHAM,G . (1976) Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250-279. HOLROYD,K. A,, & LAZARUS,R. S. (1982) Stress, coping and somatic adaptation. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: theoretical and clinical arpects. New York: Free Press. Pp. 21-35. KASL, S. V. (1984) Stress and health. Annual Review of Public Health, 5, 319-342. KESSLER,R. C., PRICE,R. H . , & WORTMAN, C. B. (1985) Social factors in psychopathology: stress, social support, and coping processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 531-572. LAZARUS, R. S. (1978) A strategy for research on psychological and social factors in hypertension. Journal of Human Stress, 4, 35-40. LAZARUS, R. S. (1981) The stress and coping paradigm. In C. Eisendorfer, D., Cohen, A. Kleinman, & P. Maxim (Eds.), Models for clinical psychopathology. New York: Spectrum. Pp. 177-214.
I
408
T. A. WRIGHT
R. T. (1987) Voluntarily leaving an organization: an empirical investiLEE, T. W., & MOWDAY, gation of Steers and Mowday's model of turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 30, 721-743. LEWIN,K. (1936) The psychology of success and failure. Occupations, 14, 926-930. LONG,N., SHOUKSMITH, G., VOGES,K., & ROACHE,S. (1986) Stress in prison staff: an occupational study. Criminology, 24, 331-345. MANNING, M. R., & OSLAND,J. S. (1989) The relationship between absenteeism and stress. Work & Stress, 3, 233-235. MASLOW,A. H. (1943) A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 376-396. MECHANIC, D. (1962) Studen& under stress. New York: Free Press. MURPHY,L. B., & MORIARITY, A. E. (1976) Vulnerability, coping, and growth. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer. Press. OLDHAM,G. R., & HACKMAN, J. R. (1980) Work design in the organizational context. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Pp. 247-278. SALANCM, G., & PFEFFER,J. (1977) An examination of need-satisfaction models of job attitudes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22, 427-456. Ways of Coping instrument. (1980, 1983, 1985) Stress and Coping Project, Psychology Department, Univer. of California, Berkeley, CA. WHITE, R. (1959) Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. Psycbological Revim, 66, 297-323. WHITEHEAD, J. T. (1987) Probation officers' job burnout: a test of two theories. Journal of Criminal Justice, 15, 1-16. WHITEHEAD,J. T., & LINQUIST,C. A. (1989) Determinants of correctional officers' professional orientation. Justice Quarterly, 6, 69.87. WOLFF,C. T., FRIEDMAN, S. B., HOFER,M. A,, & MASON,J. W. (1964) Relationship between psychological defenses and mean urinary 17-hydroxy corticoptemid excretion rats: Parts I and 11. Psychosomatic Medicine, 26, 576-609. WRIGHT,T. A. (1984) Examination of the processes of cognitive appraisal coping and adaptation in an orgmzational Field setting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of California, Berkeley, CA. WRIGHT, T. A,, & SWEENEY,D. (1989) Coping strategies and diastolic blood pressure. Psychological Reports, 65, 443-449. ZIERDEN,W. F. (1980) Congruence in the work situation: effects of growth needs, management style, and job structure on job-relaced satisfactions. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 1, 297-310. Accepted July 24, 1990.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1990
COPING A N D JOB PERFORMANCE ' THOMAS A. WRIGHT Department of Managerial Sciences, Universio of Nevada-Reno Summary.-An organizational field study comprising 42 subjects examined the relationship between growth-oriented coping and subsequent job performance. Growth orientation was measured using the 7-item growth scaIe obtained from the Lazarus Ways of Coping Checklist. The hypothesized relationship between growth orientation and job ~erformancewas confirmed. Individuals obtaining high evaluations of managerial performance emphasized growth-oriented strategies in their behaviors. Further research directions are introduced.
