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Cultivating Adjunct Faculty: Strategies Beyond Orientation Lisette Santisteban, MSN, RN, RNC-OB, and Aida L. Egues, DNP, RN, APHN-BC, CNE Lisette Santisteban, MSN, RN, RNC-OB, is Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, New York City College of Technology, Brooklyn, NY; and Aida L. Egues, DNP, RN, APHN-BC, CNE, is Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, New York City College of Technology of The City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY. Keywords Education, nursing shortage, workforce Correspondence Lisette Santisteban, MSN, RN, RNC-OB, Department of Nursing, New York City College of Technology, 300 Jay Street, P 505, Brooklyn, NY 11201 E-mail: [email protected]
Santisteban
Egues
PROBLEM. Schools of nursing across the country are using adjunct faculty to meet clinical, didactic, and online instructional needs of their nursing programs. While adjunct faculty are vital to the alleviation of the nursing shortage and the shortage of nursing faculty, and to the preparation of the current and future nursing workforce, little is known about cultivating adjunct faculty as nurse educators. METHOD. To investigate the cultivation of adjunct nursing faculty, the authors engaged in a comprehensive review of the extant literature of primary databases and reports from accredited nursing programs and professional nursing organizations. FINDINGS. Scant literature exists that seeks to identify issues associated with developing adjunct nursing faculty as educators, including role transition needs, and useful approaches to orientation, mentorship, or retention. CONCLUSIONS. Working toward cultivation of adjunct faculty includes innovative support measures beyond simple orientation. Orientation should be comprehensive, and move to mentorship as a key component that helps establish a sustainable nurse educator career for adjunct nursing faculty. It is incumbent upon schools of nursing to cultivate their adjunct faculty, and this article includes creative approaches to doing so, with recommendations for nursing education, nursing practice, and nursing research settings. While adjunct faculty may successfully meet some of the challenges faced by nursing programs, they themselves face many challenges that may hinder their success as nurse educators.
The anticipated shortage of registered nurses (RNs) in the United States, and the Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2011) guidelines for the future of nursing continue as topics of discourse among nurse educators. The dilemma remains as to how nursing programs can meet both the projected shortage of RNs and the recommendation that 80% of RNs have the baccalaureate degree by 2020 (IOM, 2011). The ensuing nationwide approach to resolution of these issues entails that nursing programs increase not only their enrollment of nursing students but also their enrollment 152 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc Nursing Forum Volume 49, No. 3, July-September 2014
of RNs seeking to advance their education to be competitive in the workforce. Preliminary survey data released by the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) indicate that continued increases in enrollment in entry-level baccalaureate programs increased for the thirteenth consecutive year. In addition, a 12.4% increase of students enrolled in baccalaureatedegree completion (RN-to-BSN) programs in 2013 further validates the desire of RNs to seek advancement of nursing education. However, approximately 54,000 qualified applicants were
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues turned away from 610 entry-level baccalaureate programs in 2013, in large part because of a shortage of (a) nursing faculty, (b) clinical placement sites, and (c) funding (AACN, 2014). While schools of nursing across the United States are using adjunct or parttime faculty to meet clinical, didactic, and online instructional needs of their nursing programs (Ellison & Williams, 2009), little literature exists that seeks to identify issues associated with developing adjunct nursing faculty as educators. Research is scarce as to the role transition needs of adjunct nursing faculty, including creative approaches to orientation, mentorship, or retention. The lack of such literature is problematic at a time when use of adjunct faculty to facilitate valuable student education is at a critical point. Hence, the purpose of this article is twofold: (a) to provide a comprehensive review of the extant literature on cultivation of adjunct faculty as nurse educators, and (b) to provide an innovative approach to retaining adjunct faculty key to alleviating the nursing shortage and shortage of nursing faculty, and preparing the current and future RN workforces. Review of the Literature The authors engaged in a comprehensive review of the Medline, PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), and ProQuest databases, and in reading reports from accredited nursing programs and professional nursing organizations to investigate the cultivation of adjunct nursing faculty. The literature within the past decade reflects that a significant shortage of nursing faculty has been reported for years. The National League for Nursing (NLN) found that (a) the shortage of nursing faculty impacted the inability of nursing programs to admit more qualified applicants than they could accept, and (b) postlicensure programs (RN-to-BSN, master’s, and doctoral programs) were much more likely to report that adding faculty would expand admission capacity (NLN, 2010). The shortage of clinical placements and the restrictions associated with clinical placements force some nursing programs to decrease the number of students in clinical groups to accommodate the requests of clinical facilities. In both situations, schools of nursing need to increase the number of clinical faculty. Hiring adjunct clinical faculty members then becomes more critical in satisfying the unmet needs of nursing programs facing a lack of full-time nursing faculty. Tracy and Fang (2010) reported 803 faculty vacancies in a survey of 554 nursing schools with
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty baccalaureate and/or graduate programs across the country (70.2% response rate). While nursing programs are urged to boost student enrollment, this cannot occur with a shortage of full-time faculty and simultaneous funding shortfalls. Therefore, while the need for full-time nurse educators is great, the need for adjunct clinical faculty members with contemporary practice experience is immense for many schools of nursing (Suplee & Gardner, 2009). Indeed, nursing adjunct faculty members are stepping into the essential roles left unfilled by full-time nursing faculty, particularly in nursing education clinical settings (Forbes, Hickey, & White, 2010). A survey of nursing programs at 662 institutions around the United States found that 8% of full-time nursing faculty positions and 7% of part-time positions were vacant (AACN, 2012). Of late, general use of adjunct faculty within all colleges and universities was about 73% of the total faculty (Stainburn, 2010). Employing adjunct faculty serves nursing programs by (a) decreasing financial expenditures associated with exclusively employing full-time faculty, (b) increasing flexibility in didactic course and clinical offerings, and (c) compensating for unfilled full-time faculty positions across educational settings (Creech, 2008). Yet, while adjunct faculty may successfully meet some of the challenges faced by nursing programs, they themselves face many challenges hindering their success as nurse educators. Adjunct Faculty Challenges Nursing programs commonly expect that nursing adjunct faculty members possess the advanced education and skill sets necessary to facilitate the instruction of nursing students in clinical settings (NLN, 2010). The contemporary clinical experience and knowledge that qualified adjunct faculty members possess is an asset to nursing programs in that it helps students develop critical evidence-based practice and thinking skills in the classroom, clinical (Ellison & Williams, 2009), and online settings. Yet, while adjunct faculty members are expert clinicians with acquired expertise in their specific practice areas (Anderson, 2009), they may as novice educators require a major transition between the clinical and academic practice roles (McDonald, 2010) because of lack of an “educational foundation that allows students to learn” (West et al., 2009, p. 306). Adjunct faculty may face hardships in role transitioning because of either an absence of teaching experience and teaching instruction as part of 153
© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc Nursing Forum Volume 49, No. 3, July-September 2014
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty their specialized nursing programs or a deficiency of full-time emersion in providing nursing education (West et al., 2009). Such a situation may lead to inconsistencies in how nursing courses are taught (Gerhart, 2004). To be sure, a review of U.S. master’s degree programs finds that many fail to include education focus or specialization, particularly in areas such as curriculum development and assessment, didactic and clinical teaching/learning strategies, student assessment and development, teaching philosophy, or pedagogy. As expert clinicians, adjunct faculty may be unintentionally unsupported in acquiring the mastery of essential competencies associated with the educator role. Hence, one of the largest challenges adjunct faculty may face as individuals new to the specialty of nursing education is poor, if any, professional development instruction relative to the intricacies of teaching. Another major challenge faced by adjunct faculty as part-time employees is limited guidance alongside full-time nurse educators. For example, adjunct faculty members may not learn the complexities of facilitating learner experiences because they fail to have the time advantage of “shadowing” colleagues whose primary role is a nurse educator (West et al., 2009). Missed opportunities at one-on-one or group discourse addressing essential components of professional development for nurse educators, no chance to partake in physical practice, and modest time to learn through role modeling may interfere with mastery of new knowledge and skills necessary for healthy educator role transitioning (Siler & Kleiner, 2001). Adjunct faculty facing little chance to mirror excellence in teaching may feel insecure and disconnected from the educator role. Emotional detachment from an academic workplace may be another challenge faced by adjuncts. In reality, adjuncts may experience a lack of recognition as a critical member of the corresponding educational institution if they are excluded from or fail to attend general nursing faculty meetings, professional development sessions, special events, or workshops. Nedd (2006) proposes that an educator who seeks to enhance effectiveness and perform successfully should have the ability to access and mobilize information, resources, and the guidance and feedback received from peers, subordinates, and supervisors within the workplace. Orientation and faculty development processes should acknowledge the educator’s expectations and needs, including developing instructional skills, integrating into the culture of higher education, 154 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc Nursing Forum Volume 49, No. 3, July-September 2014
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues locating information, and managing academic workload (Suplee & Gardner, 2009). But if a lack of acknowledgment or guidance in the academic workplace prevails, adjunct faculty may then well leave the role of nurse educator, particularly when other areas of nursing practice are more welcoming and financially lucrative. Certainly, a final challenge to recruiting and retaining adjunct faculty may well be the historically substandard salary that exists for nurse educators. If corporations, hospitals, and the military all offer much higher salaries to nurses with advanced degrees, colleges and universities cannot compete in recruiting or retaining nursing adjuncts who would alleviate the short supply of nurse educators (AACN, 2012). Adjunct Faculty Support Nursing education programs are being pressed to offer innovative options for increasing the supply of nurse educators, especially those who can effectively teach critical clinical skills to nursing students (Cangelosi, Crocker, & Sorrell, 2009). However, nursing literature offers “little in the way of the specific needs of, or strategies for the development of adjunct faculty as a unique group of educators” (Forbes et al., 2010, p. 116). Furthermore, what literature does exist regarding support of nursing adjunct faculty speaks of going beyond physical academic site orientations to building mentoring relationships (University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh, 2008). Academic institutions may best serve adjunct faculty by facilitating a comprehensive orientation program with combined efforts of mentoring, ongoing communication, and professional development (Forbes et al., 2010). Penn, Wilson, and Rosseter (2008) suggest that nursing education programs consider providing a thorough orientation to faculty along with ongoing professional development, technical support, and general information about the academic institution. However, the details as to what should be included in cultivating adjunct faculty and how it should be approached are largely absent in the literature. One strategic way to nurture adjunct faculty may be for nursing programs to have a multipronged process that includes the following: (a) bursts of orientation information, (b) detailed and supportive discussion, (c) a thorough resource manual, and (d) steadfast mentoring that focuses on ongoing promotion of adjunct faculty members’ career and personal development. This creative, invested, and sweeping
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues approach may be just what works toward developing master clinicians as master educators. Working Toward a Solution Nursing programs promote a dilemma for adjuncts when they provide unfamiliar tools, such as course/ learner/program outcomes, rubrics, standardized examinations, student evaluation forms, and syllabi with no direction about the teaching role or pedagogy. Orientation based upon diligent planning is the first step to helping adjuncts. Orientation Adjunct orientation should help adjunct faculty (a) become comfortable with the transition from clinician to educator, (b) be guided through mentorship, (c) experience networking, (d) grow teaching skills, and (e) integrate into the culture of academia (Suplee & Gardner, 2009, p. 516). The authors of this article agree but go further to suggest that nursing programs provide a stepwise process to help cultivate novice adjunct faculty. To begin, the orientation process should include detailed conversation and explanations followed by a tangible reference manual to serve as a primary resource once the immediate orientation process ends. The reference manual should address specific topics with answers to questions that adjuncts may have about their duties and expectations, work of the department, and the institution at large. Table 1 displays potential adjunct orientation program talking points for inclusion in a supportive reference manual. Orientation Challenges Challenges do exist for nursing programs that seek to cultivate their adjunct faculty. For example, planning an actual date or dates to accommodate adjuncts for an orientation may prove problematic, as many adjunct faculty hold full-time positions at other facilities. The commitment many adjunct faculty have to their full-time jobs may conflict with orientation and manifest in poor adjunct faculty retention (Howard & Hintz, 2002). An attempt to lessen retention issues would have nursing programs inform adjunct faculty with ample time to request allotted dates from their primary work facilities for their own orientation. Also, several orientation sessions, with smaller groups of
