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Effect of growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid composition of Pistacia lentiscus edible oil a
a
b
b
a
F. Mezni , M.L. Khouja , S. Gregoire , L. Martine , A. Khaldi & O. b
Berdeaux a
National Institute for Research on Rural Engineering, Water and Forests, INRGREF, BP 10, Ariana 2080, Tunisia b
Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR 6265 CNRS, UMR 1324 INRA, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France Published online: 17 Mar 2014.
To cite this article: F. Mezni, M.L. Khouja, S. Gregoire, L. Martine, A. Khaldi & O. Berdeaux (2014) Effect of growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid composition of Pistacia lentiscus edible oil, Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, 28:16, 1225-1230, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.895724 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895724
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
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Natural Product Research, 2014 Vol. 28, No. 16, 1225–1230, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895724
Effect of growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid composition of Pistacia lentiscus edible oil F. Meznia, M.L. Khoujaa, S. Gregoireb, L. Martineb, A. Khaldia* and O. Berdeauxb a
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National Institute for Research on Rural Engineering, Water and Forests, INRGREF, BP 10, Ariana 2080, Tunisia; bCentre des Sciences du Gouˆt et de l’Alimentation, UMR 6265 CNRS, UMR 1324 INRA, Universite´ de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France (Received 14 November 2013; final version received 14 February 2014) In this investigation, we aim to study, for the first time, the effect of the growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid content of Pistacia lentiscus fixed oil. Fruits were harvested from eight different sites located in the north and the centre of Tunisia. Tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid content of the fixed oils were determined. The highest carotenoid content was exhibited by Feija oil (10.57 mg/kg of oil). Oueslatia and Tabarka oils displayed the highest a-tocopherol content (96.79 and 92.79 mg/kg of oil, respectively). Three major fatty acids were determined: oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids. Oleic acid was the main fatty acid presenting more than 50% of the total fatty acid content. Kebouche oil presented the highest oleic acid content (55.66%). All these results highlight the richness of carotenoids, tocopherols and unsaturated fatty acids in P. lentiscus seed oil and underscore the nutritional value of this natural product. Keywords: Pistacia lentiscus; fixed oil; carotenoids; tocopherols; fatty acids; growing area
1. Introduction The use and consumption of vegetable oils have gradually developed over thousands of years. They are considered as an essential nutrient with a number of important functions. It carries fatsoluble vitamins and supplies essential fatty acids which are important structural elements of cell membranes and are essential for the formation of new tissues (Nettleton 1993). Hence, oils are considered as an essential part of the human diet, and its consumption was evaluated on average 25 kg per person per year, mostly (80%) from plant sources (Subar et al. 1989; USDA 2008). The most commonly used vegetable oils are olive, sunflower, soybean and palm oils. The composition of these oils is highly variable according to diverse factors such as varieties, geographical origin and stage of ripening (Paz Romero et al. 2003; Salvador et al. 