DOI 10.1515/reveh-2014-0016      Rev Environ Health 2014; 29(1-2): 53–58

Mumtaz Hussain* and Saniea Mumtaz

E-waste: impacts, issues and management strategies Abstract: The present electronic era has seen massive proliferation of electrical and electronic equipment especially during the last two decades. These gadgets have become indispensable components of human life. The gravity of this sensitive 21st century problem is being felt by relevant stakeholders from the community to global level. Consequently, the annual global generation of e-waste is estimated to be 20–50 million tons. According to the Basel Action Network, 500 million computers contain 287 billion kilograms (kg) plastics; 716.7 million kg lead; and 286,700 kg mercury. These gadgets contain over 50 elements from the periodic table. The lethal components include heavy metals (like cadmium, mercury, copper, nickel, lead, barium, hexavalent chromium and beryllium); phosphor; plastics; and brominated flame retardants. These are persistent, mobile, and bioaccumulative toxins that remain in the environment but their forms are changed and are carcinogens, mutagens and teratogens. The ensuing hazardous waste has created deleterious impacts on physical, biological and socioeconomic environments. The lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere of Earth are being gravely polluted. Human beings and other biodiversity face fatal diseases, such as cancer, reproductive disorders, neural damages, endocrine disruptions, asthmatic bronchitis, and brain retardation. Marginal populations of developing countries living in squatter/slums are most vulnerable. Numerous issues are associated with uncontrolled generation, unscientific and environmentally inappropriate recycling processes for the extraction of heavy and precious metals (e.g., gold, platinum, and silver), illegal transboundary shipments from advanced to developing countries and weak conventions/legislations at global and national levels. Although the Basel Convention has been ratified by most countries, illicit trading/trafficking of hazardous substances remains unchecked, sometimes “disguised” as donations. The fact of matter is that vested business interests have surpassed ethical values. Existing scenarios of unbridled e-waste generation has attained alarming levels for humanity. This warrants immediate attention by public and private sectors, civil society, NGOs, industrialists and the business community for the protection of nature and natural resources from future destruction. Multipronged strategies need to be adopted for the management of e-waste encompassing administrative,

technical, environmental, regulatory, legislative, educative, stakeholders’ participation and global cooperation. Keywords: Basel Convention; biological and socio­ economic environments; e-waste; fatal diseases; heavy and precious metals; marginal populations; multipronged strategies; physical; transboundary illegal shipments. *Corresponding author: Mumtaz Hussain, Society for Conservation of Environment and Sustainable Development, E-mail: [email protected] Saniea Mumtaz: Society for Conservation of Environment and Sustainable Development

Preamble Definitions Discharge Discharge includes spilling, leaking, pumping, depositing, seeping, releasing, flowing out, pouring, emitting, emptying or dumping of wastes and effluents. Effluent Any material in solid, liquid, or gaseous form or combination thereof being discharged from industrial activity or any other source and includes a slurry, suspension or vapor. E-wastes E-wastes (electrical or electronic) are generated from equipment (operated on battery or electricity) and are discarded by original user whether in working or nonworking condition. Hazardous substance A substance or mixture of substances, other than a pesticide as defined in the Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance,

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54      Hussain and Mumtaz: E-waste: impacts, issues and management strategies

Hazardous wastes

1. Rechargeable batteries have corrosive liquid or semiliquid electrolyte. These also contain lead, lithium, cadmium, nickel, and other lethal metals. 2. Cell phones contain lethal components of e-equipment/waste, including 40 elements from the periodic table. Copper is the base metal. Other components are silver, gold, antimony, and indium. 3. Mercury is found in electrical/electronic gadgets like fluorescent bulbs, batteries, switches, and consumer electronics.

Waste which is or which contains a hazardous substance or which may be prescribed as hazardous waste and includes hospital waste and nuclear waste (PEPA, 1997).

E-waste consists of millable parts (printed circuit boards, plastic casings etc.) and non-millable parts (rods, batteries, metallic components, capacitors).