adjuncts, may need to be held by rotating full-time faculty facilitators during various times and at unique locations, increasing the likelihood of adjunct attendance. Reaching out to adjuncts, and keeping them in the loop in the planning of orientation and in choices of time and venue should occur via phone chains, e-mails, snail mail, and different digital platforms. In a creative approach to orientation, seasoned adjuncts may serve as session facilitators for the valued knowledge and skills they command in the faculty role. Suplee and Gardner (2009) acknowledge that the usual 1–3 days of adjunct faculty orientation poses challenges. This is an inadequate time period for the novice nurse educator to learn about “the general roles of faculty in the academic setting; the culture of the college or university and the program; and the specifics of the curriculum program, and courses” (p. 515). Such an amount of material provided within a short period allows adjuncts little time for processing and reinforcement of information. Mentoring then needs to be instituted after orientation to help abate the time challenge. Mentoring The success of mentoring relationships as a critical career resource for employees in organizations may be translated into promoting mentoring relationships as a critical career source for adjunct nursing faculty. As Kram (1985) historically presented, mentors are individuals with advanced experience and knowledge who are committed to facilitating the mentee’s advancement in the organization, and contributing to the mentee’s personal growth and professional development. Consistent mentoring has long been associated in the literature with an array of positive career outcomes, including career satisfaction (Fagenson, 1989), job satisfaction (Koberg, Boss, Chappell, & Ringer, 1994), organizational socialization (Ostroff & Kozlowski, 1993), and reduced turnover (Viator & Scandura, 1991). Indeed, these basic tenets and outcomes of mentoring for mentees have remained consistent to the present. Hence, retaining skilled clinicians interested in serving as present educators and perhaps future full-time educators relies primarily on mentorship (Smith & Zsohar, 2007). Such mentorship hinges upon full-time faculty mentors maintaining an open and supportive communicative relationship (Eifler & Veltri, 2010), based upon mutual mentor/ mentee abilities and needs (Billings & Kowalski, 2008), while working as equals and colleagues 155
© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc Nursing Forum Volume 49, No. 3, July-September 2014
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues
Table 1. Adjunct Orientation Program Talking Points for Inclusion in Reference Manuals Topics
Important key questions to answer
Adjunct faculty role and responsibilities
1. What is the chain of command when dealing with any administrator, course, faculty, or student issue? 2. Which issues are reportable, and what is the process of reporting? 3. What is the meaning of faculty academic freedom and how does it acceptably manifest itself? 4. What are the departmental and institutional bylaws, policies, and procedures pertaining to how adjuncts are expected to contribute to the work of the department? 5. What are the departmental and institutional reappointment, teaching, tenure, scholarship, and service bylaws, policies, and procedures? 6. What may faculty expect in terms of training and support in the classroom, clinical, digital platform, and simulation areas? 7. What is the dress code and how is it reinforced? 8. What is the policy regarding classroom and clinical attendance in the form of absence/ lateness/withdrawals? 9. What are the degree and institutional requirements of program advancement, enrollment, graduation, leave, and withdrawal? 10. What is the proper process for filling out and filing forms? 11. What is the process for anecdotal note taking and supplying documentation that is supportive? 12. How are clinical/classroom learning and skills evaluated? 13. How are office hours, test review, and testing used/handled? 14. How are student assignments and supervision determined? 15. How is the use of high-impact learning/teaching practices supported? 16. How are optimal learner situations provided? 17. What clinical practice/training opportunities do the institution and the department offer students and faculty? 18. What are proper forms of identification and uniform codes? 19. What are facility requirements as to contact information? 20. What orientation, testing, and training is needed prior to start of clinical? 21. What examples exist of clinical documentation? 22. What is the process of pre- and post-clinical instruction? 23. What are the instructions regarding clinical documentation collection and evaluation procedures? 24. Where is clinical documentation housed, and who is charged with storage of clinical documentation? 25. For how long is clinical documentation stored? 26. How do adjuncts gain access to information related to the use of digital or open teaching platforms in classrooms? 27. How are syllabi, with lecture/case studies/tools, used in the classroom setting to help adjuncts to reinforce materials covered in the classroom? 28. What contributions may adjuncts make to course syllabi? 29. What experiences exist regarding learning, practicing, debriefing, and feedback in simulation for adjunct faculty? 30. How much input is adjunct faculty permitted with simulation scenarios? 31. What opportunities do adjunct faculty have to experience self-assessment through a peer observation and evaluation? 32. What opportunities exist for mentorship? 33. What opportunities exist for adjunct faculty to experience access to and reinforcement about institutional telephone, e-mail, open digital platform, general technology, identification, office space, library, research, grants, personal and professional development, and human resources issues? 34. What are the rules that provide guidance in setting workloads for adjunct nursing faculty? 35. What are the licensure, teaching experience, current knowledge and clinical expertise, and degree requirements for employment? 36. How often are policies updated, who is charged with policy oversight, and how is access gained to policies?
Student-related policies
Student evaluation
Setting up clinical experience
Clinical site information Clinical setting documentation
Classroom setting access and management Simulation experiences Self-assessment Institutional issues
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L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues (Billings & Kowalski, 2008; University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh, 2008). Mentoring of adjuncts should be a priority given the challenges that nursing programs face in their recruitment and retention. The authors recommend that mentoring of adjuncts be a complete initiative. A mentoring program must be part of a larger management-development effort, with adequate resources, evident organizational involvement and support, and clarified expectations, purpose, and roles. In fact, orientation about mentoring itself should be held for all faculty members involved to establish responsibilities and expected outcomes. All mentoring program goals and intended outcomes must be articulated in order to define and drive the program before it is even implemented. Mentoring aims should be directed toward teaching, scholarship, and service goals that arise from conversations between mentors and mentees. And, mentors of adjunct faculty need not be full-time faculty members. Given the shortage of full-time faculty, seasoned adjunct faculty may serve as mentors of novice adjuncts. Faculty must engage in continuous monitoring of program activities and processes, and structured flexibility should be built into the program to allow adjunct faculty some freedom in defining their relationship with their mentors and in defining mentoring program activities. In fact, adjunct faculty participant input should be encouraged in mentoring program design, in implementation, as well as in process and outcome criteria evaluation so that mentoring programs may be modified according to participant input and needs. Input on mentoring goals may be garnered from adjuncts in the time leading up to the orientation itself, as well as during orientation. Finally, the authors recommend that action plans and goals, and monthly progress reporting be the spine of an entire approach to recruiting and retaining our adjunct faculty. Continuous feedback from our adjuncts is a necessity if the nation is indeed dedicated to providing quality education to the future nursing workforce of our country. It is through the voices of adjunct faculty that nursing programs will learn not only about recruitment and retention, but how best needs are met regarding the cultivation of adjunct faculty members as nurse educators. Conclusions and Recommendations Adjunct faculty members are critical to the strength and survival of nursing programs. Academic institutions may benefit from nurturing loyalty and satisfac-