2003; Ayerza 2009). Considering the increase in consumption of these oils, there is a trend towards the exploitation of other oilseeds with equivalent nutritional value. Pistacia lentiscus seed oil is culinary and medicinal oil widely used in Tunisian and Algerian forest area. This edible oil is characterised by a high nutritional value; it contains a significant amount of unsaturated fatty acids (more than 70%) (Mezni et al. 2012; Trabelsi et al. 2012) and a high level of phosphatidylinositol (Trabelsi et al. 2013). In this investigation, we aim to study, for the first time, the effect of the growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid content of P. lentiscus fixed oil.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
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2. Results and discussion 2.1. Tocopherol and carotenoid contents In all the studied oils, two tocopherols (a-tocopherol and g-tocopherol) and three carotenoids species (lutein, zeaxanthin and b-carotene) were detected and quantified. Table 1 shows the values corresponding to the concentrations of the tocopherols and carotenoid pigments in P. lentiscus oils from different growing areas in Tunisia. The total tocopherol content ranged from 62.43 to 118.16 mg/kg oil in the studied oils. a-Tocopherol was the most abundant tocopherol fraction compared with that of other oils, such as sunflower (Dolde et al. 1999; Gunstone 2002) and olive oils (Velasco & Dobarganes 2002). Its content varied from 44.76 mg/kg oil (Kebouche) to 96.77 mg/kg oil (Oueslatia). g-Tocopherol was found in lesser amounts, which ranged from 14.56 to 22.12 mg/kg oil. It has been demonstrated that vitamin E is an important dietary antioxidant and includes all tocols and tocotrienol derivatives. Their most important antioxidant function appears to be the inhibition of lipid peroxidation. Vitamin E deficiency in humans causes defects in the development of nervous system in children and haemolysis (Sokol 1996). Low intake of vitamin E and other antioxidants results in certain types of cancer and atherosclerosis (Gey et al. 1991; Knekt 1993; Rimm et al. 1993). It has been suggested that supplementation with these antioxidants may decrease the risk of these and other degenerative processes (Blot et al. 1993). The total carotenoid content varied from 5.8 to 10.57 mg/kg oil. The high carotenoid content of P. lentiscus seeds indicates that it is an important natural source of carotenoids when compared with other edible oils such as olive oil (7 mg/kg oil) and caper oil (457 mg/100 g) (Salvador et al. 2003; Tlili et al. 2009). b-Carotene and lutein were the prevailing identified species and their rates ranged from 2.58 to 4.9 mg/kg and from 1.74 to 4.62 mg/kg oil, respectively. Zeaxanthin was found in lower quantities which varied from 0.47 to 1.93 mg/kg oil. Several studies demonstrated that diets rich in carotenoids, a fat-soluble group of naturally occurring plant pigments, are linked with a decreased risk of heart diseases, cancer and degenerative eye diseases such as macular degeneration and cataracts (Schmidt et al. 2003). Carotenoids are the major source of vitamin A. Nutrient deficiency of vitamin A in humans causes growth disturbances, poor eye sight and reduced disease tolerance, besides affecting the mucus membrane of gastrointestinal tract (Berezovski 1973). Oily substances of carotenoids have proven to be effective remedies against burn, frostbites, ulcers, skin cancers and various gynaecological illnesses (Goodvin 1980; Rahimv et al. 1983; Mashkovski 1997). In our study, the differences in the geographical region significantly affected the tocopherol and carotenoid contents (a , 0.0001). The highest