Coping with Fatherhood: The First Year
Richard Gilman, PhD David Knox, PhD East Carolina University
Fantasy (thinking back to prebaby times) and holidays (going out alone with the wife) are examined here as methods of coping with parenthood for 93 white, first-time fathers. Results suggest that only the holiday coping mechanism is associated with maintaining or improving marital satisfaction. The use of fantasy actually decreases marital satisfaction. These data suggest that the discrepancies in the conclusions of previous "parenthood as crisis" studies may be accounted for through the analysis of coping mechanisms that various fathers utilize.
ABSTRACT:
A declining birth rate and the emergence of the National Organization for Nonparents indicate an increasing concern for the negative effect children have on one's personal and marital happiness. Previous studies on the impact of children on marital happiness have yielded contradictory findings. Using a coping model for first-time fathers, this article suggests one possible explanation for these inconsistencies: Differences in findings on parenthood crisis can be explained by different ways parents cope with such potential crisis. Furthermore, this study's emphasis on first-time fathers reflects an increased cultural emphasis on the role sharing, by husbands, of childrearing responsibilities. With the father's increased participation, the importance of his coping with the baby becomes paramount. Drs. Gilman and Knox are Associate Professors of Sociology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834. The authors would like to thank Mrs. Therese Lawler for her cooperation in making the birth certificates of the Pitt County Hospital, Greenville, North Carolina, available. Additional appreciation is also expressed to Charles Garrison, Yoon Kim, Paul Tschetter, and Buford Rhea for their assistance in developing the questionnaire. This research was supported by a grant from the Research Council of East Carolina University. 134
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Background Research on " p a r e n t h o o d as crisis" derives from the proposition that the family is an integrated social system of roles and statuses and that adding or removing members will force a major reorganization of that system [ 1 ]. Some studies have concluded that parenthood is not a particularly upsetting event. Hobbs [2] observed that " n o t one of 53 fathers would use the phrase 'extensive or severe crisis' to describe his first experience with parenthood." Russell [1] reported that fatherhood was only a slight or moderate crisis event (described as a change of self, spouse, or relationship with significant others that that the person defines as " b o t h e r s o m e " ) for 272 first-time fathers. On the other hand, parenthood as a crisis event was reported b y 83% of LeMasters' [3] 46 couples and 53% of Dyer's [4] 32 couples. Typical complaints of fathers are in reference to financial strain, social restrictions, jealousy, interruptions, and exhaustion: "The expenses caused by the baby coupled with the fact that m y wife quit working is a b o u t to do me in"; "We can't go places like we used t o " ; "When we married, I thought my wife was going to take care of me. As it turns out, she takes care of the baby and I take care of t h e m " ; "I can't watch television or read the newspaper without the sound of a crying b a b y " ; "I haven't had a good night's sleep since we brought the baby home from the hospital" [1, 3, 4, 5]. As a general means of coping with an unhappy and frustrating family life, middle-class males typically retreat to their offices, alcohol, and/or other w o m e n [3, 6]. While these coping mechanisms may provide temporary relief from the unpleasant situation for the male, they are likely to have negative consequences for the marital relationship: 1. Since relationships begin and continue as a function of sharing mutually enjoyable activities over time, the husband who spends time away from his wife does little to improve his relationship with her. 2. The fact that the unhappy husband retreats alone from the home increases the probability that he will become involved in another relationship. Affairs occur when the spouse is unhappy at h o m e and has an alternative source of interpersonal reinforcement in the form of a secretary, co-worker, or lonely w o m e n in a hotel lounge. Hypotheses This study focuses on t w o additional means by which the husband may more successfully cope with the early months of fatherhood: fantasy and holidays. Fantasy (or thinking back to the " g o o d old pre-
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baby days") and holidays (reestablishing courtship behavior with the wife by seeing a movie, going out to eat, or taking a drive--without the baby) are examined here as being positively associated with marital happiness. Fantasy should improve the husband's happiness by allowing him to "instantly replace" a crying baby and complaining wife with pleasant thoughts of the past. This mental review of happier times should encourage the perspective that the "crying baby days" will soon be over and the couple can then return to a more "natural" home life. Hence, the first hypothesis is that fantasy focused on prebaby days will be positively associated with reported marital happiness. Likewise, taking the wife out alone (as in prebaby times) should help to restore the feelings of marital sharing and togetherness, which the baby may have shattered. Hence, the second hypothesis is that the frequency of going out with the wife alone after the baby's birth will be positively associated with reported marital happiness. Methods To test these two hypotheses, all first-time fathers (382) of legitimate babies born (neonatal deaths excluded) in the Pitt County Hospital, Greenville, North Carolina, between April 1973 and March 1974 were mailed a 43-item questionnaire. (This was a part of a broader study reported earlier [7] .) Follow-up postcards and telephone calls were used to maximize questionnaire response. These efforts netted 102 usable questionnaires for a return rate ef 28%. No systematic records of social background variables were available from Pitt County Memorial Hospital for this population of first-time fathers. However, to check on response bias, a Pitt County health official was asked to judge the sample's validity. The most extreme bias was a substantial underrepresentation of blacks. To counter this potential source of distortion, first-time black fathers have been excluded from the immediate analysis but are discussed in Appendix A.* The exclusion of these blacks reduced the sample to 95 white first-time fathers. Other, though less extreme, biases were found. Persons with less education and lower income were both underrepresented. Such difficulties of response and attendant biases are frequent to mailed questionnaire survey studies. Questionnaires were keypunched and analyzed using the computer. Statistics included simple cross-tabulations, gamma as a measure of association, and chisquare as a measure of significance. Because no sample was involved, the test of significance was an advisory rather than definitive measure. With the small number of respondents (95), the 10% level of significance was selected for the significance test so as to equalize the possibility o f a Type I error (the error of saying that percentage differences are real when, in fact, they are due to chance) with *Though severely limited by the small number of blacks, the analysis in this Appendix suggests blacks are significantly more successful in adapting to the crisis of first-time fatherhood,
Richard Gilman and David K n o x
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the possibility of a Type II error (the error of saying differences are due to chance when, in fact, they are real). Results and Discussion
Does Fantasy Help ? Twenty-six percent of the 95 white respondents said they wished (some or a great deal) that they could return to the time before the baby was born. To the degree that escape into fantasy is an indication of crisis (whether or n o t it also reflects successful coping with that crisis), this relatively small percentage argues that these first-time fathers experienced less frequent crisis than reported by LeMasters [3] and Dyer [4] b u t more crisis than r e p o r t e d b y H o b b s [2]. The frequency of crisis experienced here is more in line with that reported by Russell [1]. When viewed as a coping mechanism, however, fantasy leaves something to be desired. Table 1 provides evidence for the rejection of the first hypothesis, that fantasy focused on prebaby days will be positively associated with expressions of marital happiness. The data show a strong negative relationship between fantasy coping and marital happiness (better than average). Whereas 68% of the fantasizers report better than average marriages, 90% of the nonfantasizers report happy marriages. This rejection of the first hypothesis suggests that f a n t a s y may increase the father's unhappiness rather than restore his happiness. For example, the father may allow his mind to wander to prebaby days when he and his wife shared quiet talks at home, visited with friends, and went to an occasional movie. This vision is shattered when the father opens his eyes to see that he is alone in their living room (the wife is upstairs with the baby), that no friends are coming over (the wife said, " I ' m t o o tired"), and that any movies seen will have to be on TV.