Waste

The global picture

1971 (II of 1971), which, by reason of its chemical activity or toxic, explosive, flammable, corrosive, radioactive or other characteristics, causes, or is likely to cause, directly or in combination with other matters an adverse environmental effect and any substance which may be prescribed as a hazardous substance [Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (PEPA), 1997].

Any substance or object which has been, is being or is intended to be, discarded or disposed of, and includes liquid waste, solid waste, waste gases, suspended waste, industrial waste, agricultural waste, nuclear waste, municipal waste, hospital waste, used polyethylene bags, and residues from the incineration of all types of waste (PEPA, 1997).

Problem realization The present electronic era has been constantly witnessing massive proliferation of electrical and electronic equipment especially for the last two decades. These gadgets have become indispensable components of human life. The gravity of this sensitive 21st century problem is being felt by relevant stakeholders from the community to global level. Proliferation of e-waste is spreading rapidly. The information technology boom, especially in developing countries, is helping manufacturers without realizing the heavy cost they have to pay in terms of degraded health and damaged environment.

The annual generation of e-waste in the world is 20–50 million tons. According to Basel Action Network, 500 million computers contain 287 billion kg of p ­ lastics; 716.7  million kg lead; and 286,700  kg mercury. These gadgets have over 50 elements from the p ­eriodic table. The lethal elements include heavy metals (like cadmium, mercury, copper, nickel, lead, barium, hexavalent ­ ­ chromium, and beryllium); phosphor; plastics; and  ­brominated flame retardants. These are persistent, mobile, and bioaccumulative toxins. Such materials remain in the environment but their forms are changed. The situation is alarming in the developing world.  Import of e-waste scrap from advanced countries and unscientific and unhygienic recycling/ reuse is playing havoc with life, property, health, and environment. The aim of the present study is to highlight issues arising from e-wastes and the backdrop of their threatening impacts on health and environment. Viable strategies will be suggested for their sustainable, environmental and socioeconomic management. Impacts of e-wastes are shown below.

Sources of e-waste generation There are numerous sources of e-wastes such as computers, VCRs, photocopiers, fax machines, televisions, audio/ video equipment, cell phones, batteries, electric tubes/ lamps, stereos, telephones, microwave ovens, printers, radios, CPUs, refrigerators, electronic games, toasters, etc. Notable are:

Impacts of e-waste There is barely any check on the manufacture of electric and electronic equipment in the world. Therefore, the quantum of e-waste is multiplying, whereas their quality is degrading. Large companies are making huge profits,

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Hussain and Mumtaz: E-waste: impacts, issues and management strategies      55

but developing countries are the main sufferers in terms of colossal environmental damages and unparalleled health losses.

Environmental degradation The ensuing hazardous wastes have created deleterious impacts on physical, biological, and socioeconomic environments. The lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere of Earth are being polluted gravely and rapidly.

Health deterioration A green environment and a clean lifestyle are essential requirements for maintaining good health. Human beings and other biodiversity are suffering from fatal diseases such as cancer, reproductive disorders, neural damages, endocrine disruptions, asthmatic bronchitis, and brain retardation. Marginal populations of developing countries living in squatter/ slums are most vulnerable.

E-waste and their health impacts E-wastes and their health impacts are summarized in Table 1.

E-waste issues in Pakistan E-waste is the fastest growing waste stream in the world. Numerous issues are associated with uncontrolled generation; unscientific and environmentally hostile recycling processes for extraction of heavy and precious metals (like gold, platinum and silver); transboundary illegal shipments from advanced to developing countries; and weak conventions/legislations at global and national levels. Indigenous recycling practices being undertaken in many developing countries are against the principles of safety, health, and the environment. Pakistan is no exception. Although the Basel Convention has been ratified by most countries, illicit trading/ trafficking of hazardous substances remains unchecked. Some of the issues relevant to e-waste are discussed in the following.