a-tocopherol values were displayed by Oueslatia and Tabarka oils (96.77 and 92.79 mg/kg oil, respectively). The lowest values were displayed by Ouled Salem and Kebouche oils (47.87 and 44.76 mg/kg oil, respectively). Besides, the most significant b-carotene values were determined for Khorgalia and Kebouche ecotypes with values of 4.9 and 4.75 mg/kg oil, respectively. Oueslatia ecotype displayed the lowest level of b-carotene (2.58 mg/kg oil). These results could be explained and supported by those of other studies, on other species, which suggest that tocopherol and carotenoid contents varied according to the growing area and therefore to the climatic and edaphic conditions (Salvador et al. 2003; Luaces et al. 2005; Seker 2010). Given that P. lentiscus crude oil has long been used and considered as edible oil, it is necessary to know its physicochemical characteristics. Boukeloua et al. (2012) determined the acidity and peroxide values of the oil obtained by solvent extraction from powdered fruit of P. lentiscus. The acidity value was 2.27% (w/w) and the peroxide value was 1.12 meq O2/kg of oil. The experiments we conducted indicated that the acidity of the studied oils, extracted by pressing, varied between 0.66 and 2.56% (w/w) depending on its geographic origin. According to food legislation, this content is acceptable and this oil can be considered ready for
1.93 ^ 0.36 0.94b,c ^ 0.51 0.83c,d ^ 0.73 0.47e ^ 0.14 1.12b ^ 0.45 0.57e ^ 0.22 0.66d,e ^ 0.25 0.82c,d ^ 0.12
4.62 ^ 0.48 4.38a ^ 3.07 3.41b ^ 1.42 2.87d ^ 0.44 3.19b,c ^ 0.73 3.0c,d ^ 1.04 2.16e ^ 0.22 1.74f ^ 0.3
Feija Sidi Zid Kebouche Oueslatia Kef Errai Tabarka Khorgalia Ouled Salem
4.02 ^ 0.77 3.47b ^ 0.52 4.75a ^ 2.49 2.58c ^ 0.76 4.04a,b ^ 0.74 4.08a,b ^ 1.07 4.9a ^ 0.59 3.24b ^ 0.52 a,b
b-Carotene 10.57 8.79 8.99 5.92 8.35 7.65 7.72 5.8
Total carotenoids 65.75 ^ 6.61 84.72b ^ 9.9 44.76d ^ 26.64 96.77a ^ 21.52 68.94c ^ 15.32 92.79a ^ 11.2 77.92b ^ 20.09 47.87d ^ 5.34 c
a-Tocopherol 22.12 ^ 1.62 16.41c ^ 2.68 19.02b ^ 6.45 21.39a ^ 3.28 16.77c ^ 5.41 19.72b ^ 1.83 17.25c ^ 2.30 14.56d ^ 1.34 a
g-Tocopherol
27.05c ^ 1.36 28.06b ^ 2.8 22.22g ^ 0.85 24.2f ^ 0.88 25.84e ^ 1.02 25.62e ^ 1.44 26.61d ^ 0.44 29.26a ^ 1.52
50.84b ^ 4.08 42.09g ^ 5.61 55.66a ^ 1.61 46.49f ^ 1.29 48.7c ^ 1.75 47.3e ^ 1.19 47.63d ^ 1.12 47.16e ^ 1.37
Feija Sidi Zid Kebouche Oueslatia Kef Errai Tabarka Khorgalia Ouled Salem
17.3g ^ 2.89 23.24b ^ 1.79 16.25h ^ 1.26 23.6a ^ 0.68 19.86d ^ 2.03 21.94c ^ 0.82 19.33e ^ 2.07 18.07f ^ 0.5
Linoleic 1.01e ^ 0.09 1.41c ^ 0.11 1.53b ^ 0.12 1.38d ^ 0.07 1.67a ^ 0.11 1.43c ^ 0.13 1.74a ^ 0.11 1.47b ^ 0.1
Linolenic
0.97f ^ 0.15 2.51a ^ 1.09 1.86c,d ^ 1.07 1.83d ^ 0.03 1.84d ^ 0.14 1.48e ^ 0.26 2.41b ^ 1.2 1.92c ^ 0.12
Palmitoleic
1.47c ^ 0.11 1.41b ^ 0.20 1.53b ^ 0.54 1.38b ^ 0.07 1.66a ^ 0.86 1.43b ^ 0.18 1.74a ^ 0.62 1.47b ^ 0.11
Vaccenic
70.12 ^ 7.21 69.25 ^ 8.6 75.3 ^ 4.06 73.3 ^ 2.07 72.07 ^ 4.03 72.15 ^ 2.4 71.11 ^ 4.5 68.62 ^ 2.09
Unsaturated
Saturated 28.52 ^ 1.47 29.47 ^ 3 23.75 ^ 1.39 25.58 ^ 0.95 27.5 ^ 1.88 27.05 ^ 1.62 28.35 ^ 1.06 30.73 ^ 1.63
Notes: Values represent percentage mean ^ standard deviation (n ¼ 3). Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P . 0.05).
Palmitic
Oleic
Growing area
Table 2. Fatty acid content (% of total fatty acid content) in P. lentiscus oils from different Tunisian growing areas.
87.87 101.13 63.78 118.16 85.71 112.51 95.17 62.43
Total tocopherols
Notes: Values represent percentage mean ^ standard deviation (n ¼ 3). Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P . 0.05).
a
Zeaxanthin
a
Lutein
Growing area
Table 1. Tocopherol and carotenoid contents (mg/kg of oil) in P. lentiscus oils from different Tunisian growing areas.
