Journal of Sports Sciences
ISSN: 0264-0414 (Print) 1466-447X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20
Day 2. Posters – Psychology To cite this article: (2015) Day 2. Posters – Psychology, Journal of Sports Sciences, 33:sup1, s101-s105, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1110334 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1110334
Published online: 25 Nov 2015.
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Article views: 96
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Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjsp20 Download by: [New York University]
Date: 02 April 2016, At: 05:24
Journal of Sports Sciences, 2015 Vol. 33, Supplement 1, s101–s105, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1110334
Day 2. Posters – Psychology
D2.P33. Influence of the practice of mental imagery in school-aged sport: in relation to gender, age and type of sport ENRIQUE FRADEJAS MEDRANO1 & MARIA ESPADA-MATEOS1,2* Universidad Camilo José Cela, Spain; 2Universidad Pontificia de Comillas, Spain *Corresponding author: [email protected]
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:24 02 April 2016
1
Mental imagery is a mental ability which reproduces an experience in the absence of external stimuli. Sportsmen and women use mental imagery to improve concentration, self-confidence and anxiety, control their emotional responses, acquire and practise sports strategies and abilities, or to aid in recovery from injury (Guillot and Collet, 2008, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1, 31–44). Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to analyse the practice of mental imagery in school-aged sports people, as a function of gender, age and type of sport. The sample consisted of 816 subjects (50.3% male and 49.7% female) of age between 12 and 18 years (mean 14.6, s = 1.9), who practise different individual and team sports in the Castilla-La Mancha region. Several aspects were taken into account for the statistical calculations: the population is infinite; thus, for the population variance, we used the most unfavourable supposition where “P” and “Q” are equal with 50% each; the confidence interval was set at 95.5%, with a margin of error of ±3.5%. The Psychological Characteristics related to Sports Performance questionnaire (Características Psicológicas relacionadas con el Rendimiento Deportivo [CPRD]) with Cronbach’s alpha (r) = .85 was used. The results show with regard to gender that there were no statistically significant differences in the practice of mental imagery in any of the items analysed, t (814) = .97, P > 0.05; t (814) = −.69, P > 0.05; t (814) = .06, P > 0.05; t (814) = 1.21, P > 0.05, coinciding with previous studies (e.g. Godoy, Vélez and Pradas, 2007, Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte, 7, 45–59). With respect to age, there were statistically significant differences as the younger subjects (12–13 years) revealed a lower level of practice in mental imagery than the older ones (14–15 and 16–18 years), F(2,540.92) = 7.32, P < 0.05, again coinciding © 2015 Taylor & Francis
with previous studies (e.g. Gaudreau and Blondin, 2002, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 3, 1–34). In relation to the type of sport, statistically significant differences existed between the students who practised swimming, rhythmic gymnastics and futsal, who used mental imagery more before competitions, in comparison with those who practised tennis F (9,328.30) = 3.42, P < 0.05, in line with previous research (e.g. Adegbesan, 2009, Perceptual & Motor Skills, 108, 43–50). In conclusion, the practice of mental imagery is a very useful technique for achieving greater control of the mind, the emotions and the body, and changing behaviour, all of which are necessary to attain maximal sports performance. For this reason, coaches should use mental imagery techniques with school-aged sports people.