The fact that various types of correctional institutions are unpleasant places for those incarcerated is well known and expected. That they are unpleasant and stressful places in which to work is a growing reality (Brodsky, 1982). Stress has been conceptualized from many different perspectives (Beehr & Newman, 1978), but a common theme is that it is ubiquitous. Similarly, the potentially stressful aspects of work in the criminal justice field have received much attention (Brodsky, 1982; Cheek & Miller, 1983; Long, Shouksmith, Voges, & Roache, 1986; Whitehead, 1987; Whitehead & Linquist, 1989). Not surprisingly, given the wide range of perspectives, the results of these investigations frequently have been vague and imprecise (Kasl, 19841. As a result, there have been changes in the focus and direction of stress-related research. Specifically, the role of coping in human adaptation is now receiving greater emphasis. The relationship between coping and specific adaptational outcome variables is not yet fully known. I t is acknowledged, however, that many of these outcomes are a product of effective coping rather than being simply a consequence of the presence or absence of stress (Holroyd & Lazarus, 1982). Coping is defined as the process of managing demands (external or internal) that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person (Lazarus, 1978). Following Folkman and Lazarus (1984), adaptation is viewed as a broader concept that includes routine modes of getting along. Adaptationd outcomes can be considered from a psychologicd, physiological, or behavioral perspective. Existing research on physiological and psychological adaptational outcomes is extensive (for a review, see Cox, 1978). By comparison, behavioral outcomes have received only limited attention. The two major functions of coping, problem-solving and the regulation 'Address correspondence to Department of Managerial Sciences, Mail Stop 028, University of Nevada-Reno, Reno, NV 89557-0016.
404
T. A. WRIGHT
of emotional distress, have been observed and discussed frequently (Mechanic, 1962; Murphy & Moriarity, 1976). Problem-solving involves changing the situation for the better, if ~ossible,either by altering the action one is responsible for or by altering the damaging or threatening environment. The regulation of emotional distress involves managing the somatic and subjective components of stress-related emotions (Lazarus, 1981). Recently, a large number of coping strategies, including growth-orientation, have been identified and explored in the literature (Folkman & Lazarus, 1984; Kessler, Price, & Wortrnan, 1985). Similarly, attempts have been made to link specific strategies of coping with selected outcome variables. For instance, individuals experiencing higher diastolic blood pressure coped with greater reliance on modes of coping characterized by wishful thinking, avoidance, and minimization of threat than individuals exhibiting lower blood pressure (Wright & Sweeney, 1989). Additionally, it is widely recognized that various forms of employees' withdrawal, such as absenteeism and turnover, involve significant adjustments in both attitude and behavior. For example, absenteeism has been portrayed as withdrawal from the stress of work, which allows employees to adapt or cope more adequately with their social surroundings (Manning & Osland, 1989). However, over-all, very little is known about the link between individual coping strategies and job-related outcome variables, such as job performance. In one of the only organizational studies, Anderson (1976) investigated the relationship among stress, coping behaviors, and performance. However, the reported performance measure used a subjective, one-item unidimensional scale. The strengths and weaknesses of this measurement approach to performance have been extensively investigated (Lee & Mowday, 1987). The role of intrinsic rewards such as growth, achievement, and competence to individual development has long been recognized (Lewin, 1936; White, 1959). Early research focused on the conceptualization of these constructs as needs or stable traits, where the focus was on various personality dispositions from which inferences regarding outcomes were made. This perspective has provided results which have been scattered and inconsistent (Oldham & Hackman, 1980; Salancik & Pfeffer, 1977). More recently, Zierden (1980) proposed that the goodness of fit between the individual's abihties and traits and the environment's demands and incentives is moderated by the individual's potential for growth. Conversely, it is widely recognized that a lack of stimulation and growth opportunities on the job can be distressing (Alderfer, 1972; Maslow, 1943). In this regard, Hackman and Oldham (1976) posit that individuals with high growth need strength will respond to job redesign efforts with work performance of high quality. The present study examines the relationship between em-
COPING AND JOB PERFORMANCE
405
ployees' growth orientation and job performance. Specifically, employees emphasizing a growth-oriented strategy of coping will obtain high supervisory performance evaluations.