Variables Associated with Use o f Fantasy Having found fantasy to be an unsuccessful coping mechanism, it may be helpful to explore which characteristics of first-time fathers distinguish those who employ fantasy from those who do not. Such an analysis may help us to better understand the failure of this hypothesis. Table 2 presents every variable associated with fantasy (wishing, some or a great deal, to return with the wife to the time before the
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TABLE 1 EFFECT OF WISH TO RETURN ON RATING OF PRESENT MARITAL HAPPINESS
Wish to Return*
P re s e n t
Marital Happiness
Some t Great Deal
Better than Average
68
90
84
Terrible through Average
32
10
16
100
100
100
(zs)
(70)
(9s)
(N)
None
7
Blacks
102
Grand Total
Gamma : - .62
Chi - Square = 5.2
Total
d../f- 1
p = .01
* Question 19: "How much do you wish you and your wife could return to the time before the baby was born? . . . . 1 = None, 2 = Some, 3 = A great deal" ** Question 31: "Rate your marital happiness since the baby's birth." "1 : Terrible, 2, 3 = Average, 4, 5 = Great"
b a b y was b o r n ) at t h e 10% level o f significance or less. Several patterns emerge. F a n t a s y is positively related t o w e a k marital adjustm e n t , t o e d u c a t i o n , t o distance f r o m the b a b y , and to being Protestant. In t e r m s o f these sets o f characteristics, fantasizers are m o s t typically less h a p p y with their marriage since the b a b y ' s birth ( g a m m a = .62) a n d less t h a n ecstatic with their b a b y ( g a m m a = .91). As hyp o t h e s i z e d , p r e s e n t u n h a p p i n e s s with the b a b y a n d t h e marriage m a y
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TABLE 2. C R O S S TABULATION ASSOCIATIONS O F W I S H I N G ,
SOME OR
GREAT DEAL, TO RETURN W I T H W I F E T O TIME BEFORE BABY W A S B O R N f
Association of W i s h to Return with:
Gamma
Chi 2
d~f
p
i. Expressing less than extreme love of baby
.91
23.3
1
.00
2. Rating marriage average to terrible since birth
.62
5.2
1
.01
Working less than full-time
.62
2.2
1
.05
4. Going out with wife less often s i n c e birth
.58
5.6
1
.01
with couple
.49
1.9
1
.10
Being Protestant
.45
1.9
i
.10
.41
2.6
1
.06
3o
5. Not having baby sleep in room
So
7. Being college graduate or more
education
force the father into fantasy, which our data suggest do n o t provide him relief from the unhappiness. Rather, his fantasy may increase his unhappiness, and a vicious cycle is set in motion. The next strongest characteristic of fantasizers is education. Both having a college degree {gamma = .41) and working less than full-time {gamma = ,62) are positively associated with wishing to return with the wife to the time before the baby was born. The majority of the part-time workers were students at the local university; thus, this is more a measure of education than of e m p l o y m e n t or economic welfare. It is probable that the earning of a college degree increases the capacity to think abstractly (use fantasy). Apparently, the use of this capability as a coping mechanism for fatherhood has negative consequences for the father, the baby, and the marriage.
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The third strongest characteristic is the distance at which the firsttime father keeps the new baby. Fantasy is positively associated with n o t having the new baby sleep in the same b e d r o o m with the couple (gamma = .49). It is possible that the father insisted that the baby sleep in his/her own bedroom. Finally, being Protestant is positively associated with fantasizing (gamma = .45). The meaning of this is less clear. Perhaps the answer lies more among the non-Protestants than among Protestants. The non-Protestant categories were " O t h e r " (20), " R o m a n Catholic" (3), "Agnostic/Atheist" (3), and "Unitarian" (1). Focusing down even further, the " O t h e r " category includes those who reported themselves as being Baptists (4), Church of God Followers (1), Spirit of Baptized Christians (1), and other more fundamentalist sects (14). One explanation suggests that those fathers who selected the "non-Protestant" categories are more fundamentalistic and perceive babies as a gift from God, which influences them to feel good (or n o t express negative feelings) about God's gift. Their perspective may also be a function of lack of knowledge regarding the various categories of religion. In summary, fantasy is n o t a successful source of coping with the crisis triggered by the new baby's arrival, b u t is more likely to be a result of that crisis. Fantasizers tend to be educated, to keep a cautious distance from the baby, and to be Protestant. From these findings, one might conclude that fathers who use fantasy as a coping mechanism would be well advised to heed Shakespeare's thought, "Things without remedy should be without regard: what's done cannot be undone." New fathers, particularly educated Protestants, should be encouraged to focus on the positive aspects.of parenthood: (a) the chance to observe the magic of the "little people" as they discover the world for the first time; (b) the joy of holding a baby in your arms and realizing that is part of y o u and y o u r wife; and (c) the anticipation of following the development of y o u r baby across the years and of relating to him/her as an adult.
Do Holidays Help ? Since the baby's arrival, 46% of the 95 white respondents go o u t with their wives as often, or more often, as compared with before. Considering the strains and demands placed upon the couple by the arrival of their first child, it is surprising to learn that these pressures do n o t seriously inhibit the social life of nearly half the group of firsttime fathers. However, these data show that this continued social life has desira-
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ble consequences as a coping mechanism. Table 3 provides evidence for the acceptance of the second hypothesis that the frequency of going out with the wife after the baby's birth is positively associated with expressions of marital happiness. Whereas 91% of those who maintain their social life report better than average marriages, only 78% of those with a restricted social life report h a p p y marriages. The importance of holidays can be seen in that babies have the capacity to interrupt those patterns of marital interaction that are _essential to keep positive feelings flowing in a relationship [8, 9]. Couples with a new baby might be well advised to schedule, on a frequent basis, a sitter to care for their baby while they go o u t alone and care for their relationship.
Variables Associated with Using the Holiday Coping Mechanism What are the distinctive characteristics of those first-time fathers who successfully use holidays with their wives as a coping mechanism? Table 4 presents every variable associated with holidays (going o u t with the wife as much as, or more often than, before the baby's birth) at the 10% level of significance or less. For fathers, holidays are positively related to strong marital adjustment, to helping with the baby, to more emotional distance from the husband's parents, and to the sex of the baby. Going out with the wife as often or more often after the baby's arrival is positively associated with expressing extreme love for the new baby (gamma = .76) and with expressing no wish to return to the time before the baby's arrival (gamma = .58). Table 5 shows this latter relationship between the two coping mechanisms considered by this study in greater detail. Whereas only 14% of those continuing their social life express a wish to return to happier prebaby days, 37% of those with a restricted social life express a wish to return. Thus, fantasy (the unsuccessful coping mechanism) is negatively related to holidays (the successful coping mechanism). Likewise, those variables negatively related to fantasy are positively related to holidays (e.g., less education and being non-Protestant). The next strongest characteristics of the couples using the holiday coping mechanism, as shown in Table 4, are such enabling factors as having help with the baby for 3 or more weeks after the birth (gamma = .52) and being relatively free of diaper changes (gamma = .34). The former makes going o u t with the wife possible, and the latter may be
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TABLE 3 .