D2.P34. Mental toughness does not predict pain catastrophising, pain intensity or cold water immersion time in competitive university athletes following a cold pressor test MARTIN JONES*, CHARLIE MANTHORP, SOHVI NUOJUA & JACK ABBOTT University of Exeter *Corresponding author: [email protected] drmijones The existing literature emphasises the importance of mental toughness (MT) as a construct that underpins success and competitive advantage in achievement contexts. MT comprises a continuous variable that is the accumulation of several personal resources. Jones et al. (2002, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205–218) suggested that one facet of MT is the ability to maintain technique and effort during pain. Gould et al. (2002, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172–204) also suggested that pain tolerance was a core competency of Olympic champions. The aim of this study was to examine whether MT predicted indices of pain prior to and following a cold pressor test (CPT). Researchers have used pain catastrophising, ratings of pain intensity and pain tolerance as outcome variables when measuring psychological predictors of pain (e.g. Sullivan et al., 2001, The Clinical
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:24 02 April 2016
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Journal of Pain, 17, 52–54). Researchers have also used the CPT to induce pain. Following ethical approval and a sample size calculation, we recruited 74 participants (34 females) from sports teams at a British University. We invited participants to complete the MT Index (MTI) (Gucciardi et al., 2015, Journal of Personality, 83, 26–44) and the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) (Sullivan et al., 1995, Psychological Assessment, 7, 524–532) before immersion. The CPT involves participants immersing the hand into cold water until they can no longer tolerate the pain. We reduced the water temperature to 1°C and used a submersible water pump to circulate the water. We also recorded the time that hand was fully immersed in water. We informed participants that they could withdraw their hand at any time. We instructed participants to remove their hand after 3 m if they had not done so already. After withdrawal from the water, we invited participants to rate the intensity of their pain on a 10 cm visual analogue scale. We checked for assumptions of regression and found only total immersion time was extremely skewed because >70% of the sample had to be told to withdraw their hand after 3 min. We conducted three separate linear regressions with pain catastrophising, pain intensity and total immersion times as the dependent variables, and MT as the independent variable. The R2 ranged from .000 to .036, and none of the regression coefficients were significant at the P < .01 level. The results suggest that MT might not be related to pain in the way previous researchers hypothesised.
D2.P35. An investigation of stress experiences and contagion in elite youth eventing PHILIPPA KERBY* & RACHEL ARNOLD University of Bath *Corresponding author: [email protected] Three-day eventing in equestrian incorporates dressage, show jumping and cross-country. Performing optimally across all three disciplines can place pressure on riders and their entourage; therefore, it seems surprising that no research to date has explicitly examined their stress experiences. This is also a priority given the current high dropout rate in youth eventing. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the stress experiences across eventing youth age categories, and examine if any stress contagion exists.
To elaborate on the latter component, literature suggests that the bidirectional interaction between an individual and their environment can be contagious. Following ethical approval, five elite youth riders (one male and four females), who had been selected for their national eventing squad in the Under-21 (n = 2), Under-18 (n = 2) or Under16 (n = 1) categories, were interviewed. To provide further insight into the topic, interviews were also conducted with each of the rider’s coaches (n = 5) and one of each of their parents (n = 5). A thematic interpretational content analysis was used to analyse the data, which occurred initially at the individual level; however, the group level was also examined for interpersonal dynamics and contagion. The findings illustrated the various stressors that the riders experienced (e.g. personal, competitive, organisational), their emotions and feeling states (e.g. frustration, anxiety), potential moderators of the relationship between demands and outcomes, and ways in which their stress experiences were managed. For each of these components, data also emerged regarding the contagion of stress, with it appearing most prevalent between rider and parent. To elaborate, stressor contagion was particularly evident via a rider indirectly perceiving demands through a third party (e.g. parental opinions, event commentary). Moreover, riders’ emotions were often transferred to parents and vice versa. The rate at which contagion occurred seemed to be influenced by various personal and situational moderators (e.g. rider and parent personalities, clarity in roles). Overall, the findings suggest that youth eventers do experience various stressors and emotions which can be contagious to their parents/coaches (and vice versa), and these stress experiences should be managed accordingly. This study provides the first insight into stress contagion in a youth eventing population and the results that have emerged across the various stages of the stress process can advance theory. For practice, the findings can support practitioners as they look to design and implement appropriate stress management interventions for athletes and their entourage.