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consumption. However, other parameters, such as peroxide value, are required. If these parameters are not in accordance with the Food legislation, the oil must be refined before consumption. This process will result in destroying all carotenoids and a part of tocopherols present in the oil (Gunstone 2011).
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2.2. Fatty acids contents Fatty acid compositions of the eight investigated seed oils are given in Table 2. The results indicated the presence of oleic, palmitic, linoleic, linolenic, palmitoleic, stearic and vaccenic acids in the seeds from all ecotypes. In addition, eight more fatty acids were identified in all analysed oil samples: myristic, margaric, arachidic, behenic, lignoceric, a-linolenic, margaroleic and gadoleic. However, as all the fatty acids were present traces, they were omitted. Table 2 reveals that P. lentiscus oils contain a significant amount of unsaturated fatty acids (between 68.62% and 75.3% of total fatty acid content). This content is slightly lower than that determined by Aranda et al. (2004) for olive oil (81.67 – 90.82%). The major components of unsaturated fatty acids are oleic and linoleic acids: oleic acid content of seed oils was in the range of 42.09 – 55.66% of total fatty acid content and linoleic acid rate varied from 16.25% to 23.6% of total fatty acid content. The oils also contain an appreciably large amount of saturated-chain fatty acids, especially palmitic acid (ranging between 22.22% and 29.26% of total fatty acid content). This is in agreement with our earlier observations (Mezni et al. 2012) and the findings of Tej Yakoubi and Dhaou (2007) which demonstrated that the main fatty acid contents in P. lentiscus seed oils are oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids, respectively. According to statistical analyses of data, most of the fatty acids in P. lentiscus were significantly affected by growth location. Oil extracted from the seeds of P. lentiscus grown in the Kebouche ecosystem exhibited the highest oleic acid content (55.66% of total fatty acid content) and the lowest palmitic and linoleic acid content (22.22% and 16.25% of total fatty acid content, respectively). Nevertheless, the most significant palmitic and linoleic acid percentages were determined, respectively, for Ouled Salem (29.26% of total fatty acid content) and Oueslatia (23.6% of total fatty acid content) ecotypes. Variations in oleic and linoleic acids content observed in oil samples are probably related to both genetic and pedoclimatic factors. Several studies on olive oil reported that the biosynthesis of oleic and linoleic acids in plant during maturation process is highly affected by climatic, edaphic and genetic factors (Lavee & Wodner 1995; Lanza et al. 1998; Morello et al. 2004). Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that light, temperature and water stress are the principal factors that affect lipid levels and metabolism in the olive fruit, and some authors have observed that oleic acid and the oleic/linoleic acid ratio are connected to the rainfall in the summer period (Harwood 1984).
3. Conclusions This investigation reports, for the first time, the effect of growing area on carotenoids, tocopherols and fatty acid composition of P. lentiscus fixed oil. Results indicated that this edible oil contains a significant amount of b-carotene, a-tocopherol and unsaturated fatty acids. These findings highlight its nutritional value and increase the ability of its use for pharmaceutical and medicinal purposes.
Supplementary material Experimental details relating to this article are available online, alongside Table S1.
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Acknowledgements Authors kindly acknowledge IRDC – Canada (105568-006) for the financial support.
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Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnpl20
Effect of growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid composition of Pistacia lentiscus edible oil a
a
b
b
a
F. Mezni , M.L. Khouja , S. Gregoire , L. Martine , A. Khaldi & O. b
Berdeaux a
National Institute for Research on Rural Engineering, Water and Forests, INRGREF, BP 10, Ariana 2080, Tunisia b
Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR 6265 CNRS, UMR 1324 INRA, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France Published online: 17 Mar 2014.