EFFECT OF G O I N G OUT W I T H WIFE ON RATING OF PRESENT
MARITAL HAPPINESS
'Present
Going Out With Wife*
Marital Happiness
As o f t e n , M o r e o f t e n
Better t h a n Average T e r r i b l e through Average
(N)
Less o f t e n
Total
91
78
84
9
22
16
100
100
100
(44)
(51)
(95)
Blacks
7
Grand Total
G a m m a = * .47
Chi - Square
* Question
24:
102 = 1.9
"On the average,
y o u a n d y o u r w i f e go o u t t o e a t ,
d__~f: 1
p-
.I0
how many times each week did
see a movie, take a drive, etc, before
the b a b y w a s b o r n ? . . . . 1 = N o t i m e s p e r w e e k , 2 = O n c e p e r w e e k , 3 = Two times per week,
4 = Three times per week,
5 = Four t i m e s p e r w e e k ,
6 = F i v e o r more t i m e s p e r w e e k . " Question
25:
"On the average,
h o w m a n y t i m e s e a c h w e e k do y o u
and your w i f e go out to e a t , see a m o v i e , t a k e a d r i v e , e t c . , n o w ? " Same o u t c o m e s as Q u e s t i o n 24. Q u e s t i o n 25.
This v a r i a b l e is Q u e s t i o n 24 minus
I f r e s u l t is zero o r p o s i t i v e , then r e s p o n d e n t goes out as
o f t e n or more o f t e n now; i f n e g a t i v e , r e s p o n d e n t goes out l e s s o f t e n n o w .
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TABLE 4. CROSS TABULATION ASSOCIATIONS OF G O I N G O U T W I T H W I F E NOW
AS M U C H
AS O R M O R E OFTEN T H A N BEFORE BABY'S BIRTH
A s s o c i a t i o n of Going Out with:
Gamma
Chi 2
d_f.f
p
1.
E x p r e s s i n g ex t re m e love of baby
.76
6 .3
1
.01
2.
E x p r e s s i n g no w i s h to return to before birth
.58
5 .6
1
.01
Having h e l p for 3 or more w e e k s a f t er birth
.52
2 .4
1
.06
Rating parents the same or lower s i n c e birth
.51
7.1
2
.03
Rating marriage above average since birth
.47
1.9
1
.10
6.
Having a daughter
.44
4,0
1
.03
7.
Not s p e c i f i c a l l y w a n t i n g a son
.41
3.4
1
.04
8.
Having e d u c a t i o n l e s s than a college degree
.37
2.7
1
.07
Not being P r o t e s t a n t
.37
2.1
1
.10
Changing d i a p e r s 3 or fewer t i m e s per w e e k
.34
2 .2
1
.09
3.
4.
5.
9. 10.
* Of t h e 39 r e s p o n d e n t s who did not r e a l l y want or prefer a son
before the baby was born, ~)nly seven preferred a daughter. The other 32 s a i d t h e y r e a l l y d i d n ' t c a r e .
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TABLE 5.
EFFECT OF GOING OUT WITH WIFE ON DESIRE TO RETURN
D e s i r e to Return
Going Out With W i f e As o f t e n , More often Less often
Total
Some through Gr eat d e a l
14
37
26
None
86
63
74
100
100
100
(44)
(51)
(95)
(N)
7
Blacks Grand TQtal
Gamma
"- - .58
Chi
Square = 5.6
102
d._f_f= 1
.2 : .01
an effect of being absent from the home and n o t being available for such mundane tasks. Though social life is encouraged by extended help with the baby, as described, this help does not appear to come from the first:time father's own parents. In fact, fathers who successfully utilize the holiday coping mechanism appear to feel more distance with their own parents. Going out is positively related to rating the husband's parents the same or lower since the baby's birth (gamma = .51). Of course, going out may also be a function of avoiding one's parents who have come for an extended visit. The last characteristic of those using the holiday coping mechanism is the anticipated and actual sex of the new baby. Not specifically wanting a son (gamma = .41) and having a daughter (gamma = .44) are both positively related to going out with the wife. In summary, then, holidays are a successful means of coping with crisis brought on by the arrival of the new baby for white first-time
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fathers. In addition, it is concluded that the two coping mechanisms (fantasy and holidays) are related to marital happiness (negatively and positively, respectively). In turn, marital happiness is related to expressing extreme love for the new baby, having less than a college degree, and being non-Protestant. Holidays, however, are directly related to enabling factors surrounding going out, to the respondent's expressing less dependency on his parents, and to the pattern of baby's sex expected and sex experienced. Implications Previous studies on parenthood as a crisis event have revealed inconsistent conclusions. Using a coping model, this study suggested an explanation for these inconsistencies. In essence, first-time fathers may have differential success in coping with the changes wrought by an infant. Furthermore, new fathers may use different kinds of coping mechanisms to adapt to the changed life-style. Our data suggest that of two alternative coping mechanisms (fantasy and holidays), only holidays have positive consequences for the father, the baby, and the marriage. Aware of the differential consequences of these respective coping mechanisms, family life educators, as well as marriage and family counselors, might increase the awareness of their students and clients regarding the use of the holiday coping mechanism. Subsequent research on parenthood and crisis might also control for the use of these coping mechanisms before making conclusions about the effect of children.
References 1. Russell CS: Transition to parenthood: Problems and gratifications. J Marr Faro 36:294-301, 1974. 2. Hobbs DF: Transition to parenthood: A replication and an extension. J Marr Faro 30:413-417, 1968. 3. LeMasters EE: Parenthood as crisis. JMarr Faro 27:367-372, 1957. 4. Dyer ED: Parenthood as crisis: A re-study. JMarr Faro 25:196-201, 1963. 5. Tasch R J : The role of the father in the family. J Exper Ed 20:319-361, 1952. 6. Benson L: Fatherhood: A Sociological Perspective. New York, R a n d o m House, 1968. 7. Knox D, Gilman R: The first year of fatherhood. Fam Pers 9:31-34, 1974. 8. Rollins BC, Feldman H: Marital satisfaction over the family life cycle. J Marr Faro 32:20-28, 1970. 9. Rosenblatt PC: Behavior in public places: Comparison of couples accompanied and Unaccompanied by children. J Marr Faro 36:750-755, 1974.