D2.P36. Executive function following acute exercise at different intensities RACHAEL L. MCDONALD* & CHELSEA MOORE Leeds Trinity University *Corresponding author: [email protected]
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:24 02 April 2016
Day 2. Posters – Psychology A single bout of acute exercise has a positive influence on basic information processing tasks such as simple reaction time (Tomporowski and Ellis, 1986, Psychological Bulletin, 99, 338–346). Although similar cognitive improvements have been observed in more complex, executive function tasks, including visual search and short-term memory tasks, the research findings are less consistent (Chang, Labban, Gapin, and Etnier, 2012, Brain Research, 1453, 87–101). Previous studies have employed various exercise modes, duration and intensities, as well as differences in the nature and timing of the psychological task, which may explain the inconsistent findings (Chang et al., 2012). Therefore, the improvement in cognitive function following acute exercise needs further investigation. Identification of an optimal exercise intensity could be used to improve executive functioning in sport, occupational (e.g. military) or academic settings. The aim of the present study was to determine whether an acute bout of treadmill running at different intensities affects performance on an executive functioning task. With institutional ethics approval, 21 healthy adult males (mean age 20.8 years, s = 1.6; body mass 79.9 kg, s = 10.4) completed a maximal incremental graded exercise test to establish maximal oxygen uptake (V_ O2max). Thereafter, participants performed an executive functioning task immediately prior to and following either 30 min of rest or treadmill running at three different exercise intensities determined by V_ O2max; light (30% V_ O2max), moderate (50% V_ O2max) and hard (70% V_ O2max) workloads. The modified flanker test was used to assess executive function (Eriksen and Eriksen, 1974, Perceptual Psychophysiology, 16, 143–149). Repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for time was employed to assess the main effect of exercise intensity on reaction times (RT; ms) and error rate (%). RT significantly improved following exercise (P < 0.01). Pairwise comparisons indicated that RT following hard exercise was significantly faster (m = 471.07 ms, s = 4.53) than either no exercise (m = 494.05, s = 4.62) or light exercise (m = 492.04 ms, s = 4.59) (P < 0.01, 95% Cl 6.786–41.186; P < 0.01, 95% Cl 3.820–38.140, respectively). Accuracy of response was not significantly affected by exercise (P > 0.05). The present results suggest that treadmill running at 70% of V_ O2max significantly improves executive functioning and could be a useful tool when employed to improve the performance of complex cognitive tasks in sport, occupational or academic settings.
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D2.P37. The application of the 3 + 1 Cs model to client–trainer relationships in physical activity settings: implications for practitioners LOUISE ROWE1* & SOPHIA JOWETT2 1
University of Cumbria; 2Loughborough University *Corresponding author: [email protected] Low client retention is a perennial problem for exercise on prescription schemes and in the fitness industry more generally. The client–trainer relationship (CTR) is potentially an important factor in all personal training contexts which could have a significant impact on client retention, achievement and satisfaction (Vinson and Parker, 2012, Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 4, 15–31), yet it has been largely ignored in empirical research. In the related area of sport coaching, the 3 + 1 Cs model was developed to explain coach–athlete relationships (Jowett, 2007b, In S. Jowett and D. Lavalle (Eds.), Social Psychology in Sport (pp. 15–28), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). Using this conceptualisation, the relationship has been shown to predict positive outcomes in this setting (Jowett and Ntoumanis, 2004, Scandinavian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14, 245–247). This qualitative study aimed to explore the CTR in health-related exercise settings using the 3 + 1 Cs model. After receiving institutional ethical approval, semi-structured interviews were performed with 15 client–trainer dyads drawn from two settings; personal training (n = 7) and exercise on prescription schemes (n = 8). Relationship lengths ranged from 9 weeks to 4 years. Each participant completed a semi-structured interview with assurance that their views would not be revealed to the other dyad member. Participants were encouraged to give a narrative of their experiences with their partner as their relationship developed. Analysis was completed in three steps. Initially, transcripts were read and then coded openly using Atlas Ti 6.2. Next, the codes were analysed inductively, refined and fitted to the a priori higher order themes of closeness, commitment, complementarity and coorientation. In addition, a further theme of “Antecedents” emerged. Finally, selective coding was performed around important codes within each theme for both clients and practitioners. The themes relating to the 3 + 1 Cs were well saturated and shown to be reliable (Cohen’s kappa > 0.60) when compared with another expert coder. This supports the validity of the model for
s104
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physical activity contexts. The discussion shows that expertise, trust, respect and understanding are important features of the relationship for both dyad members although these are contextualised in different ways for clients and practitioners. These lead to practical recommendations to improve the CTR from the early stages of the relationship.