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty tion of their adjunct or part-time faculty. Role transitions may fuel excitement; however, lack of communication and follow-up, lack of preparation, lack of opportunities to role model, potential disempowerment, a substandard salary, and uncertain role transitioning may deal a harsh blow to the recruitment and retention of adjunct faculty. Working toward cultivation of adjunct faculty includes innovative support measures beyond simple orientation. To help establish a sustainable nurse educator career for adjunct nursing faculty, orientation should be comprehensive and creatively flexible, provide a tangible resource product, and then be bolstered and supported through dedicated mentoring. It is incumbent upon schools of nursing to cultivate their adjunct faculty, and this article includes creative approaches to doing so. Further, while adjunct faculty may successfully meet some of the challenges faced by nursing programs, they themselves face many challenges that may hinder their success as nurse educators. Therefore, to help reduce the challenges faced by nursing adjunct faculty, the authors make recommendations for nursing education, nursing practice, and nursing research settings to consider. In terms of nursing education, the profession should make a conscientious effort to include instruction in their academic programs on the intricacies of teaching regardless of degree. Given the role of educator is common for the nurse, nursing students should be exposed more to pedagogy and practice. Academic institutions should strive to actively reach out to adjunct faculty members regarding means of support through the same teaching education seminars and workshops offered to full-time faculty. In terms of nursing practice, nurse educators within facilities should become more involved in providing in-service experiences for their nurses that focus on the intricacies of teaching. Many nurses who desire to climb the clinical ladders and perhaps become educators have opportunities to preceptor nursing students through clinical rotations, particularly those students enrolled in community health, leadership courses, and capstone courses. Nurses should have opportunities to enhance their knowledge about learners and the learning process so as to transfer that knowledge to enhance nursing practice whether at the bedside or in the classroom. In terms of nursing research, clearly, studies are needed on retaining our adjuncts. Research that 157
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Cultivating Adjunct Faculty employs mixed, qualitative, and quantitative methodology may seek to address what it means to be an adjunct, the challenges faced in the role, orientation and mentoring as processes, and recruitment and retention issues as nurse educators. It is through the asking and the telling of how to cultivate adjunct faculty as nurse educators that the profession may gain a surer footing as to providing the best education possible for all involved. References American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2012). Special survey on vacant faculty positions for academic year 2012–2013. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/leadinginitiatives/research-data/vacancy12.pdf American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2014). Enrollment growth slows at U.S. nursing schools despite calls for a more highly educated nursing workforce. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/news/articles/2014/slowenrollment Anderson, J. (2009). The work-role transition of expert clinician to novice academic educator. Journal of Nursing Education, 48(4), 203–209. Billings, D. M., & Kowalski, D. (2008). Developing your career as a nurse educator: The importance of having (or being) a mentor. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 39(11), 490–491. Cangelosi, P., Crocker, S., & Sorrell, J. (2009). Expert to novice: Clinicians learning new roles as clinical nurse educators. Nursing Education Perspectives, 30(6), 367–371. Creech, C. (2008). Are we moving toward an expanded role for part-time faculty? Nurse Educator, 33(1), 31–34. Eifler, K., & Veltri, L. (2010). Drawing from the outside for support in teaching. Journal of Nursing Education, 46, 623– 627. Ellison, D., & Williams, M. (2009). Implementing an orientation/mentorship program for adjunct faculty. Tennessee Nurse: Tennessee Nurses’ Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Implementing+an+ orientation%2fmentorship+program+for+adjunct+ faculty.-a0208458689 Fagenson, E. A. (1989). The mentor advantage: Perceived career/job experiences of protégés versus non-protégés. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 309–320. Forbes, M., Hickey, M., & White, J. (2010). Adjunct faculty development: Reported needs and innovative solutions. Journal of Professional Nursing, 26(2), 116–124. Gerhart, A. (2004). Adjunct and temporary faculty – Advantageous or detrimental? Phi Kappa Phi Forum, 84(4), 21–22. Howard, B., & Hintz, S. (2002). Adjunct faculty orientation and mentoring: Developing and retaining the best! Paper presented
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L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues at the Annual Meeting of the National Institute for Staff and Organization Development. Austin, TX: ERIC. Institute of Medicine. (2011). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health. Washington, DC: Author. Koberg, C. S., Boss, R. W., Chappell, D., & Ringer, R. C. (1994). Correlates and consequences of protégé mentoring in a large hospital. Group and Organization Management, 19, 219–239. Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. McDonald, P. (2010). Transitioning from clinical practice to nursing faculty: Lessons learned. Journal of Nursing Education, 49(3), 126–131. The National League for Nursing. (2010). The 2010 nurse educator shortage fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.nln .org/governmentaffairs/pdf/NurseFacultyShortage.pdf Nedd, N. (2006). Perceptions of empowerment and intent to stay: Method. Retrieved from http://www.redorbit.com/news/ technology/413402/ perceptions_of_empowerment_and_intent_to_stay/ index.html Ostroff, C., & Kozlowski, S. W. (1993). The role of mentoring in the information gathering processes of newcomers during early organizational socialization. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 170–183. Penn, B., Wilson, L., & Rosseter, R. (2008). Transitioning from nursing practice to a teaching role. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 13(3), Manuscript 3. Siler, B., & Kleiner, C. (2001). Novice faculty: Encountering expectations in academia. Journal of Nursing Education, 40(9), 397–403. Smith, J. A., & Zsohar, H. (2007). Essentials of neophyte mentorship in relation to the faculty shortage. Journal of Nursing Education, 46(4), 184–186. Stainburn, S. (2010). The case of the vanishing full-time professor. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/ 03/education/edlife/03strategy-t.html?_r=1 Suplee, P. D., & Gardner, M. (2009). Fostering a smooth transition to the faculty role. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 40(11), 514–520. Tracy, C., & Fang, D. (2010). Special survey on vacant faculty positions for academic year 2010–2011. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/IDS/pdf/vacancy10.pdf University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh. (2008). Faculty mentoring resources at University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh. Retrieved from http://www.uwosh.edu/mentoring/ faculty Viator, R. E., & Scandura, T. A. (1991). A study of mentorprotégé relationships in large public accounting firms. Accounting Horizons, 5, 20–30. West, M. M., Borden, C., Bermudez, M., Hanson-Zalot, M., Amorim, F., & Marmion, R. (2009). Enhancing the clinical adjunct role to benefit students. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 40(7), 305–310.