Table 1 E-wastes and their health impacts. Sources of e-wastes



Constituent



Health effects

Solder in printed circuit boards, glass panels   and gaskets in computer monitors

Lead



Chip resistors and semiconductors



Cadmium



Relays, switches, and printed circuit boards



Mercury



Corrosion protection of untreated and   galvanized steel plates, decorator or hardener for steel housings Cabling and computer housing  

Hexavalent chromium VI



– Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems kidney, and reproductive system – Affects brain development of children – Toxic irreversible effects on human health – Accumulates in kidney and liver – Bone damage – Neural damage – Teratogenic/cancer – Chronic damage to the brain, nervous system, and kidneys – Respiratory and skin disorders due to bioaccumulation in fish – Metabolic disorders – Asthmatic bronchitis – DNA damage

Plastics including PVC



Plastic housing of electronic equipment and   circuit boards Front panel of CRTs  

Brominated flame retardants 

Burning produces dioxin. It causes – Reproductive and development problems – Immune system damage – Interferes with regulatory hormones – Disrupts endocrine system functions

Barium

Short-term exposure causes:



(Source: Adopted from Envis Journal of Human Settlements, March 2004.)

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56      Hussain and Mumtaz: E-waste: impacts, issues and management strategies

Multifarious types/uses of e-waste

Recycling of e-waste

Pakistan is an ideal place for discarding e-equipment, e-materials, and e-waste. Electric and electronic equipment are of multifarious types and uses. These are soon discarded from the market on account of new models being produced. Such gadgets are part and parcel of life. Therefore, their use cannot be reduced drastically. Local business communities purchase e-waste as scrap from abroad and then undertake informal recycling and other processes for recovery of useful and precious elements. Money overrides the voice of conscious.

Thousands of workers are involved in the recycling of e-wastes in Pakistan by application of informal processes. Workers carry out manual dismantling of e-wastes without observing suitable protective practices. They dip circuit boards in acids to obtain metals like gold and silver. Recycling of rechargeable batteries for extraction of metals such as cadmium and lead is extremely hazardous. PVC cables are burnt to recover copper. Other processes include wet chemical processing, heat treatment, and acid leaching for metal recovery. Heinous crimes of recycling e-wastes are being enacted by those who would subvert good practice under the watchful eye of federal ministries of commerce and industries and provincial environment/ministries or protection agencies.

Dumping e-waste Advanced nations dispose their discarded e-waste by three processes. First, they attempt to sell the waste materials at cheaper rates to dealers who are interested in easy profits at heavy costs to their population’s health in the developing countries. Second, they distribute this equipment as a grant/aid/donation to relevant organizations. Third, they stealthily discard this equipment in seas adjoining the developing countries. This is a heinous crime under the Basel Convention and other laws. Certain industrialized countries have not yet ratified the international convention.

Lack of appropriate regulations There are no effective conventions/protocols at global and national levels. This allows the producers of e-wastes to degrade the environment the way they deem fit. Currently, PEPA (1997) is the main enactment in the country dealing with environmental concerns. Hazardous wastes are dealt with without particular reference to e-waste. 1. Section 14 of the PEPArequires that subject to the provisions of this Act, no person shall generate, collect, consign, transport, treat, dispose of, store, handle, or import any hazardous substance except (a) under a license issued by the government agency and in such manner as may be prescribed or (b) in accordance with the provisions of any other law for the time being in force, or of any international treaty, convention, protocol, code, standard, agreement, or other instrument to which Pakistan is a party. 2. Enforcement of the clause requires the PEPA to issue regulations regarding licensing procedures and to define hazardous substances. Although the EPA has published a draft regulation, these are not enacted and therefore are not legally binding.

E-waste management strategies In retrospect Existing scenarios of unbridled e-waste generation has attained alarming levels for humanity. This warrants immediate attention by public and private sectors, civil society, NGOs, industrialists and the business community for the protection of nature and natural resources from future destruction. Multipronged strategies need to be adopted for management of e-waste encompassing administrative, technical, environmental, regulatory, legislative, educative, stakeholders’ participation, and global cooperation.

The Basel Convention The main objective of the Basel Convention is to control and reduce transboundary movements of hazardous wastes including e-waste. Developing countries still perceive this convention as not optimally successful since the USA and the European Union are involved in activities which are in contravention to this convention.