D2.P38. The organisational stressors experienced by disabled sport performers
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:24 02 April 2016
RACHEL ARNOLD* & YASMIN PRATT University of Bath *Corresponding author: [email protected] Organisational stressors have emerged as an important issue for sport performers, since they can attenuate not only their preparation for and performance in competitions, but also their health and well-being. These demands are also pervasive and predominant, with a meta-interpretation identifying 640 organisational demands encountered by a total of 1809 sport performers (Arnold and Fletcher, 2012, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 34, 397–429). What is evident from reviewing the stressor literature, however, is that there is a tendency for studies to sample non-disabled, rather than disabled, sport performers. Whilst there are exceptions to this (see, e.g. Campbell and Jones, 2002, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 82–99), studies recruiting disabled athletes have typically examined the holistic environment and all of the sources of stress encountered, rather than specifically focusing on the pervasive and problematic organisational demands. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the organisational stressors that disabled sport performers encounter. Following ethical approval, 10 disabled sport performers (eight males and two females), who were aged 18–56, reported a range of disabilities and impairments (e.g. amputee, spina bifida, cerebral palsy), and competed in a variety of sports (e.g. golf, wheelchair basketball, athletics), participated in a semi-structured interview. A thematic interpretational content analysis identified 104 organisational stressors that were encountered by the sample. Each of these demands could be placed within the pre-existing classification of organisational stressors (Arnold and Fletcher, 2012), which comprises leadership and personnel (nine subcategories), cultural and team (seven subcategories), logistical and environmental (11 subcategories), and performance and personal issues (four
subcategories). That said, within these subcategories, new stressors emerged in the data which had not been previously identified. For example, the participants raised organisational stressors relating to lack of coach/teammate disability knowledge, sympathetic supporters, unfair disability classifications and lack of disabled access to facilities. Overall, the findings suggest that whilst there are some demands which appear similar to those encountered by non-disabled athletes, there are also various unique and novel stressors encountered by disabled sport performers. In addition to the contribution that this novel study can make to research and theory, it can also offer practitioners who are tasked with supporting disabled athletes greater insight into their organisational stressors. This will enable more appropriate organisational stressor interventions to be developed so that, ultimately, negative consequences of these demands can be reduced and an individual’s well-being and performance enhanced.
D2.P39. The role of parents in youth sport values LUKE GOGGINS1*, PAUL FREEMAN2 & CRAIG WILLIAMS1 1
University of Exeter; 2University of Essex *Corresponding author: [email protected] Values are fundamental constructs that influence individuals’ attitudes and behaviours (Lee, Whitehead and Belchin, 2000, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22, 307-326; Schwartz, 2007, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 711-728). Children can develop sport-related values systems from the attitudes and behaviours of their significant others (Welks, Babkes and Schaben, 2004, In M. C. E. Silva and R. M. Malina (Eds.) Children and Youth Organized Sports (pp. 95-122). Portugal: Coimbra University Press). After institutional ethics approval was granted, this study employed quantitative and qualitative methods to examine the relationships between parents’ values, motivational climate, and children’s values. In Study 1, 92 school children (mean age = 14.10 years, SD = 1.10) and their parents (mean age = 47.40 years, SD = 5.60) completed versions of the Youth Sport Values Questionnaire-2 and Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire-2. Strong correlations were found between children’s own and perceived parent competence, status, and moral sport values. A moderated-mediational analysis found that children’s
Day 2. Posters – Psychology
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perceptions of their parents’ values and motivational climate significantly predicted children’s own competence values (R2 = .52, P < .001), and parent’s values for their children were indirectly associated with children’s own competence values via children’s perceptions of their parents’ values, abs = .0.170.22, 95% CIs [0.04, 0.43]. Parents’ own values and children’s perceptions of their parents’ values significantly predicted child own status values (R2 = .65 & .63, P < .001), but parents’ values for their children were not associated with significant indirect effects on children’s own status values via motivational climate or children’s perceptions of their parents’ values. In Study 2, six parents (mean age =
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41.00 years, SD = 7.54) participated in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis identified some inconsistencies between parents on the values they perceived to be important for their children compared to what has been identified by previous research as important for children in sport and some lack of awareness around how values are effectively transmitted. These findings provide empirical support to the specific role parents play in the development of their child's sporting values. They demonstrate the interaction between parent own values and the values they deem important for their child and the different influences these can have on their child’s sport values and motivational climate.