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Cultivating Adjunct Faculty: Strategies Beyond Orientation Lisette Santisteban, MSN, RN, RNC-OB, and Aida L. Egues, DNP, RN, APHN-BC, CNE Lisette Santisteban, MSN, RN, RNC-OB, is Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, New York City College of Technology, Brooklyn, NY; and Aida L. Egues, DNP, RN, APHN-BC, CNE, is Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, New York City College of Technology of The City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY. Keywords Education, nursing shortage, workforce Correspondence Lisette Santisteban, MSN, RN, RNC-OB, Department of Nursing, New York City College of Technology, 300 Jay Street, P 505, Brooklyn, NY 11201 E-mail: [email protected]
Santisteban
Egues
PROBLEM. Schools of nursing across the country are using adjunct faculty to meet clinical, didactic, and online instructional needs of their nursing programs. While adjunct faculty are vital to the alleviation of the nursing shortage and the shortage of nursing faculty, and to the preparation of the current and future nursing workforce, little is known about cultivating adjunct faculty as nurse educators. METHOD. To investigate the cultivation of adjunct nursing faculty, the authors engaged in a comprehensive review of the extant literature of primary databases and reports from accredited nursing programs and professional nursing organizations. FINDINGS. Scant literature exists that seeks to identify issues associated with developing adjunct nursing faculty as educators, including role transition needs, and useful approaches to orientation, mentorship, or retention. CONCLUSIONS. Working toward cultivation of adjunct faculty includes innovative support measures beyond simple orientation. Orientation should be comprehensive, and move to mentorship as a key component that helps establish a sustainable nurse educator career for adjunct nursing faculty. It is incumbent upon schools of nursing to cultivate their adjunct faculty, and this article includes creative approaches to doing so, with recommendations for nursing education, nursing practice, and nursing research settings. While adjunct faculty may successfully meet some of the challenges faced by nursing programs, they themselves face many challenges that may hinder their success as nurse educators.
The anticipated shortage of registered nurses (RNs) in the United States, and the Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2011) guidelines for the future of nursing continue as topics of discourse among nurse educators. The dilemma remains as to how nursing programs can meet both the projected shortage of RNs and the recommendation that 80% of RNs have the baccalaureate degree by 2020 (IOM, 2011). The ensuing nationwide approach to resolution of these issues entails that nursing programs increase not only their enrollment of nursing students but also their enrollment 152 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc Nursing Forum Volume 49, No. 3, July-September 2014
of RNs seeking to advance their education to be competitive in the workforce. Preliminary survey data released by the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) indicate that continued increases in enrollment in entry-level baccalaureate programs increased for the thirteenth consecutive year. In addition, a 12.4% increase of students enrolled in baccalaureatedegree completion (RN-to-BSN) programs in 2013 further validates the desire of RNs to seek advancement of nursing education. However, approximately 54,000 qualified applicants were
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues turned away from 610 entry-level baccalaureate programs in 2013, in large part because of a shortage of (a) nursing faculty, (b) clinical placement sites, and (c) funding (AACN, 2014). While schools of nursing across the United States are using adjunct or parttime faculty to meet clinical, didactic, and online instructional needs of their nursing programs (Ellison & Williams, 2009), little literature exists that seeks to identify issues associated with developing adjunct nursing faculty as educators. Research is scarce as to the role transition needs of adjunct nursing faculty, including creative approaches to orientation, mentorship, or retention. The lack of such literature is problematic at a time when use of adjunct faculty to facilitate valuable student education is at a critical point. Hence, the purpose of this article is twofold: (a) to provide a comprehensive review of the extant literature on cultivation of adjunct faculty as nurse educators, and (b) to provide an innovative approach to retaining adjunct faculty key to alleviating the nursing shortage and shortage of nursing faculty, and preparing the current and future RN workforces. Review of the Literature The authors engaged in a comprehensive review of the Medline, PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), and ProQuest databases, and in reading reports from accredited nursing programs and professional nursing organizations to investigate the cultivation of adjunct nursing faculty. The literature within the past decade reflects that a significant shortage of nursing faculty has been reported for years. The National League for Nursing (NLN) found that (a) the shortage of nursing faculty impacted the inability of nursing programs to admit more qualified applicants than they could accept, and (b) postlicensure programs (RN-to-BSN, master’s, and doctoral programs) were much more likely to report that adding faculty would expand admission capacity (NLN, 2010). The shortage of clinical placements and the restrictions associated with clinical placements force some nursing programs to decrease the number of students in clinical groups to accommodate the requests of clinical facilities. In both situations, schools of nursing need to increase the number of clinical faculty. Hiring adjunct clinical faculty members then becomes more critical in satisfying the unmet needs of nursing programs facing a lack of full-time nursing faculty. Tracy and Fang (2010) reported 803 faculty vacancies in a survey of 554 nursing schools with
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty baccalaureate and/or graduate programs across the country (70.2% response rate). While nursing programs are urged to boost student enrollment, this cannot occur with a shortage of full-time faculty and simultaneous funding shortfalls. Therefore, while the need for full-time nurse educators is great, the need for adjunct clinical faculty members with contemporary practice experience is immense for many schools of nursing (Suplee & Gardner, 2009). Indeed, nursing adjunct faculty members are stepping into the essential roles left unfilled by full-time nursing faculty, particularly in nursing education clinical settings (Forbes, Hickey, & White, 2010). A survey of nursing programs at 662 institutions around the United States found that 8% of full-time nursing faculty positions and 7% of part-time positions were vacant (AACN, 2012). Of late, general use of adjunct faculty within all colleges and universities was about 73% of the total faculty (Stainburn, 2010). Employing adjunct faculty serves nursing programs by (a) decreasing financial expenditures associated with exclusively employing full-time faculty, (b) increasing flexibility in didactic course and clinical offerings, and (c) compensating for unfilled full-time faculty positions across educational settings (Creech, 2008). Yet, while adjunct faculty may successfully meet some of the challenges faced by nursing programs, they themselves face many challenges hindering their success as nurse educators. Adjunct Faculty Challenges Nursing programs commonly expect that nursing adjunct faculty members possess the advanced education and skill sets necessary to facilitate the instruction of nursing students in clinical settings (NLN, 2010). The contemporary clinical experience and knowledge that qualified adjunct faculty members possess is an asset to nursing programs in that it helps students develop critical evidence-based practice and thinking skills in the classroom, clinical (Ellison & Williams, 2009), and online settings. Yet, while adjunct faculty members are expert clinicians with acquired expertise in their specific practice areas (Anderson, 2009), they may as novice educators require a major transition between the clinical and academic practice roles (McDonald, 2010) because of lack of an “educational foundation that allows students to learn” (West et al., 2009, p. 306). Adjunct faculty may face hardships in role transitioning because of either an absence of teaching experience and teaching instruction as part of 153