METHOD Research Setting and Subjects Forty-two (42) criminal justice staff personnel employed at a juvenile detention center by a major city in a large metropolitan area in California participated in this study. The center is a short-term lock-up detention facility for juveniles who fall under the jurisdiction of the Superior Court of that county. Specifically, these supervisory staff personnel are responsible for the direct supervision of the juveniles while they are incarcerated at the center. This supervision involves primarily those duties pertaining to the custodial function. The subjects were primarily male (83%), and all were younger than 45 yr. of age. The mean age of this sample was 30.1 yr. (SD=6.1), with a mean job tenure of 2.7 yr. (SD = 2.3). Measures All data were collected on-site by the author. Growth was assessed though the use of the growth scale obtained from the Ways of Coping instrument (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). This scale was chosen because of its extensive use and acceptance in the field (Ways of Coping Checklist, 1980, 1983, 1985). The items used are identical to ones that have been previously identified and validated (Coyne, Aldwin, & Lazarus, 1981). The instructions ask that subjects refer to a recent event self-described as the most stressful and indicate whether or not the strategies contained in the checklist were used in dealing with the event in question. The growth scale contains seven items which attempt to measure the extent to which an individual values opportunities to learn and grow, to be creative, and to utilize the full range of their talents (e.g., "Told yourself things that helped you to feel better," "You were inspired to do something creative," "Changed or grew as a person in a good way," "Came out of the experience better than when you went in," "Found new faith or some important truth about life," "Rediscovered what is important in life," "Changed something about yourself so that you could deal with the situation better"). The rationale underlying this approach follows that of Billings and Moos (1984). They posit that the way in which an individual copes with a stressful event is representative of the way one copes with stressful events in general. More specifically, research has shown that individuals use certain forms of coping, such as growth orientation, more consistently than other forms such as self-blame (Aldwin, Folkman, Schaefer, Coyne, & Lazarus, 1980; Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & DeLongis, 1986). Performance was measured through the use of supervisory ratings. All 42
406
T. A. WRIGHT
employees worked under, and were rated by, the same supervisor, eliminating the issue of interrater reliability. The composite rating was composed of separate ratings for three dimensions that research (Wright, 1984) has indicated are important performance indicators for the job in question. Specifically, a panel of experts, composed of three departmental administrators, unanimously identified three dimensions of performance relevant for the work group sampled. The three dimensions-support, goal emphasis, and team building-were measured using a five-point scale ranging from "never" to "always" regarding the extent that the employee emphasized a particular dimension. The three dimensions were summed to form an over-d, aggregate measure of performance.
RESULTS The hypothesized relationship between job performance and growth-oriented coping was supported. That is, a one-tailed test indicated performance was significantly correlated with growth-oriented coping (R2= 10.4%; t40= 2.15, p = .02), with an adjusted R2 of 8.1%. The results were obtained using
SAS PROC CORR. TABLE 1
PEARSON CORRELATION hlA~mFORPERFORMANCE MEASURES Measures
2
3
Corn-
M
SD
3.79 3.50 9
0.98 0.94 0.92
Range
posite 1. Support 2. Goal Emphasis 3. Team Building
,808'
.643* .742*
,905" .938* .874*
2-5 2-5 2-5
Performance is defined as the sum of three separate performance measures: support, goal emphasis, and team building. A Pearson correlation matrix of the three separate performance measures is given in Table 1. Note that the three measures are all highly and positively correlated, which provides the justification for the summation of the three measures into an over-all performance measure.
DISCUSSION The hypothesized relationship between a specific coping strategy and managerial performance evaluations was supported. Employees given higher performance evaluations by their supervisors coped with greater emphasis on a growth-oriented strategy than those receiving lower evaluations. This finding needs to be further examined and refined in other work settings. I n more conventional organizations, for example, problem-focused coping strategies could be expected to be positively related to job performance. I n the hghly programmed, bureaucratic structure of the present work setting, the
COPING AND JOB PERFORMANCE
407