ISSN: 0264-0414 (Print) 1466-447X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20
Day 2. Posters – Psychology To cite this article: (2015) Day 2. Posters – Psychology, Journal of Sports Sciences, 33:sup1, s101-s105, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1110334 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1110334
Published online: 25 Nov 2015.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 96
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjsp20 Download by: [New York University]
Date: 02 April 2016, At: 05:24
Journal of Sports Sciences, 2015 Vol. 33, Supplement 1, s101–s105, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1110334
Day 2. Posters – Psychology
D2.P33. Influence of the practice of mental imagery in school-aged sport: in relation to gender, age and type of sport ENRIQUE FRADEJAS MEDRANO1 & MARIA ESPADA-MATEOS1,2* Universidad Camilo José Cela, Spain; 2Universidad Pontificia de Comillas, Spain *Corresponding author: [email protected]
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:24 02 April 2016
1
Mental imagery is a mental ability which reproduces an experience in the absence of external stimuli. Sportsmen and women use mental imagery to improve concentration, self-confidence and anxiety, control their emotional responses, acquire and practise sports strategies and abilities, or to aid in recovery from injury (Guillot and Collet, 2008, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1, 31–44). Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to analyse the practice of mental imagery in school-aged sports people, as a function of gender, age and type of sport. The sample consisted of 816 subjects (50.3% male and 49.7% female) of age between 12 and 18 years (mean 14.6, s = 1.9), who practise different individual and team sports in the Castilla-La Mancha region. Several aspects were taken into account for the statistical calculations: the population is infinite; thus, for the population variance, we used the most unfavourable supposition where “P” and “Q” are equal with 50% each; the confidence interval was set at 95.5%, with a margin of error of ±3.5%. The Psychological Characteristics related to Sports Performance questionnaire (Características Psicológicas relacionadas con el Rendimiento Deportivo [CPRD]) with Cronbach’s alpha (r) = .85 was used. The results show with regard to gender that there were no statistically significant differences in the practice of mental imagery in any of the items analysed, t (814) = .97, P > 0.05; t (814) = −.69, P > 0.05; t (814) = .06, P > 0.05; t (814) = 1.21, P > 0.05, coinciding with previous studies (e.g. Godoy, Vélez and Pradas, 2007, Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte, 7, 45–59). With respect to age, there were statistically significant differences as the younger subjects (12–13 years) revealed a lower level of practice in mental imagery than the older ones (14–15 and 16–18 years), F(2,540.92) = 7.32, P < 0.05, again coinciding © 2015 Taylor & Francis
with previous studies (e.g. Gaudreau and Blondin, 2002, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 3, 1–34). In relation to the type of sport, statistically significant differences existed between the students who practised swimming, rhythmic gymnastics and futsal, who used mental imagery more before competitions, in comparison with those who practised tennis F (9,328.30) = 3.42, P < 0.05, in line with previous research (e.g. Adegbesan, 2009, Perceptual & Motor Skills, 108, 43–50). In conclusion, the practice of mental imagery is a very useful technique for achieving greater control of the mind, the emotions and the body, and changing behaviour, all of which are necessary to attain maximal sports performance. For this reason, coaches should use mental imagery techniques with school-aged sports people.