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Appendix A In t h e M e t h o d s s e c t i o n o f this paper, a s u b s t a n t i a l bias was n o t e d in t h e ret u r n s o f t h e m a i l q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Of t h e 1 0 2 r e s p o n d e n t s o n l y 7 were black. This is c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f blacks in t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o w h i c h t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were sent. T h e f o l l o w i n g analysis d e t e r m i n e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this bias a n d suggests s o m e o f t h e distinctive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b l a c k first-time fathers. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b l a c k u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , ~he 7 blacks were c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e 95 w h i t e s o n every variable in t h e study. T a b l e 6 s h o w s t h e results o f this c o m p a r i s o n , all racial d i f f e r e n c e s significant at t h e 10% level or less, as well as t h e t w o k e y variables in this s t u d y ( f a n t a s y a n d h o l i d a y c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s ) . F o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s emerge. Being a b l a c k n e w f a t h e r is positively r e l a t e d t o e x t e n d e d f a m i l y p a r t i c i p a t i o n , t o successful a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e n e w b a b y , t o a lack o f f o r m a l t r a i n i n g in c h i l d b i r t h , a n d t o n o t b e i n g P r o t e s t a n t . S o m e o f t h e s t r o n g e s t a s s o c i a t i o n s o f b e i n g b l a c k are t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t describe e x t e n d e d f a m i l y p a r t i c i p a t i o n in child care. Blacks are significantly m o r e likely t o have cared for s o m e o n e else's b a b y b e f o r e t h e i r s was b o r n (gamm a = 1.00, or all blacks h a d s u c h e x p e r i e n c e ) , t o have h a d o u t s i d e h e l p for t h e wife o n t h e r e t u r n f r o m t h e h o s p i t a l w i t h t h e n e w b a b y ( g a m m a = 1.00, or all blacks), t o have t h e b a b y sleep in t h e s a m e b e d r o o m w i t h t h e c o u p l e ( g a m m a = .90), t o have h e l p e d b y o f t e n c h a n g i n g t h e n e w b a b y ' s diapers ( g a m m a = .72), t o have h e l p e d b y g e t t i n g u p a t n i g h t t o t a k e care of t h e n e w b a b y ( g a m m a = .65), a n d t o feeling closer t o t h e wife's p a r e n t s - - r a t i n g t h e m t h e s a m e or h i g h e r since t h e b a b y ' s b i r t h ( g a m m a = .42). All o f t h e s e f a c t o r s p o i n t t o t h e e n t i r e b l a c k family, i n c l u d i n g t h e h u s b a n d , h e l p i n g w i t h t h e care o f this child as well as w i t h o t h e r b a b i e s in t h e f a m i l y in t h e past. This is h a r d l y t h e image o f m a c h i s m o or o f irresponsible black male c h a u v i n i s m suggested b y m a n y b l a c k s t e r e o t y p e s . A n o t h e r distinctive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f blacks is t h e i r successful a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e n e w b a b y . S u b s t a n t i a l l y m o r e t h a n whites, blacks are likely t o h a v e h a d n o c h a n g e in feelings t o w a r d t h e b a b y since t h e b a b y ' s b i r t h ( g a m m a = 1.00, or all blacks) a n d t o have gone o u t w i t h t h e wife as o f t e n , or m o r e , since t h e b a b y ' s b i r t h ( g a m m a = .75). T h e s e variables suggest a stable, positive a c c e p t a n c e of t h e n e w child, w h i c h , w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d e x t e n s i v e sharing o f child care responsibilities, describe a relaxed, noncrisis m a r i t a l a d j u s t m e n t . T w o individual c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e m a i n . Blacks are significantly less likely t o att e n d n a t u r a l c h i l d b i r t h or L a m a z e classes ( g a m m a = 1.00, o r n o blacks). This m a y reflect ( t h o u g h statistically n o n s i g n i f i c a n t in this s t u d y ) d i f f e r e n c e s in e d u c a t i o n a n d even m o r e basic c u l t u r a l differences. T h e role o f t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y seems t o d o m i n a t e w h a t a b l a c k f a t h e r considers t o be n a t u r a l a b o u t c h i l d b i r t h . He n e e d s n o classes in t h e s u b j e c t . T h e final p r e d i c t o r is b e i n g n o n - P r o t e s t a n t ( g a m m a = .72). As was s e e n in t h e t e x t , w h i t e s w h o were h a p p i e s t in t h e i r marriage since t h e b a b y ' s arrival a n d w h o m o s t suvcessfully used t h e h o l i d a y c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m were m o r e likely t o be " n o n - P r o t e s t a n t s " or f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s . A n d blacks are even m o r e likely t o be " n o n - p r o t e s t a n t , " giving f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f t h e i r m o r e successful a d a p t a t i o n t o the new baby. Before c o n c l u d i n g , a special c h e c k was m a d e o f bias b y race in r e s p o n s e t o t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d t w o c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s ( h o l i d a y s a n d f a n t a s y ) . As seen above, blacks are significantly m o r e likely t o go o u t n o w ( g a m m a = .75), b u t t h e y are n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h i t e s in t h e i r wish t o r e t u r n t o p r e b a b y days ( g a m m a = .06). Thus, t h e f o r m e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e latter argues for t h e blacks b e i n g e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e p r e s e n t analysis. T h o u g h p r o v o c a t i v e , t h e f o r e g o i n g analysis m u s t be qualified. It is unfortu~ n a t e l y b a s e d o n o n l y seven b l a c k r e s p o n d e n t s o f d u b i o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s t o
R i c h a r d G i l m a n a n d David K n o x
TABLE 6.
147
CROSS TABULATION ASSOCIATIONS OF BEING A BLACK NEW FATHER
i
A s s o c i a t i o n s of Being Black:
r
Gamma
Chi 2
df
p*
H a v i n g g i v e n p r i o r c a r e to s o m e o n e e l s e ' s baby
1.00
3.6
1
.02
Having had no c h a n g e of f e e l i n g s s i n c e birth
1.00
3.6
1
.02
Not a t t e n d i n g n a t u r a l birth or Lamaze c l a s s e s
1.00
1.6
1
.09
H a v i n g h a d h e l p for w i f e on r e t u r n from h o s p i t a l
1.00
1.4
1
.10
H a v i n g baby s l e e p in room with couple
.90
9.6
1
. O0
G o i n g out with wife a s often or more s i n c e birth
.75
2.6
1
.04
7.
Not being Protestant
.72
3.9
1
,02
$.
Changing diapers 4 or more times per week
.72
3.3
1
.03
Having gotten up at night to take care of baby
.65
2.3
1
.05
Rating i n - l a w s the same or higher since birth
.42
11.3
2
.00
Expressing no desire to return to before birth
.06
0.1
l
.89
1.
2.
3.
4.
S.
6.
9.
10;
11.
* For all t a b l e s with one d e g r e e of freedom, F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t was used to calculate the exact probability level rather than an a p p r o x i mate p r o b a b i l i t y . these cases.
Thus, small sample sizes do not distort the results in
148
Child Psychiatry and H u m a n D e v e l o p m e n t
the p o p u l a t i o n o f black first-time fathers f r o m Pitt C o u n t y Hospital in 1973-74. What it does prove is that these blacks are significantly different f r o m the white respondents and should not be c o m b i n e d into a p o o l e d group of respondents, Thus, the decision to exclude t h e m f r o m the analysis in the t e x t o f this paper was appropriate. Even more i m p o r t a n t , the analysis in this A p p e n d i x argues convincingly for the future s t u d y of the black new father. It w o u l d appear he has best f o u n d the secret to dispelling the crisis of the n e w baby.
Richard Gilman, PhD David Knox, PhD East Carolina University
Fantasy (thinking back to prebaby times) and holidays (going out alone with the wife) are examined here as methods of coping with parenthood for 93 white, first-time fathers. Results suggest that only the holiday coping mechanism is associated with maintaining or improving marital satisfaction. The use of fantasy actually decreases marital satisfaction. These data suggest that the discrepancies in the conclusions of previous "parenthood as crisis" studies may be accounted for through the analysis of coping mechanisms that various fathers utilize.