need for a problem-focused style of coping is minimal. In this type of work environment, preordained rules, regulations, and procedures dramatically curtail decision making on the part of individual employees. The results presented are correlational, which imposes limitations on their interpretation. Nevertheless, a specific coping strategy has been linked directly to a specific adaptational outcome. Previously, such connections have been tentative (Folkman & Lazarus, 1984) and alluded to primarily in theory (Wolff, Friedman, Hofer, & Mason, 1964) or in clinical settings (Brodsky, 1982). If this relationship can be duplicated in other settings, important implications exist for selection, placement, employees' motivation, and job redesign projects. REFERENCES ALDERFER, C. P (1972) Existence, relatedness, and growth: human needs in organizational settings. New York: Free Press. ALDWIN,C., FOLKMAN, S., SCHAEFER,C., COYNE,J. C., & LAZARUS, R. S. (1980) Ways of Coping: a rocess measure. Pa er presented at the meeting of the American ~s~cholo~icaf~ssociation, ~ontreJ ANDERSON,C. R. (1976) Coping behaviors as intervening mechanisms in the inverted-U stress-performance relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 30-34. BEEHR,T. A., & NEWMAN, J. E. (1978) ob stress, employee health and organizational effectiveness: a facet analysis, mode and literature review. Personnel Psychology, 31, 665-699. BILLINGS,A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1984) Coping, stress, and social resources among adults with unipolar depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 877-891. BRODSKY,C. M. (1982) Work stress in correctional institutions. Journal of Prisons and Jail Health, 2, 74-102. CHEEK,F, E., & MILLER,M. (1983) The experience of stress for corrections officers: a double-bind theory of correctional stress. Journal of Criminal Justice, 11, 105-120. Cox, T. (1978) Stms. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press. COYNE,J. C., ALDMM, C., & LAZARUS, R. S. (1981) Depression and coping in stressful episodes. Journal of Abnormal P~ychology,90, 439-447. FOLKMAN, S., & LAZARUS,R. S. (1980) An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239. FOLKMAN,S., & LAZARUS, R. S. (1984) Coping and adaptation. In W. D. Gentry (Ed.), The handbook ofbehavioral medicine. New York: Guilford. Pp. 282-325. FOLKMAN,S., LAZARUS, R. S., GRUEN,R. J., & D E ~ N G I A. S , (1986) Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 571-579. HACKMAN, J. R., & OLDHAM,G . (1976) Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250-279. HOLROYD,K. A,, & LAZARUS,R. S. (1982) Stress, coping and somatic adaptation. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: theoretical and clinical arpects. New York: Free Press. Pp. 21-35. KASL, S. V. (1984) Stress and health. Annual Review of Public Health, 5, 319-342. KESSLER,R. C., PRICE,R. H . , & WORTMAN, C. B. (1985) Social factors in psychopathology: stress, social support, and coping processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 531-572. LAZARUS, R. S. (1978) A strategy for research on psychological and social factors in hypertension. Journal of Human Stress, 4, 35-40. LAZARUS, R. S. (1981) The stress and coping paradigm. In C. Eisendorfer, D., Cohen, A. Kleinman, & P. Maxim (Eds.), Models for clinical psychopathology. New York: Spectrum. Pp. 177-214.
I
408
T. A. WRIGHT
R. T. (1987) Voluntarily leaving an organization: an empirical investiLEE, T. W., & MOWDAY, gation of Steers and Mowday's model of turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 30, 721-743. LEWIN,K. (1936) The psychology of success and failure. Occupations, 14, 926-930. LONG,N., SHOUKSMITH, G., VOGES,K., & ROACHE,S. (1986) Stress in prison staff: an occupational study. Criminology, 24, 331-345. MANNING, M. R., & OSLAND,J. S. (1989) The relationship between absenteeism and stress. Work & Stress, 3, 233-235. MASLOW,A. H. (1943) A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 376-396. MECHANIC, D. (1962) Studen& under stress. New York: Free Press. MURPHY,L. B., & MORIARITY, A. E. (1976) Vulnerability, coping, and growth. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer. Press. OLDHAM,G. R., & HACKMAN, J. R. (1980) Work design in the organizational context. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Pp. 247-278. SALANCM, G., & PFEFFER,J. (1977) An examination of need-satisfaction models of job attitudes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22, 427-456. Ways of Coping instrument. (1980, 1983, 1985) Stress and Coping Project, Psychology Department, Univer. of California, Berkeley, CA. WHITE, R. (1959) Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. Psycbological Revim, 66, 297-323. WHITEHEAD, J. T. (1987) Probation officers' job burnout: a test of two theories. Journal of Criminal Justice, 15, 1-16. WHITEHEAD,J. T., & LINQUIST,C. A. (1989) Determinants of correctional officers' professional orientation. Justice Quarterly, 6, 69.87. WOLFF,C. T., FRIEDMAN, S. B., HOFER,M. A,, & MASON,J. W. (1964) Relationship between psychological defenses and mean urinary 17-hydroxy corticoptemid excretion rats: Parts I and 11. Psychosomatic Medicine, 26, 576-609. WRIGHT,T. A. (1984) Examination of the processes of cognitive appraisal coping and adaptation in an orgmzational Field setting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer. of California, Berkeley, CA. WRIGHT, T. A,, & SWEENEY,D. (1989) Coping strategies and diastolic blood pressure. Psychological Reports, 65, 443-449. ZIERDEN,W. F. (1980) Congruence in the work situation: effects of growth needs, management style, and job structure on job-relaced satisfactions. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 1, 297-310. Accepted July 24, 1990.