D2.P34. Mental toughness does not predict pain catastrophising, pain intensity or cold water immersion time in competitive university athletes following a cold pressor test MARTIN JONES*, CHARLIE MANTHORP, SOHVI NUOJUA & JACK ABBOTT University of Exeter *Corresponding author: [email protected] drmijones The existing literature emphasises the importance of mental toughness (MT) as a construct that underpins success and competitive advantage in achievement contexts. MT comprises a continuous variable that is the accumulation of several personal resources. Jones et al. (2002, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205–218) suggested that one facet of MT is the ability to maintain technique and effort during pain. Gould et al. (2002, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172–204) also suggested that pain tolerance was a core competency of Olympic champions. The aim of this study was to examine whether MT predicted indices of pain prior to and following a cold pressor test (CPT). Researchers have used pain catastrophising, ratings of pain intensity and pain tolerance as outcome variables when measuring psychological predictors of pain (e.g. Sullivan et al., 2001, The Clinical
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:24 02 April 2016
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Journal of Pain, 17, 52–54). Researchers have also used the CPT to induce pain. Following ethical approval and a sample size calculation, we recruited 74 participants (34 females) from sports teams at a British University. We invited participants to complete the MT Index (MTI) (Gucciardi et al., 2015, Journal of Personality, 83, 26–44) and the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) (Sullivan et al., 1995, Psychological Assessment, 7, 524–532) before immersion. The CPT involves participants immersing the hand into cold water until they can no longer tolerate the pain. We reduced the water temperature to 1°C and used a submersible water pump to circulate the water. We also recorded the time that hand was fully immersed in water. We informed participants that they could withdraw their hand at any time. We instructed participants to remove their hand after 3 m if they had not done so already. After withdrawal from the water, we invited participants to rate the intensity of their pain on a 10 cm visual analogue scale. We checked for assumptions of regression and found only total immersion time was extremely skewed because >70% of the sample had to be told to withdraw their hand after 3 min. We conducted three separate linear regressions with pain catastrophising, pain intensity and total immersion times as the dependent variables, and MT as the independent variable. The R2 ranged from .000 to .036, and none of the regression coefficients were significant at the P < .01 level. The results suggest that MT might not be related to pain in the way previous researchers hypothesised.
D2.P35. An investigation of stress experiences and contagion in elite youth eventing PHILIPPA KERBY* & RACHEL ARNOLD University of Bath *Corresponding author: [email protected] Three-day eventing in equestrian incorporates dressage, show jumping and cross-country. Performing optimally across all three disciplines can place pressure on riders and their entourage; therefore, it seems surprising that no research to date has explicitly examined their stress experiences. This is also a priority given the current high dropout rate in youth eventing. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the stress experiences across eventing youth age categories, and examine if any stress contagion exists.
To elaborate on the latter component, literature suggests that the bidirectional interaction between an individual and their environment can be contagious. Following ethical approval, five elite youth riders (one male and four females), who had been selected for their national eventing squad in the Under-21 (n = 2), Under-18 (n = 2) or Under16 (n = 1) categories, were interviewed. To provide further insight into the topic, interviews were also conducted with each of the rider’s coaches (n = 5) and one of each of their parents (n = 5). A thematic interpretational content analysis was used to analyse the data, which occurred initially at the individual level; however, the group level was also examined for interpersonal dynamics and contagion. The findings illustrated the various stressors that the riders experienced (e.g. personal, competitive, organisational), their emotions and feeling states (e.g. frustration, anxiety), potential moderators of the relationship between demands and outcomes, and ways in which their stress experiences were managed. For each of these components, data also emerged regarding the contagion of stress, with it appearing most prevalent between rider and parent. To elaborate, stressor contagion was particularly evident via a rider indirectly perceiving demands through a third party (e.g. parental opinions, event commentary). Moreover, riders’ emotions were often transferred to parents and vice versa. The rate at which contagion occurred seemed to be influenced by various personal and situational moderators (e.g. rider and parent personalities, clarity in roles). Overall, the findings suggest that youth eventers do experience various stressors and emotions which can be contagious to their parents/coaches (and vice versa), and these stress experiences should be managed accordingly. This study provides the first insight into stress contagion in a youth eventing population and the results that have emerged across the various stages of the stress process can advance theory. For practice, the findings can support practitioners as they look to design and implement appropriate stress management interventions for athletes and their entourage.