Environmental mitigation measures 1. Mining of heavy metals needs to be curtailed. Minimum use of heavy metals should be resorted to use raw materials. 2. A policy of refurbish, reuse, recycle, reduce, and recovery should be strictly followed.

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Hussain and Mumtaz: E-waste: impacts, issues and management strategies      57

3. Informal recycling should be banned altogether. 4. Global/national standards of occupational health, safety, and environment should be strictly followed during the entire lifecycle of the product. 5. Environmental and social safeguards of United Nations bodies, the World Bank, Asian Development, and funding/donor agencies should be implemented. 6. National level environmental surveys and data collection: It is imperative to conduct comprehensive environmental surveys and to collect primary and secondary data about e-equipment, e-materials, and e-wastes in the entire country. Such comprehensive inventories are a prerequisite to identifying environmental issues, assessing environmental impacts and preparing environmental management plans.

Administrative actions Waste reduction strategies 1. All stakeholders, especially the manufacturers and consumers should make optimal use of e-equipment. The lower the consumption of e-products the less waste generated. 2. Existing models may be upgraded rather than purchasing new ones. Reuse of equipment will generate less waste. 3. Consumers should be encouraged to sell back the discarded models to dealers/manufacturers. This will help the manufacturers to undertake controlled formal recycling.

Sustainable designs The designs of the e-products should not be charged frequently. The designs should be environment friendly, socially acceptable, economically viable and sustainable in nature.

Societal responsibilities Public sector 1. Promulgate legislation pertaining to e-wastes as a priority. 2. Provide technical and financial assistance to industrialists/business community for minimizing

importing/manufacturing of e-equipment subsequently managing e-wastes.

and

Industrial/business community 1. Endeavor to help minimize damage to the environment and health through observance of global and national regulations. 2. Introduce take back and recycling of e-wastes. Civil society/NGOs 1. Should take a proactive role and keep a strict watch on the import/discarding of e-wastes in each country. 2. Should persuade consumers to minimize the purchase of e-equipment and avoid frequent changing of models. Individual citizens 1. Should purchase essential e-equipment only. 2. Individuals should not opt for new materials as a status symbol.

Recommendations 1. National governments should encourage the development of alternatives to electric and electronic equipment (e-equipment). 2. Manufacturing, monitoring and marketing of equipment should be regulated with a view to reduce their applications, for example, models of e-equipment should not be changed as frequently as occurs today. 3. Recovery, encouraging reuse and recycling of e-wastes. 4. Enhanced and effective international cooperation is needed to control transboundary movement of e-wastes and e-equipment use. 5. Mercury containing equipment should be banned. 6. E-wastes should be properly stored prior their final disposal. 7. Through proper policy planning, action strategies should be framed for curtailing. 8. Limits of the hazardous elements in wastes and effluents should be given in national environmental quality standards. These should be revised and their concentration level should be further reduced. Received January 16, 2014; accepted January 16, 2014

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58      Hussain and Mumtaz: E-waste: impacts, issues and management strategies

References 1. United Nations Environment Program. Basel Convention. Technical Guidelines on Environmental Sound Management of Mercury Waste. Available at: http://www.basel.int/Default. aspx?tabid = 2380. 2. Hussain M, Aloodgi M. Ferozsons. Lahore: (Pvt) Ltd, 1995. 3. Hussain M. Environmental degradation: realities and remedies. Lahore: (Pvt) Ltd, 1998: 103–19.

4. Ahmad et al. Primary health care. New York: WHO/UNICEF, 1978. 5. Back W. Atmospheric pollution. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1979. 6. Nemerow NL. Industrial water pollution. Addision-Wesley, 1978. 7. Pintel D. McLaughlin L, Zepp A, Lakitan B, Kraus T, et al. Environmental and economics effects of reducing pesticides use. Bioscience 1991;41–6.

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E-waste: impacts, issues and management strategies.

The present electronic era has seen massive proliferation of electrical and electronic equipment especially during the last two decades. These gadgets...
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