ABSTRACT:
A declining birth rate and the emergence of the National Organization for Nonparents indicate an increasing concern for the negative effect children have on one's personal and marital happiness. Previous studies on the impact of children on marital happiness have yielded contradictory findings. Using a coping model for first-time fathers, this article suggests one possible explanation for these inconsistencies: Differences in findings on parenthood crisis can be explained by different ways parents cope with such potential crisis. Furthermore, this study's emphasis on first-time fathers reflects an increased cultural emphasis on the role sharing, by husbands, of childrearing responsibilities. With the father's increased participation, the importance of his coping with the baby becomes paramount. Drs. Gilman and Knox are Associate Professors of Sociology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834. The authors would like to thank Mrs. Therese Lawler for her cooperation in making the birth certificates of the Pitt County Hospital, Greenville, North Carolina, available. Additional appreciation is also expressed to Charles Garrison, Yoon Kim, Paul Tschetter, and Buford Rhea for their assistance in developing the questionnaire. This research was supported by a grant from the Research Council of East Carolina University. 134
Child Psychiatry and Human Development
Vol. 6(3), Spring 1976
Richard Gilman and David Knox
135
Background Research on " p a r e n t h o o d as crisis" derives from the proposition that the family is an integrated social system of roles and statuses and that adding or removing members will force a major reorganization of that system [ 1 ]. Some studies have concluded that parenthood is not a particularly upsetting event. Hobbs [2] observed that " n o t one of 53 fathers would use the phrase 'extensive or severe crisis' to describe his first experience with parenthood." Russell [1] reported that fatherhood was only a slight or moderate crisis event (described as a change of self, spouse, or relationship with significant others that that the person defines as " b o t h e r s o m e " ) for 272 first-time fathers. On the other hand, parenthood as a crisis event was reported b y 83% of LeMasters' [3] 46 couples and 53% of Dyer's [4] 32 couples. Typical complaints of fathers are in reference to financial strain, social restrictions, jealousy, interruptions, and exhaustion: "The expenses caused by the baby coupled with the fact that m y wife quit working is a b o u t to do me in"; "We can't go places like we used t o " ; "When we married, I thought my wife was going to take care of me. As it turns out, she takes care of the baby and I take care of t h e m " ; "I can't watch television or read the newspaper without the sound of a crying b a b y " ; "I haven't had a good night's sleep since we brought the baby home from the hospital" [1, 3, 4, 5]. As a general means of coping with an unhappy and frustrating family life, middle-class males typically retreat to their offices, alcohol, and/or other w o m e n [3, 6]. While these coping mechanisms may provide temporary relief from the unpleasant situation for the male, they are likely to have negative consequences for the marital relationship: 1. Since relationships begin and continue as a function of sharing mutually enjoyable activities over time, the husband who spends time away from his wife does little to improve his relationship with her. 2. The fact that the unhappy husband retreats alone from the home increases the probability that he will become involved in another relationship. Affairs occur when the spouse is unhappy at h o m e and has an alternative source of interpersonal reinforcement in the form of a secretary, co-worker, or lonely w o m e n in a hotel lounge. Hypotheses This study focuses on t w o additional means by which the husband may more successfully cope with the early months of fatherhood: fantasy and holidays. Fantasy (or thinking back to the " g o o d old pre-
136
Child Psychiatry and Human Development
baby days") and holidays (reestablishing courtship behavior with the wife by seeing a movie, going out to eat, or taking a drive--without the baby) are examined here as being positively associated with marital happiness. Fantasy should improve the husband's happiness by allowing him to "instantly replace" a crying baby and complaining wife with pleasant thoughts of the past. This mental review of happier times should encourage the perspective that the "crying baby days" will soon be over and the couple can then return to a more "natural" home life. Hence, the first hypothesis is that fantasy focused on prebaby days will be positively associated with reported marital happiness. Likewise, taking the wife out alone (as in prebaby times) should help to restore the feelings of marital sharing and togetherness, which the baby may have shattered. Hence, the second hypothesis is that the frequency of going out with the wife alone after the baby's birth will be positively associated with reported marital happiness. Methods To test these two hypotheses, all first-time fathers (382) of legitimate babies born (neonatal deaths excluded) in the Pitt County Hospital, Greenville, North Carolina, between April 1973 and March 1974 were mailed a 43-item questionnaire. (This was a part of a broader study reported earlier [7] .) Follow-up postcards and telephone calls were used to maximize questionnaire response. These efforts netted 102 usable questionnaires for a return rate ef 28%. No systematic records of social background variables were available from Pitt County Memorial Hospital for this population of first-time fathers. However, to check on response bias, a Pitt County health official was asked to judge the sample's validity. The most extreme bias was a substantial underrepresentation of blacks. To counter this potential source of distortion, first-time black fathers have been excluded from the immediate analysis but are discussed in Appendix A.* The exclusion of these blacks reduced the sample to 95 white first-time fathers. Other, though less extreme, biases were found. Persons with less education and lower income were both underrepresented. Such difficulties of response and attendant biases are frequent to mailed questionnaire survey studies. Questionnaires were keypunched and analyzed using the computer. Statistics included simple cross-tabulations, gamma as a measure of association, and chisquare as a measure of significance. Because no sample was involved, the test of significance was an advisory rather than definitive measure. With the small number of respondents (95), the 10% level of significance was selected for the significance test so as to equalize the possibility o f a Type I error (the error of saying that percentage differences are real when, in fact, they are due to chance) with *Though severely limited by the small number of blacks, the analysis in this Appendix suggests blacks are significantly more successful in adapting to the crisis of first-time fatherhood,
Richard Gilman and David K n o x
137
the possibility of a Type II error (the error of saying differences are due to chance when, in fact, they are real). Results and Discussion
Does Fantasy Help ? Twenty-six percent of the 95 white respondents said they wished (some or a great deal) that they could return to the time before the baby was born. To the degree that escape into fantasy is an indication of crisis (whether or n o t it also reflects successful coping with that crisis), this relatively small percentage argues that these first-time fathers experienced less frequent crisis than reported by LeMasters [3] and Dyer [4] b u t more crisis than r e p o r t e d b y H o b b s [2]. The frequency of crisis experienced here is more in line with that reported by Russell [1]. When viewed as a coping mechanism, however, fantasy leaves something to be desired. Table 1 provides evidence for the rejection of the first hypothesis, that fantasy focused on prebaby days will be positively associated with expressions of marital happiness. The data show a strong negative relationship between fantasy coping and marital happiness (better than average). Whereas 68% of the fantasizers report better than average marriages, 90% of the nonfantasizers report happy marriages. This rejection of the first hypothesis suggests that f a n t a s y may increase the father's unhappiness rather than restore his happiness. For example, the father may allow his mind to wander to prebaby days when he and his wife shared quiet talks at home, visited with friends, and went to an occasional movie. This vision is shattered when the father opens his eyes to see that he is alone in their living room (the wife is upstairs with the baby), that no friends are coming over (the wife said, " I ' m t o o tired"), and that any movies seen will have to be on TV.