D2.P36. Executive function following acute exercise at different intensities RACHAEL L. MCDONALD* & CHELSEA MOORE Leeds Trinity University *Corresponding author: [email protected]
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:24 02 April 2016
Day 2. Posters – Psychology A single bout of acute exercise has a positive influence on basic information processing tasks such as simple reaction time (Tomporowski and Ellis, 1986, Psychological Bulletin, 99, 338–346). Although similar cognitive improvements have been observed in more complex, executive function tasks, including visual search and short-term memory tasks, the research findings are less consistent (Chang, Labban, Gapin, and Etnier, 2012, Brain Research, 1453, 87–101). Previous studies have employed various exercise modes, duration and intensities, as well as differences in the nature and timing of the psychological task, which may explain the inconsistent findings (Chang et al., 2012). Therefore, the improvement in cognitive function following acute exercise needs further investigation. Identification of an optimal exercise intensity could be used to improve executive functioning in sport, occupational (e.g. military) or academic settings. The aim of the present study was to determine whether an acute bout of treadmill running at different intensities affects performance on an executive functioning task. With institutional ethics approval, 21 healthy adult males (mean age 20.8 years, s = 1.6; body mass 79.9 kg, s = 10.4) completed a maximal incremental graded exercise test to establish maximal oxygen uptake (V_ O2max). Thereafter, participants performed an executive functioning task immediately prior to and following either 30 min of rest or treadmill running at three different exercise intensities determined by V_ O2max; light (30% V_ O2max), moderate (50% V_ O2max) and hard (70% V_ O2max) workloads. The modified flanker test was used to assess executive function (Eriksen and Eriksen, 1974, Perceptual Psychophysiology, 16, 143–149). Repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for time was employed to assess the main effect of exercise intensity on reaction times (RT; ms) and error rate (%). RT significantly improved following exercise (P < 0.01). Pairwise comparisons indicated that RT following hard exercise was significantly faster (m = 471.07 ms, s = 4.53) than either no exercise (m = 494.05, s = 4.62) or light exercise (m = 492.04 ms, s = 4.59) (P < 0.01, 95% Cl 6.786–41.186; P < 0.01, 95% Cl 3.820–38.140, respectively). Accuracy of response was not significantly affected by exercise (P > 0.05). The present results suggest that treadmill running at 70% of V_ O2max significantly improves executive functioning and could be a useful tool when employed to improve the performance of complex cognitive tasks in sport, occupational or academic settings.
s103
D2.P37. The application of the 3 + 1 Cs model to client–trainer relationships in physical activity settings: implications for practitioners LOUISE ROWE1* & SOPHIA JOWETT2 1
University of Cumbria; 2Loughborough University *Corresponding author: [email protected] Low client retention is a perennial problem for exercise on prescription schemes and in the fitness industry more generally. The client–trainer relationship (CTR) is potentially an important factor in all personal training contexts which could have a significant impact on client retention, achievement and satisfaction (Vinson and Parker, 2012, Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 4, 15–31), yet it has been largely ignored in empirical research. In the related area of sport coaching, the 3 + 1 Cs model was developed to explain coach–athlete relationships (Jowett, 2007b, In S. Jowett and D. Lavalle (Eds.), Social Psychology in Sport (pp. 15–28), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). Using this conceptualisation, the relationship has been shown to predict positive outcomes in this setting (Jowett and Ntoumanis, 2004, Scandinavian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14, 245–247). This qualitative study aimed to explore the CTR in health-related exercise settings using the 3 + 1 Cs model. After receiving institutional ethical approval, semi-structured interviews were performed with 15 client–trainer dyads drawn from two settings; personal training (n = 7) and exercise on prescription schemes (n = 8). Relationship lengths ranged from 9 weeks to 4 years. Each participant completed a semi-structured interview with assurance that their views would not be revealed to the other dyad member. Participants were encouraged to give a narrative of their experiences with their partner as their relationship developed. Analysis was completed in three steps. Initially, transcripts were read and then coded openly using Atlas Ti 6.2. Next, the codes were analysed inductively, refined and fitted to the a priori higher order themes of closeness, commitment, complementarity and coorientation. In addition, a further theme of “Antecedents” emerged. Finally, selective coding was performed around important codes within each theme for both clients and practitioners. The themes relating to the 3 + 1 Cs were well saturated and shown to be reliable (Cohen’s kappa > 0.60) when compared with another expert coder. This supports the validity of the model for
s104
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physical activity contexts. The discussion shows that expertise, trust, respect and understanding are important features of the relationship for both dyad members although these are contextualised in different ways for clients and practitioners. These lead to practical recommendations to improve the CTR from the early stages of the relationship.