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Cultivating Adjunct Faculty their specialized nursing programs or a deficiency of full-time emersion in providing nursing education (West et al., 2009). Such a situation may lead to inconsistencies in how nursing courses are taught (Gerhart, 2004). To be sure, a review of U.S. master’s degree programs finds that many fail to include education focus or specialization, particularly in areas such as curriculum development and assessment, didactic and clinical teaching/learning strategies, student assessment and development, teaching philosophy, or pedagogy. As expert clinicians, adjunct faculty may be unintentionally unsupported in acquiring the mastery of essential competencies associated with the educator role. Hence, one of the largest challenges adjunct faculty may face as individuals new to the specialty of nursing education is poor, if any, professional development instruction relative to the intricacies of teaching. Another major challenge faced by adjunct faculty as part-time employees is limited guidance alongside full-time nurse educators. For example, adjunct faculty members may not learn the complexities of facilitating learner experiences because they fail to have the time advantage of “shadowing” colleagues whose primary role is a nurse educator (West et al., 2009). Missed opportunities at one-on-one or group discourse addressing essential components of professional development for nurse educators, no chance to partake in physical practice, and modest time to learn through role modeling may interfere with mastery of new knowledge and skills necessary for healthy educator role transitioning (Siler & Kleiner, 2001). Adjunct faculty facing little chance to mirror excellence in teaching may feel insecure and disconnected from the educator role. Emotional detachment from an academic workplace may be another challenge faced by adjuncts. In reality, adjuncts may experience a lack of recognition as a critical member of the corresponding educational institution if they are excluded from or fail to attend general nursing faculty meetings, professional development sessions, special events, or workshops. Nedd (2006) proposes that an educator who seeks to enhance effectiveness and perform successfully should have the ability to access and mobilize information, resources, and the guidance and feedback received from peers, subordinates, and supervisors within the workplace. Orientation and faculty development processes should acknowledge the educator’s expectations and needs, including developing instructional skills, integrating into the culture of higher education, 154 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc Nursing Forum Volume 49, No. 3, July-September 2014
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues locating information, and managing academic workload (Suplee & Gardner, 2009). But if a lack of acknowledgment or guidance in the academic workplace prevails, adjunct faculty may then well leave the role of nurse educator, particularly when other areas of nursing practice are more welcoming and financially lucrative. Certainly, a final challenge to recruiting and retaining adjunct faculty may well be the historically substandard salary that exists for nurse educators. If corporations, hospitals, and the military all offer much higher salaries to nurses with advanced degrees, colleges and universities cannot compete in recruiting or retaining nursing adjuncts who would alleviate the short supply of nurse educators (AACN, 2012). Adjunct Faculty Support Nursing education programs are being pressed to offer innovative options for increasing the supply of nurse educators, especially those who can effectively teach critical clinical skills to nursing students (Cangelosi, Crocker, & Sorrell, 2009). However, nursing literature offers “little in the way of the specific needs of, or strategies for the development of adjunct faculty as a unique group of educators” (Forbes et al., 2010, p. 116). Furthermore, what literature does exist regarding support of nursing adjunct faculty speaks of going beyond physical academic site orientations to building mentoring relationships (University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh, 2008). Academic institutions may best serve adjunct faculty by facilitating a comprehensive orientation program with combined efforts of mentoring, ongoing communication, and professional development (Forbes et al., 2010). Penn, Wilson, and Rosseter (2008) suggest that nursing education programs consider providing a thorough orientation to faculty along with ongoing professional development, technical support, and general information about the academic institution. However, the details as to what should be included in cultivating adjunct faculty and how it should be approached are largely absent in the literature. One strategic way to nurture adjunct faculty may be for nursing programs to have a multipronged process that includes the following: (a) bursts of orientation information, (b) detailed and supportive discussion, (c) a thorough resource manual, and (d) steadfast mentoring that focuses on ongoing promotion of adjunct faculty members’ career and personal development. This creative, invested, and sweeping
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues approach may be just what works toward developing master clinicians as master educators. Working Toward a Solution Nursing programs promote a dilemma for adjuncts when they provide unfamiliar tools, such as course/ learner/program outcomes, rubrics, standardized examinations, student evaluation forms, and syllabi with no direction about the teaching role or pedagogy. Orientation based upon diligent planning is the first step to helping adjuncts. Orientation Adjunct orientation should help adjunct faculty (a) become comfortable with the transition from clinician to educator, (b) be guided through mentorship, (c) experience networking, (d) grow teaching skills, and (e) integrate into the culture of academia (Suplee & Gardner, 2009, p. 516). The authors of this article agree but go further to suggest that nursing programs provide a stepwise process to help cultivate novice adjunct faculty. To begin, the orientation process should include detailed conversation and explanations followed by a tangible reference manual to serve as a primary resource once the immediate orientation process ends. The reference manual should address specific topics with answers to questions that adjuncts may have about their duties and expectations, work of the department, and the institution at large. Table 1 displays potential adjunct orientation program talking points for inclusion in a supportive reference manual. Orientation Challenges Challenges do exist for nursing programs that seek to cultivate their adjunct faculty. For example, planning an actual date or dates to accommodate adjuncts for an orientation may prove problematic, as many adjunct faculty hold full-time positions at other facilities. The commitment many adjunct faculty have to their full-time jobs may conflict with orientation and manifest in poor adjunct faculty retention (Howard & Hintz, 2002). An attempt to lessen retention issues would have nursing programs inform adjunct faculty with ample time to request allotted dates from their primary work facilities for their own orientation. Also, several orientation sessions, with smaller groups of