Variables Associated with Use o f Fantasy Having found fantasy to be an unsuccessful coping mechanism, it may be helpful to explore which characteristics of first-time fathers distinguish those who employ fantasy from those who do not. Such an analysis may help us to better understand the failure of this hypothesis. Table 2 presents every variable associated with fantasy (wishing, some or a great deal, to return with the wife to the time before the
Child Psychiatry and Human Development
138
TABLE 1 EFFECT OF WISH TO RETURN ON RATING OF PRESENT MARITAL HAPPINESS
Wish to Return*
P re s e n t
Marital Happiness
Some t Great Deal
Better than Average
68
90
84
Terrible through Average
32
10
16
100
100
100
(zs)
(70)
(9s)
(N)
None
7
Blacks
102
Grand Total
Gamma : - .62
Chi - Square = 5.2
Total
d../f- 1
p = .01
* Question 19: "How much do you wish you and your wife could return to the time before the baby was born? . . . . 1 = None, 2 = Some, 3 = A great deal" ** Question 31: "Rate your marital happiness since the baby's birth." "1 : Terrible, 2, 3 = Average, 4, 5 = Great"
b a b y was b o r n ) at t h e 10% level o f significance or less. Several patterns emerge. F a n t a s y is positively related t o w e a k marital adjustm e n t , t o e d u c a t i o n , t o distance f r o m the b a b y , and to being Protestant. In t e r m s o f these sets o f characteristics, fantasizers are m o s t typically less h a p p y with their marriage since the b a b y ' s birth ( g a m m a = .62) a n d less t h a n ecstatic with their b a b y ( g a m m a = .91). As hyp o t h e s i z e d , p r e s e n t u n h a p p i n e s s with the b a b y a n d t h e marriage m a y
Richard Gilman and David Knox
139
TABLE 2. C R O S S TABULATION ASSOCIATIONS O F W I S H I N G ,
SOME OR
GREAT DEAL, TO RETURN W I T H W I F E T O TIME BEFORE BABY W A S B O R N f
Association of W i s h to Return with:
Gamma
Chi 2
d~f
p
i. Expressing less than extreme love of baby
.91
23.3
1
.00
2. Rating marriage average to terrible since birth
.62
5.2
1
.01
Working less than full-time
.62
2.2
1
.05
4. Going out with wife less often s i n c e birth
.58
5.6
1
.01
with couple
.49
1.9
1
.10
Being Protestant
.45
1.9
i
.10
.41
2.6
1
.06
3o
5. Not having baby sleep in room
So
7. Being college graduate or more
education
force the father into fantasy, which our data suggest do n o t provide him relief from the unhappiness. Rather, his fantasy may increase his unhappiness, and a vicious cycle is set in motion. The next strongest characteristic of fantasizers is education. Both having a college degree {gamma = .41) and working less than full-time {gamma = ,62) are positively associated with wishing to return with the wife to the time before the baby was born. The majority of the part-time workers were students at the local university; thus, this is more a measure of education than of e m p l o y m e n t or economic welfare. It is probable that the earning of a college degree increases the capacity to think abstractly (use fantasy). Apparently, the use of this capability as a coping mechanism for fatherhood has negative consequences for the father, the baby, and the marriage.
140
Child Psychiatry and Human Development
The third strongest characteristic is the distance at which the firsttime father keeps the new baby. Fantasy is positively associated with n o t having the new baby sleep in the same b e d r o o m with the couple (gamma = .49). It is possible that the father insisted that the baby sleep in his/her own bedroom. Finally, being Protestant is positively associated with fantasizing (gamma = .45). The meaning of this is less clear. Perhaps the answer lies more among the non-Protestants than among Protestants. The non-Protestant categories were " O t h e r " (20), " R o m a n Catholic" (3), "Agnostic/Atheist" (3), and "Unitarian" (1). Focusing down even further, the " O t h e r " category includes those who reported themselves as being Baptists (4), Church of God Followers (1), Spirit of Baptized Christians (1), and other more fundamentalist sects (14). One explanation suggests that those fathers who selected the "non-Protestant" categories are more fundamentalistic and perceive babies as a gift from God, which influences them to feel good (or n o t express negative feelings) about God's gift. Their perspective may also be a function of lack of knowledge regarding the various categories of religion. In summary, fantasy is n o t a successful source of coping with the crisis triggered by the new baby's arrival, b u t is more likely to be a result of that crisis. Fantasizers tend to be educated, to keep a cautious distance from the baby, and to be Protestant. From these findings, one might conclude that fathers who use fantasy as a coping mechanism would be well advised to heed Shakespeare's thought, "Things without remedy should be without regard: what's done cannot be undone." New fathers, particularly educated Protestants, should be encouraged to focus on the positive aspects.of parenthood: (a) the chance to observe the magic of the "little people" as they discover the world for the first time; (b) the joy of holding a baby in your arms and realizing that is part of y o u and y o u r wife; and (c) the anticipation of following the development of y o u r baby across the years and of relating to him/her as an adult.
Do Holidays Help ? Since the baby's arrival, 46% of the 95 white respondents go o u t with their wives as often, or more often, as compared with before. Considering the strains and demands placed upon the couple by the arrival of their first child, it is surprising to learn that these pressures do n o t seriously inhibit the social life of nearly half the group of firsttime fathers. However, these data show that this continued social life has desira-
Richard Gilman and David Knox
141
ble consequences as a coping mechanism. Table 3 provides evidence for the acceptance of the second hypothesis that the frequency of going out with the wife after the baby's birth is positively associated with expressions of marital happiness. Whereas 91% of those who maintain their social life report better than average marriages, only 78% of those with a restricted social life report h a p p y marriages. The importance of holidays can be seen in that babies have the capacity to interrupt those patterns of marital interaction that are _essential to keep positive feelings flowing in a relationship [8, 9]. Couples with a new baby might be well advised to schedule, on a frequent basis, a sitter to care for their baby while they go o u t alone and care for their relationship.
Variables Associated with Using the Holiday Coping Mechanism What are the distinctive characteristics of those first-time fathers who successfully use holidays with their wives as a coping mechanism? Table 4 presents every variable associated with holidays (going o u t with the wife as much as, or more often than, before the baby's birth) at the 10% level of significance or less. For fathers, holidays are positively related to strong marital adjustment, to helping with the baby, to more emotional distance from the husband's parents, and to the sex of the baby. Going out with the wife as often or more often after the baby's arrival is positively associated with expressing extreme love for the new baby (gamma = .76) and with expressing no wish to return to the time before the baby's arrival (gamma = .58). Table 5 shows this latter relationship between the two coping mechanisms considered by this study in greater detail. Whereas only 14% of those continuing their social life express a wish to return to happier prebaby days, 37% of those with a restricted social life express a wish to return. Thus, fantasy (the unsuccessful coping mechanism) is negatively related to holidays (the successful coping mechanism). Likewise, those variables negatively related to fantasy are positively related to holidays (e.g., less education and being non-Protestant). The next strongest characteristics of the couples using the holiday coping mechanism, as shown in Table 4, are such enabling factors as having help with the baby for 3 or more weeks after the birth (gamma = .52) and being relatively free of diaper changes (gamma = .34). The former makes going o u t with the wife possible, and the latter may be
142
Child P s y c h i a t r y a n d H u m a n D e V e l o p m e n t
TABLE 3 .