To cite this article: F. Mezni, M.L. Khouja, S. Gregoire, L. Martine, A. Khaldi & O. Berdeaux (2014) Effect of growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid composition of Pistacia lentiscus edible oil, Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, 28:16, 1225-1230, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.895724 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895724
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
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Natural Product Research, 2014 Vol. 28, No. 16, 1225–1230, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895724
Effect of growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid composition of Pistacia lentiscus edible oil F. Meznia, M.L. Khoujaa, S. Gregoireb, L. Martineb, A. Khaldia* and O. Berdeauxb a
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National Institute for Research on Rural Engineering, Water and Forests, INRGREF, BP 10, Ariana 2080, Tunisia; bCentre des Sciences du Gouˆt et de l’Alimentation, UMR 6265 CNRS, UMR 1324 INRA, Universite´ de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France (Received 14 November 2013; final version received 14 February 2014) In this investigation, we aim to study, for the first time, the effect of the growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid content of Pistacia lentiscus fixed oil. Fruits were harvested from eight different sites located in the north and the centre of Tunisia. Tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid content of the fixed oils were determined. The highest carotenoid content was exhibited by Feija oil (10.57 mg/kg of oil). Oueslatia and Tabarka oils displayed the highest a-tocopherol content (96.79 and 92.79 mg/kg of oil, respectively). Three major fatty acids were determined: oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids. Oleic acid was the main fatty acid presenting more than 50% of the total fatty acid content. Kebouche oil presented the highest oleic acid content (55.66%). All these results highlight the richness of carotenoids, tocopherols and unsaturated fatty acids in P. lentiscus seed oil and underscore the nutritional value of this natural product. Keywords: Pistacia lentiscus; fixed oil; carotenoids; tocopherols; fatty acids; growing area
1. Introduction The use and consumption of vegetable oils have gradually developed over thousands of years. They are considered as an essential nutrient with a number of important functions. It carries fatsoluble vitamins and supplies essential fatty acids which are important structural elements of cell membranes and are essential for the formation of new tissues (Nettleton 1993). Hence, oils are considered as an essential part of the human diet, and its consumption was evaluated on average 25 kg per person per year, mostly (80%) from plant sources (Subar et al. 1989; USDA 2008). The most commonly used vegetable oils are olive, sunflower, soybean and palm oils. The composition of these oils is highly variable according to diverse factors such as varieties, geographical origin and stage of ripening (Paz Romero et al. 2003; Salvador et al. 2003; Ayerza 2009). Considering the increase in consumption of these oils, there is a trend towards the exploitation of other oilseeds with equivalent nutritional value. Pistacia lentiscus seed oil is culinary and medicinal oil widely used in Tunisian and Algerian forest area. This edible oil is characterised by a high nutritional value; it contains a significant amount of unsaturated fatty acids (more than 70%) (Mezni et al. 2012; Trabelsi et al. 2012) and a high level of phosphatidylinositol (Trabelsi et al. 2013). In this investigation, we aim to study, for the first time, the effect of the growing area on tocopherols, carotenoids and fatty acid content of P. lentiscus fixed oil.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