adjuncts, may need to be held by rotating full-time faculty facilitators during various times and at unique locations, increasing the likelihood of adjunct attendance. Reaching out to adjuncts, and keeping them in the loop in the planning of orientation and in choices of time and venue should occur via phone chains, e-mails, snail mail, and different digital platforms. In a creative approach to orientation, seasoned adjuncts may serve as session facilitators for the valued knowledge and skills they command in the faculty role. Suplee and Gardner (2009) acknowledge that the usual 1–3 days of adjunct faculty orientation poses challenges. This is an inadequate time period for the novice nurse educator to learn about “the general roles of faculty in the academic setting; the culture of the college or university and the program; and the specifics of the curriculum program, and courses” (p. 515). Such an amount of material provided within a short period allows adjuncts little time for processing and reinforcement of information. Mentoring then needs to be instituted after orientation to help abate the time challenge. Mentoring The success of mentoring relationships as a critical career resource for employees in organizations may be translated into promoting mentoring relationships as a critical career source for adjunct nursing faculty. As Kram (1985) historically presented, mentors are individuals with advanced experience and knowledge who are committed to facilitating the mentee’s advancement in the organization, and contributing to the mentee’s personal growth and professional development. Consistent mentoring has long been associated in the literature with an array of positive career outcomes, including career satisfaction (Fagenson, 1989), job satisfaction (Koberg, Boss, Chappell, & Ringer, 1994), organizational socialization (Ostroff & Kozlowski, 1993), and reduced turnover (Viator & Scandura, 1991). Indeed, these basic tenets and outcomes of mentoring for mentees have remained consistent to the present. Hence, retaining skilled clinicians interested in serving as present educators and perhaps future full-time educators relies primarily on mentorship (Smith & Zsohar, 2007). Such mentorship hinges upon full-time faculty mentors maintaining an open and supportive communicative relationship (Eifler & Veltri, 2010), based upon mutual mentor/ mentee abilities and needs (Billings & Kowalski, 2008), while working as equals and colleagues 155
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Cultivating Adjunct Faculty
L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues
Table 1. Adjunct Orientation Program Talking Points for Inclusion in Reference Manuals Topics
Important key questions to answer
Adjunct faculty role and responsibilities
1. What is the chain of command when dealing with any administrator, course, faculty, or student issue? 2. Which issues are reportable, and what is the process of reporting? 3. What is the meaning of faculty academic freedom and how does it acceptably manifest itself? 4. What are the departmental and institutional bylaws, policies, and procedures pertaining to how adjuncts are expected to contribute to the work of the department? 5. What are the departmental and institutional reappointment, teaching, tenure, scholarship, and service bylaws, policies, and procedures? 6. What may faculty expect in terms of training and support in the classroom, clinical, digital platform, and simulation areas? 7. What is the dress code and how is it reinforced? 8. What is the policy regarding classroom and clinical attendance in the form of absence/ lateness/withdrawals? 9. What are the degree and institutional requirements of program advancement, enrollment, graduation, leave, and withdrawal? 10. What is the proper process for filling out and filing forms? 11. What is the process for anecdotal note taking and supplying documentation that is supportive? 12. How are clinical/classroom learning and skills evaluated? 13. How are office hours, test review, and testing used/handled? 14. How are student assignments and supervision determined? 15. How is the use of high-impact learning/teaching practices supported? 16. How are optimal learner situations provided? 17. What clinical practice/training opportunities do the institution and the department offer students and faculty? 18. What are proper forms of identification and uniform codes? 19. What are facility requirements as to contact information? 20. What orientation, testing, and training is needed prior to start of clinical? 21. What examples exist of clinical documentation? 22. What is the process of pre- and post-clinical instruction? 23. What are the instructions regarding clinical documentation collection and evaluation procedures? 24. Where is clinical documentation housed, and who is charged with storage of clinical documentation? 25. For how long is clinical documentation stored? 26. How do adjuncts gain access to information related to the use of digital or open teaching platforms in classrooms? 27. How are syllabi, with lecture/case studies/tools, used in the classroom setting to help adjuncts to reinforce materials covered in the classroom? 28. What contributions may adjuncts make to course syllabi? 29. What experiences exist regarding learning, practicing, debriefing, and feedback in simulation for adjunct faculty? 30. How much input is adjunct faculty permitted with simulation scenarios? 31. What opportunities do adjunct faculty have to experience self-assessment through a peer observation and evaluation? 32. What opportunities exist for mentorship? 33. What opportunities exist for adjunct faculty to experience access to and reinforcement about institutional telephone, e-mail, open digital platform, general technology, identification, office space, library, research, grants, personal and professional development, and human resources issues? 34. What are the rules that provide guidance in setting workloads for adjunct nursing faculty? 35. What are the licensure, teaching experience, current knowledge and clinical expertise, and degree requirements for employment? 36. How often are policies updated, who is charged with policy oversight, and how is access gained to policies?
Student-related policies
Student evaluation
Setting up clinical experience
Clinical site information Clinical setting documentation
Classroom setting access and management Simulation experiences Self-assessment Institutional issues
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L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues (Billings & Kowalski, 2008; University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh, 2008). Mentoring of adjuncts should be a priority given the challenges that nursing programs face in their recruitment and retention. The authors recommend that mentoring of adjuncts be a complete initiative. A mentoring program must be part of a larger management-development effort, with adequate resources, evident organizational involvement and support, and clarified expectations, purpose, and roles. In fact, orientation about mentoring itself should be held for all faculty members involved to establish responsibilities and expected outcomes. All mentoring program goals and intended outcomes must be articulated in order to define and drive the program before it is even implemented. Mentoring aims should be directed toward teaching, scholarship, and service goals that arise from conversations between mentors and mentees. And, mentors of adjunct faculty need not be full-time faculty members. Given the shortage of full-time faculty, seasoned adjunct faculty may serve as mentors of novice adjuncts. Faculty must engage in continuous monitoring of program activities and processes, and structured flexibility should be built into the program to allow adjunct faculty some freedom in defining their relationship with their mentors and in defining mentoring program activities. In fact, adjunct faculty participant input should be encouraged in mentoring program design, in implementation, as well as in process and outcome criteria evaluation so that mentoring programs may be modified according to participant input and needs. Input on mentoring goals may be garnered from adjuncts in the time leading up to the orientation itself, as well as during orientation. Finally, the authors recommend that action plans and goals, and monthly progress reporting be the spine of an entire approach to recruiting and retaining our adjunct faculty. Continuous feedback from our adjuncts is a necessity if the nation is indeed dedicated to providing quality education to the future nursing workforce of our country. It is through the voices of adjunct faculty that nursing programs will learn not only about recruitment and retention, but how best needs are met regarding the cultivation of adjunct faculty members as nurse educators. Conclusions and Recommendations Adjunct faculty members are critical to the strength and survival of nursing programs. Academic institutions may benefit from nurturing loyalty and satisfac-