EFFECT OF G O I N G OUT W I T H WIFE ON RATING OF PRESENT
MARITAL HAPPINESS
'Present
Going Out With Wife*
Marital Happiness
As o f t e n , M o r e o f t e n
Better t h a n Average T e r r i b l e through Average
(N)
Less o f t e n
Total
91
78
84
9
22
16
100
100
100
(44)
(51)
(95)
Blacks
7
Grand Total
G a m m a = * .47
Chi - Square
* Question
24:
102 = 1.9
"On the average,
y o u a n d y o u r w i f e go o u t t o e a t ,
d__~f: 1
p-
.I0
how many times each week did
see a movie, take a drive, etc, before
the b a b y w a s b o r n ? . . . . 1 = N o t i m e s p e r w e e k , 2 = O n c e p e r w e e k , 3 = Two times per week,
4 = Three times per week,
5 = Four t i m e s p e r w e e k ,
6 = F i v e o r more t i m e s p e r w e e k . " Question
25:
"On the average,
h o w m a n y t i m e s e a c h w e e k do y o u
and your w i f e go out to e a t , see a m o v i e , t a k e a d r i v e , e t c . , n o w ? " Same o u t c o m e s as Q u e s t i o n 24. Q u e s t i o n 25.
This v a r i a b l e is Q u e s t i o n 24 minus
I f r e s u l t is zero o r p o s i t i v e , then r e s p o n d e n t goes out as
o f t e n or more o f t e n now; i f n e g a t i v e , r e s p o n d e n t goes out l e s s o f t e n n o w .
Richard Gilman and David Knox
143
TABLE 4. CROSS TABULATION ASSOCIATIONS OF G O I N G O U T W I T H W I F E NOW
AS M U C H
AS O R M O R E OFTEN T H A N BEFORE BABY'S BIRTH
A s s o c i a t i o n of Going Out with:
Gamma
Chi 2
d_f.f
p
1.
E x p r e s s i n g ex t re m e love of baby
.76
6 .3
1
.01
2.
E x p r e s s i n g no w i s h to return to before birth
.58
5 .6
1
.01
Having h e l p for 3 or more w e e k s a f t er birth
.52
2 .4
1
.06
Rating parents the same or lower s i n c e birth
.51
7.1
2
.03
Rating marriage above average since birth
.47
1.9
1
.10
6.
Having a daughter
.44
4,0
1
.03
7.
Not s p e c i f i c a l l y w a n t i n g a son
.41
3.4
1
.04
8.
Having e d u c a t i o n l e s s than a college degree
.37
2.7
1
.07
Not being P r o t e s t a n t
.37
2.1
1
.10
Changing d i a p e r s 3 or fewer t i m e s per w e e k
.34
2 .2
1
.09
3.
4.
5.
9. 10.
* Of t h e 39 r e s p o n d e n t s who did not r e a l l y want or prefer a son
before the baby was born, ~)nly seven preferred a daughter. The other 32 s a i d t h e y r e a l l y d i d n ' t c a r e .
Child Psychiatry and Human Development
144
TABLE 5.
EFFECT OF GOING OUT WITH WIFE ON DESIRE TO RETURN
D e s i r e to Return
Going Out With W i f e As o f t e n , More often Less often
Total
Some through Gr eat d e a l
14
37
26
None
86
63
74
100
100
100
(44)
(51)
(95)
(N)
7
Blacks Grand TQtal
Gamma
"- - .58
Chi
Square = 5.6
102
d._f_f= 1
.2 : .01
an effect of being absent from the home and n o t being available for such mundane tasks. Though social life is encouraged by extended help with the baby, as described, this help does not appear to come from the first:time father's own parents. In fact, fathers who successfully utilize the holiday coping mechanism appear to feel more distance with their own parents. Going out is positively related to rating the husband's parents the same or lower since the baby's birth (gamma = .51). Of course, going out may also be a function of avoiding one's parents who have come for an extended visit. The last characteristic of those using the holiday coping mechanism is the anticipated and actual sex of the new baby. Not specifically wanting a son (gamma = .41) and having a daughter (gamma = .44) are both positively related to going out with the wife. In summary, then, holidays are a successful means of coping with crisis brought on by the arrival of the new baby for white first-time
Richard Gilman and David K n o x
145
fathers. In addition, it is concluded that the two coping mechanisms (fantasy and holidays) are related to marital happiness (negatively and positively, respectively). In turn, marital happiness is related to expressing extreme love for the new baby, having less than a college degree, and being non-Protestant. Holidays, however, are directly related to enabling factors surrounding going out, to the respondent's expressing less dependency on his parents, and to the pattern of baby's sex expected and sex experienced. Implications Previous studies on parenthood as a crisis event have revealed inconsistent conclusions. Using a coping model, this study suggested an explanation for these inconsistencies. In essence, first-time fathers may have differential success in coping with the changes wrought by an infant. Furthermore, new fathers may use different kinds of coping mechanisms to adapt to the changed life-style. Our data suggest that of two alternative coping mechanisms (fantasy and holidays), only holidays have positive consequences for the father, the baby, and the marriage. Aware of the differential consequences of these respective coping mechanisms, family life educators, as well as marriage and family counselors, might increase the awareness of their students and clients regarding the use of the holiday coping mechanism. Subsequent research on parenthood and crisis might also control for the use of these coping mechanisms before making conclusions about the effect of children.
References 1. Russell CS: Transition to parenthood: Problems and gratifications. J Marr Faro 36:294-301, 1974. 2. Hobbs DF: Transition to parenthood: A replication and an extension. J Marr Faro 30:413-417, 1968. 3. LeMasters EE: Parenthood as crisis. JMarr Faro 27:367-372, 1957. 4. Dyer ED: Parenthood as crisis: A re-study. JMarr Faro 25:196-201, 1963. 5. Tasch R J : The role of the father in the family. J Exper Ed 20:319-361, 1952. 6. Benson L: Fatherhood: A Sociological Perspective. New York, R a n d o m House, 1968. 7. Knox D, Gilman R: The first year of fatherhood. Fam Pers 9:31-34, 1974. 8. Rollins BC, Feldman H: Marital satisfaction over the family life cycle. J Marr Faro 32:20-28, 1970. 9. Rosenblatt PC: Behavior in public places: Comparison of couples accompanied and Unaccompanied by children. J Marr Faro 36:750-755, 1974.