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2. Results and discussion 2.1. Tocopherol and carotenoid contents In all the studied oils, two tocopherols (a-tocopherol and g-tocopherol) and three carotenoids species (lutein, zeaxanthin and b-carotene) were detected and quantified. Table 1 shows the values corresponding to the concentrations of the tocopherols and carotenoid pigments in P. lentiscus oils from different growing areas in Tunisia. The total tocopherol content ranged from 62.43 to 118.16 mg/kg oil in the studied oils. a-Tocopherol was the most abundant tocopherol fraction compared with that of other oils, such as sunflower (Dolde et al. 1999; Gunstone 2002) and olive oils (Velasco & Dobarganes 2002). Its content varied from 44.76 mg/kg oil (Kebouche) to 96.77 mg/kg oil (Oueslatia). g-Tocopherol was found in lesser amounts, which ranged from 14.56 to 22.12 mg/kg oil. It has been demonstrated that vitamin E is an important dietary antioxidant and includes all tocols and tocotrienol derivatives. Their most important antioxidant function appears to be the inhibition of lipid peroxidation. Vitamin E deficiency in humans causes defects in the development of nervous system in children and haemolysis (Sokol 1996). Low intake of vitamin E and other antioxidants results in certain types of cancer and atherosclerosis (Gey et al. 1991; Knekt 1993; Rimm et al. 1993). It has been suggested that supplementation with these antioxidants may decrease the risk of these and other degenerative processes (Blot et al. 1993). The total carotenoid content varied from 5.8 to 10.57 mg/kg oil. The high carotenoid content of P. lentiscus seeds indicates that it is an important natural source of carotenoids when compared with other edible oils such as olive oil (7 mg/kg oil) and caper oil (457 mg/100 g) (Salvador et al. 2003; Tlili et al. 2009). b-Carotene and lutein were the prevailing identified species and their rates ranged from 2.58 to 4.9 mg/kg and from 1.74 to 4.62 mg/kg oil, respectively. Zeaxanthin was found in lower quantities which varied from 0.47 to 1.93 mg/kg oil. Several studies demonstrated that diets rich in carotenoids, a fat-soluble group of naturally occurring plant pigments, are linked with a decreased risk of heart diseases, cancer and degenerative eye diseases such as macular degeneration and cataracts (Schmidt et al. 2003). Carotenoids are the major source of vitamin A. Nutrient deficiency of vitamin A in humans causes growth disturbances, poor eye sight and reduced disease tolerance, besides affecting the mucus membrane of gastrointestinal tract (Berezovski 1973). Oily substances of carotenoids have proven to be effective remedies against burn, frostbites, ulcers, skin cancers and various gynaecological illnesses (Goodvin 1980; Rahimv et al. 1983; Mashkovski 1997). In our study, the differences in the geographical region significantly affected the tocopherol and carotenoid contents (a , 0.0001). The highest a-tocopherol values were displayed by Oueslatia and Tabarka oils (96.77 and 92.79 mg/kg oil, respectively). The lowest values were displayed by Ouled Salem and Kebouche oils (47.87 and 44.76 mg/kg oil, respectively). Besides, the most significant b-carotene values were determined for Khorgalia and Kebouche ecotypes with values of 4.9 and 4.75 mg/kg oil, respectively. Oueslatia ecotype displayed the lowest level of b-carotene (2.58 mg/kg oil). These results could be explained and supported by those of other studies, on other species, which suggest that tocopherol and carotenoid contents varied