Cultivating Adjunct Faculty tion of their adjunct or part-time faculty. Role transitions may fuel excitement; however, lack of communication and follow-up, lack of preparation, lack of opportunities to role model, potential disempowerment, a substandard salary, and uncertain role transitioning may deal a harsh blow to the recruitment and retention of adjunct faculty. Working toward cultivation of adjunct faculty includes innovative support measures beyond simple orientation. To help establish a sustainable nurse educator career for adjunct nursing faculty, orientation should be comprehensive and creatively flexible, provide a tangible resource product, and then be bolstered and supported through dedicated mentoring. It is incumbent upon schools of nursing to cultivate their adjunct faculty, and this article includes creative approaches to doing so. Further, while adjunct faculty may successfully meet some of the challenges faced by nursing programs, they themselves face many challenges that may hinder their success as nurse educators. Therefore, to help reduce the challenges faced by nursing adjunct faculty, the authors make recommendations for nursing education, nursing practice, and nursing research settings to consider. In terms of nursing education, the profession should make a conscientious effort to include instruction in their academic programs on the intricacies of teaching regardless of degree. Given the role of educator is common for the nurse, nursing students should be exposed more to pedagogy and practice. Academic institutions should strive to actively reach out to adjunct faculty members regarding means of support through the same teaching education seminars and workshops offered to full-time faculty. In terms of nursing practice, nurse educators within facilities should become more involved in providing in-service experiences for their nurses that focus on the intricacies of teaching. Many nurses who desire to climb the clinical ladders and perhaps become educators have opportunities to preceptor nursing students through clinical rotations, particularly those students enrolled in community health, leadership courses, and capstone courses. Nurses should have opportunities to enhance their knowledge about learners and the learning process so as to transfer that knowledge to enhance nursing practice whether at the bedside or in the classroom. In terms of nursing research, clearly, studies are needed on retaining our adjuncts. Research that 157
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Cultivating Adjunct Faculty employs mixed, qualitative, and quantitative methodology may seek to address what it means to be an adjunct, the challenges faced in the role, orientation and mentoring as processes, and recruitment and retention issues as nurse educators. It is through the asking and the telling of how to cultivate adjunct faculty as nurse educators that the profession may gain a surer footing as to providing the best education possible for all involved. References American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2012). Special survey on vacant faculty positions for academic year 2012–2013. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/leadinginitiatives/research-data/vacancy12.pdf American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2014). Enrollment growth slows at U.S. nursing schools despite calls for a more highly educated nursing workforce. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/news/articles/2014/slowenrollment Anderson, J. (2009). The work-role transition of expert clinician to novice academic educator. Journal of Nursing Education, 48(4), 203–209. Billings, D. M., & Kowalski, D. (2008). Developing your career as a nurse educator: The importance of having (or being) a mentor. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 39(11), 490–491. Cangelosi, P., Crocker, S., & Sorrell, J. (2009). Expert to novice: Clinicians learning new roles as clinical nurse educators. Nursing Education Perspectives, 30(6), 367–371. Creech, C. (2008). Are we moving toward an expanded role for part-time faculty? Nurse Educator, 33(1), 31–34. Eifler, K., & Veltri, L. (2010). Drawing from the outside for support in teaching. Journal of Nursing Education, 46, 623– 627. Ellison, D., & Williams, M. (2009). Implementing an orientation/mentorship program for adjunct faculty. Tennessee Nurse: Tennessee Nurses’ Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Implementing+an+ orientation%2fmentorship+program+for+adjunct+ faculty.-a0208458689 Fagenson, E. A. (1989). The mentor advantage: Perceived career/job experiences of protégés versus non-protégés. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 309–320. Forbes, M., Hickey, M., & White, J. (2010). Adjunct faculty development: Reported needs and innovative solutions. Journal of Professional Nursing, 26(2), 116–124. Gerhart, A. (2004). Adjunct and temporary faculty – Advantageous or detrimental? Phi Kappa Phi Forum, 84(4), 21–22. Howard, B., & Hintz, S. (2002). Adjunct faculty orientation and mentoring: Developing and retaining the best! Paper presented
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L. Santisteban and A. L. Egues at the Annual Meeting of the National Institute for Staff and Organization Development. Austin, TX: ERIC. Institute of Medicine. (2011). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health. Washington, DC: Author. Koberg, C. S., Boss, R. W., Chappell, D., & Ringer, R. C. (1994). Correlates and consequences of protégé mentoring in a large hospital. Group and Organization Management, 19, 219–239. Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. McDonald, P. (2010). Transitioning from clinical practice to nursing faculty: Lessons learned. Journal of Nursing Education, 49(3), 126–131. The National League for Nursing. (2010). The 2010 nurse educator shortage fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.nln .org/governmentaffairs/pdf/NurseFacultyShortage.pdf Nedd, N. (2006). Perceptions of empowerment and intent to stay: Method. Retrieved from http://www.redorbit.com/news/ technology/413402/ perceptions_of_empowerment_and_intent_to_stay/ index.html Ostroff, C., & Kozlowski, S. W. (1993). The role of mentoring in the information gathering processes of newcomers during early organizational socialization. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 170–183. Penn, B., Wilson, L., & Rosseter, R. (2008). Transitioning from nursing practice to a teaching role. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 13(3), Manuscript 3. Siler, B., & Kleiner, C. (2001). Novice faculty: Encountering expectations in academia. Journal of Nursing Education, 40(9), 397–403. Smith, J. A., & Zsohar, H. (2007). Essentials of neophyte mentorship in relation to the faculty shortage. Journal of Nursing Education, 46(4), 184–186. Stainburn, S. (2010). The case of the vanishing full-time professor. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/ 03/education/edlife/03strategy-t.html?_r=1 Suplee, P. D., & Gardner, M. (2009). Fostering a smooth transition to the faculty role. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 40(11), 514–520. Tracy, C., & Fang, D. (2010). Special survey on vacant faculty positions for academic year 2010–2011. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/IDS/pdf/vacancy10.pdf University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh. (2008). Faculty mentoring resources at University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh. Retrieved from http://www.uwosh.edu/mentoring/ faculty Viator, R. E., & Scandura, T. A. (1991). A study of mentorprotégé relationships in large public accounting firms. Accounting Horizons, 5, 20–30. West, M. M., Borden, C., Bermudez, M., Hanson-Zalot, M., Amorim, F., & Marmion, R. (2009). Enhancing the clinical adjunct role to benefit students. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 40(7), 305–310.