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Child P s y c h i a t r y a n d H u m a n D e v e l o p m e n t
Appendix A In t h e M e t h o d s s e c t i o n o f this paper, a s u b s t a n t i a l bias was n o t e d in t h e ret u r n s o f t h e m a i l q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Of t h e 1 0 2 r e s p o n d e n t s o n l y 7 were black. This is c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f blacks in t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o w h i c h t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were sent. T h e f o l l o w i n g analysis d e t e r m i n e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this bias a n d suggests s o m e o f t h e distinctive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b l a c k first-time fathers. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b l a c k u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , ~he 7 blacks were c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e 95 w h i t e s o n every variable in t h e study. T a b l e 6 s h o w s t h e results o f this c o m p a r i s o n , all racial d i f f e r e n c e s significant at t h e 10% level or less, as well as t h e t w o k e y variables in this s t u d y ( f a n t a s y a n d h o l i d a y c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s ) . F o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s emerge. Being a b l a c k n e w f a t h e r is positively r e l a t e d t o e x t e n d e d f a m i l y p a r t i c i p a t i o n , t o successful a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e n e w b a b y , t o a lack o f f o r m a l t r a i n i n g in c h i l d b i r t h , a n d t o n o t b e i n g P r o t e s t a n t . S o m e o f t h e s t r o n g e s t a s s o c i a t i o n s o f b e i n g b l a c k are t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t describe e x t e n d e d f a m i l y p a r t i c i p a t i o n in child care. Blacks are significantly m o r e likely t o have cared for s o m e o n e else's b a b y b e f o r e t h e i r s was b o r n (gamm a = 1.00, or all blacks h a d s u c h e x p e r i e n c e ) , t o have h a d o u t s i d e h e l p for t h e wife o n t h e r e t u r n f r o m t h e h o s p i t a l w i t h t h e n e w b a b y ( g a m m a = 1.00, or all blacks), t o have t h e b a b y sleep in t h e s a m e b e d r o o m w i t h t h e c o u p l e ( g a m m a = .90), t o have h e l p e d b y o f t e n c h a n g i n g t h e n e w b a b y ' s diapers ( g a m m a = .72), t o have h e l p e d b y g e t t i n g u p a t n i g h t t o t a k e care of t h e n e w b a b y ( g a m m a = .65), a n d t o feeling closer t o t h e wife's p a r e n t s - - r a t i n g t h e m t h e s a m e or h i g h e r since t h e b a b y ' s b i r t h ( g a m m a = .42). All o f t h e s e f a c t o r s p o i n t t o t h e e n t i r e b l a c k family, i n c l u d i n g t h e h u s b a n d , h e l p i n g w i t h t h e care o f this child as well as w i t h o t h e r b a b i e s in t h e f a m i l y in t h e past. This is h a r d l y t h e image o f m a c h i s m o or o f irresponsible black male c h a u v i n i s m suggested b y m a n y b l a c k s t e r e o t y p e s . A n o t h e r distinctive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f blacks is t h e i r successful a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e n e w b a b y . S u b s t a n t i a l l y m o r e t h a n whites, blacks are likely t o h a v e h a d n o c h a n g e in feelings t o w a r d t h e b a b y since t h e b a b y ' s b i r t h ( g a m m a = 1.00, or all blacks) a n d t o have gone o u t w i t h t h e wife as o f t e n , or m o r e , since t h e b a b y ' s b i r t h ( g a m m a = .75). T h e s e variables suggest a stable, positive a c c e p t a n c e of t h e n e w child, w h i c h , w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d e x t e n s i v e sharing o f child care responsibilities, describe a relaxed, noncrisis m a r i t a l a d j u s t m e n t . T w o individual c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e m a i n . Blacks are significantly less likely t o att e n d n a t u r a l c h i l d b i r t h or L a m a z e classes ( g a m m a = 1.00, o r n o blacks). This m a y reflect ( t h o u g h statistically n o n s i g n i f i c a n t in this s t u d y ) d i f f e r e n c e s in e d u c a t i o n a n d even m o r e basic c u l t u r a l differences. T h e role o f t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y seems t o d o m i n a t e w h a t a b l a c k f a t h e r considers t o be n a t u r a l a b o u t c h i l d b i r t h . He n e e d s n o classes in t h e s u b j e c t . T h e final p r e d i c t o r is b e i n g n o n - P r o t e s t a n t ( g a m m a = .72). As was s e e n in t h e t e x t , w h i t e s w h o were h a p p i e s t in t h e i r marriage since t h e b a b y ' s arrival a n d w h o m o s t suvcessfully used t h e h o l i d a y c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m were m o r e likely t o be " n o n - P r o t e s t a n t s " or f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s . A n d blacks are even m o r e likely t o be " n o n - p r o t e s t a n t , " giving f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f t h e i r m o r e successful a d a p t a t i o n t o the new baby. Before c o n c l u d i n g , a special c h e c k was m a d e o f bias b y race in r e s p o n s e t o t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d t w o c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s ( h o l i d a y s a n d f a n t a s y ) . As seen above, blacks are significantly m o r e likely t o go o u t n o w ( g a m m a = .75), b u t t h e y are n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h i t e s in t h e i r wish t o r e t u r n t o p r e b a b y days ( g a m m a = .06). Thus, t h e f o r m e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e latter argues for t h e blacks b e i n g e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e p r e s e n t analysis. T h o u g h p r o v o c a t i v e , t h e f o r e g o i n g analysis m u s t be qualified. It is unfortu~ n a t e l y b a s e d o n o n l y seven b l a c k r e s p o n d e n t s o f d u b i o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s t o
R i c h a r d G i l m a n a n d David K n o x
TABLE 6.
147
CROSS TABULATION ASSOCIATIONS OF BEING A BLACK NEW FATHER
i
A s s o c i a t i o n s of Being Black:
r
Gamma
Chi 2
df
p*
H a v i n g g i v e n p r i o r c a r e to s o m e o n e e l s e ' s baby
1.00
3.6
1
.02
Having had no c h a n g e of f e e l i n g s s i n c e birth
1.00
3.6
1
.02
Not a t t e n d i n g n a t u r a l birth or Lamaze c l a s s e s
1.00
1.6
1
.09
H a v i n g h a d h e l p for w i f e on r e t u r n from h o s p i t a l
1.00
1.4
1
.10
H a v i n g baby s l e e p in room with couple
.90
9.6
1
. O0
G o i n g out with wife a s often or more s i n c e birth
.75
2.6
1
.04
7.
Not being Protestant
.72
3.9
1
,02
$.
Changing diapers 4 or more times per week
.72
3.3
1
.03
Having gotten up at night to take care of baby
.65
2.3
1
.05
Rating i n - l a w s the same or higher since birth
.42
11.3
2
.00
Expressing no desire to return to before birth
.06
0.1
l
.89
1.
2.
3.
4.
S.
6.
9.
10;
11.
* For all t a b l e s with one d e g r e e of freedom, F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t was used to calculate the exact probability level rather than an a p p r o x i mate p r o b a b i l i t y . these cases.
Thus, small sample sizes do not distort the results in
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Child Psychiatry and H u m a n D e v e l o p m e n t
the p o p u l a t i o n o f black first-time fathers f r o m Pitt C o u n t y Hospital in 1973-74. What it does prove is that these blacks are significantly different f r o m the white respondents and should not be c o m b i n e d into a p o o l e d group of respondents, Thus, the decision to exclude t h e m f r o m the analysis in the t e x t o f this paper was appropriate. Even more i m p o r t a n t , the analysis in this A p p e n d i x argues convincingly for the future s t u d y of the black new father. It w o u l d appear he has best f o u n d the secret to dispelling the crisis of the n e w baby.