D2.P38. The organisational stressors experienced by disabled sport performers
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RACHEL ARNOLD* & YASMIN PRATT University of Bath *Corresponding author: [email protected] Organisational stressors have emerged as an important issue for sport performers, since they can attenuate not only their preparation for and performance in competitions, but also their health and well-being. These demands are also pervasive and predominant, with a meta-interpretation identifying 640 organisational demands encountered by a total of 1809 sport performers (Arnold and Fletcher, 2012, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 34, 397–429). What is evident from reviewing the stressor literature, however, is that there is a tendency for studies to sample non-disabled, rather than disabled, sport performers. Whilst there are exceptions to this (see, e.g. Campbell and Jones, 2002, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 82–99), studies recruiting disabled athletes have typically examined the holistic environment and all of the sources of stress encountered, rather than specifically focusing on the pervasive and problematic organisational demands. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the organisational stressors that disabled sport performers encounter. Following ethical approval, 10 disabled sport performers (eight males and two females), who were aged 18–56, reported a range of disabilities and impairments (e.g. amputee, spina bifida, cerebral palsy), and competed in a variety of sports (e.g. golf, wheelchair basketball, athletics), participated in a semi-structured interview. A thematic interpretational content analysis identified 104 organisational stressors that were encountered by the sample. Each of these demands could be placed within the pre-existing classification of organisational stressors (Arnold and Fletcher, 2012), which comprises leadership and personnel (nine subcategories), cultural and team (seven subcategories), logistical and environmental (11 subcategories), and performance and personal issues (four
subcategories). That said, within these subcategories, new stressors emerged in the data which had not been previously identified. For example, the participants raised organisational stressors relating to lack of coach/teammate disability knowledge, sympathetic supporters, unfair disability classifications and lack of disabled access to facilities. Overall, the findings suggest that whilst there are some demands which appear similar to those encountered by non-disabled athletes, there are also various unique and novel stressors encountered by disabled sport performers. In addition to the contribution that this novel study can make to research and theory, it can also offer practitioners who are tasked with supporting disabled athletes greater insight into their organisational stressors. This will enable more appropriate organisational stressor interventions to be developed so that, ultimately, negative consequences of these demands can be reduced and an individual’s well-being and performance enhanced.
D2.P39. The role of parents in youth sport values LUKE GOGGINS1*, PAUL FREEMAN2 & CRAIG WILLIAMS1 1
University of Exeter; 2University of Essex *Corresponding author: [email protected] Values are fundamental constructs that influence individuals’ attitudes and behaviours (Lee, Whitehead and Belchin, 2000, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22, 307-326; Schwartz, 2007, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 711-728). Children can develop sport-related values systems from the attitudes and behaviours of their significant others (Welks, Babkes and Schaben, 2004, In M. C. E. Silva and R. M. Malina (Eds.) Children and Youth Organized Sports (pp. 95-122). Portugal: Coimbra University Press). After institutional ethics approval was granted, this study employed quantitative and qualitative methods to examine the relationships between parents’ values, motivational climate, and children’s values. In Study 1, 92 school children (mean age = 14.10 years, SD = 1.10) and their parents (mean age = 47.40 years, SD = 5.60) completed versions of the Youth Sport Values Questionnaire-2 and Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire-2. Strong correlations were found between children’s own and perceived parent competence, status, and moral sport values. A moderated-mediational analysis found that children’s
Day 2. Posters – Psychology
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perceptions of their parents’ values and motivational climate significantly predicted children’s own competence values (R2 = .52, P < .001), and parent’s values for their children were indirectly associated with children’s own competence values via children’s perceptions of their parents’ values, abs = .0.170.22, 95% CIs [0.04, 0.43]. Parents’ own values and children’s perceptions of their parents’ values significantly predicted child own status values (R2 = .65 & .63, P < .001), but parents’ values for their children were not associated with significant indirect effects on children’s own status values via motivational climate or children’s perceptions of their parents’ values. In Study 2, six parents (mean age =
s105
41.00 years, SD = 7.54) participated in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis identified some inconsistencies between parents on the values they perceived to be important for their children compared to what has been identified by previous research as important for children in sport and some lack of awareness around how values are effectively transmitted. These findings provide empirical support to the specific role parents play in the development of their child's sporting values. They demonstrate the interaction between parent own values and the values they deem important for their child and the different influences these can have on their child’s sport values and motivational climate.