according to the growing area and therefore to the climatic and edaphic conditions (Salvador et al. 2003; Luaces et al. 2005; Seker 2010). Given that P. lentiscus crude oil has long been used and considered as edible oil, it is necessary to know its physicochemical characteristics. Boukeloua et al. (2012) determined the acidity and peroxide values of the oil obtained by solvent extraction from powdered fruit of P. lentiscus. The acidity value was 2.27% (w/w) and the peroxide value was 1.12 meq O2/kg of oil. The experiments we conducted indicated that the acidity of the studied oils, extracted by pressing, varied between 0.66 and 2.56% (w/w) depending on its geographic origin. According to food legislation, this content is acceptable and this oil can be considered ready for
1.93 ^ 0.36 0.94b,c ^ 0.51 0.83c,d ^ 0.73 0.47e ^ 0.14 1.12b ^ 0.45 0.57e ^ 0.22 0.66d,e ^ 0.25 0.82c,d ^ 0.12
4.62 ^ 0.48 4.38a ^ 3.07 3.41b ^ 1.42 2.87d ^ 0.44 3.19b,c ^ 0.73 3.0c,d ^ 1.04 2.16e ^ 0.22 1.74f ^ 0.3
Feija Sidi Zid Kebouche Oueslatia Kef Errai Tabarka Khorgalia Ouled Salem
4.02 ^ 0.77 3.47b ^ 0.52 4.75a ^ 2.49 2.58c ^ 0.76 4.04a,b ^ 0.74 4.08a,b ^ 1.07 4.9a ^ 0.59 3.24b ^ 0.52 a,b
b-Carotene 10.57 8.79 8.99 5.92 8.35 7.65 7.72 5.8
Total carotenoids 65.75 ^ 6.61 84.72b ^ 9.9 44.76d ^ 26.64 96.77a ^ 21.52 68.94c ^ 15.32 92.79a ^ 11.2 77.92b ^ 20.09 47.87d ^ 5.34 c
a-Tocopherol 22.12 ^ 1.62 16.41c ^ 2.68 19.02b ^ 6.45 21.39a ^ 3.28 16.77c ^ 5.41 19.72b ^ 1.83 17.25c ^ 2.30 14.56d ^ 1.34 a
g-Tocopherol
27.05c ^ 1.36 28.06b ^ 2.8 22.22g ^ 0.85 24.2f ^ 0.88 25.84e ^ 1.02 25.62e ^ 1.44 26.61d ^ 0.44 29.26a ^ 1.52
50.84b ^ 4.08 42.09g ^ 5.61 55.66a ^ 1.61 46.49f ^ 1.29 48.7c ^ 1.75 47.3e ^ 1.19 47.63d ^ 1.12 47.16e ^ 1.37
Feija Sidi Zid Kebouche Oueslatia Kef Errai Tabarka Khorgalia Ouled Salem
17.3g ^ 2.89 23.24b ^ 1.79 16.25h ^ 1.26 23.6a ^ 0.68 19.86d ^ 2.03 21.94c ^ 0.82 19.33e ^ 2.07 18.07f ^ 0.5
Linoleic 1.01e ^ 0.09 1.41c ^ 0.11 1.53b ^ 0.12 1.38d ^ 0.07 1.67a ^ 0.11 1.43c ^ 0.13 1.74a ^ 0.11 1.47b ^ 0.1
Linolenic
0.97f ^ 0.15 2.51a ^ 1.09 1.86c,d ^ 1.07 1.83d ^ 0.03 1.84d ^ 0.14 1.48e ^ 0.26 2.41b ^ 1.2 1.92c ^ 0.12
Palmitoleic
1.47c ^ 0.11 1.41b ^ 0.20 1.53b ^ 0.54 1.38b ^ 0.07 1.66a ^ 0.86 1.43b ^ 0.18 1.74a ^ 0.62 1.47b ^ 0.11
Vaccenic
70.12 ^ 7.21 69.25 ^ 8.6 75.3 ^ 4.06 73.3 ^ 2.07 72.07 ^ 4.03 72.15 ^ 2.4 71.11 ^ 4.5 68.62 ^ 2.09
Unsaturated
Saturated 28.52 ^ 1.47 29.47 ^ 3 23.75 ^ 1.39 25.58 ^ 0.95 27.5 ^ 1.88 27.05 ^ 1.62 28.35 ^ 1.06 30.73 ^ 1.63
Notes: Values represent percentage mean ^ standard deviation (n ¼ 3). Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P . 0.05).
Palmitic
Oleic
Growing area
Table 2. Fatty acid content (% of total fatty acid content) in P. lentiscus oils from different Tunisian growing areas.
87.87 101.13 63.78 118.16 85.71 112.51 95.17 62.43
Total tocopherols
Notes: Values represent percentage mean ^ standard deviation (n ¼ 3). Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P . 0.05).
a
Zeaxanthin
a
Lutein
Growing area
Table 1. Tocopherol and carotenoid contents (mg/kg of oil) in P. lentiscus oils from different Tunisian growing areas.
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consumption. However, other parameters, such as peroxide value, are required. If these parameters are not in accordance with the Food legislation, the oil must be refined before consumption. This process will result in destroying all carotenoids and a part of tocopherols present in the oil (Gunstone 2011).
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2.2. Fatty acids contents Fatty acid compositions of the eight investigated seed oils are given in Table 2. The results indicated the presence of oleic, palmitic, linoleic, linolenic, palmitoleic, stearic and vaccenic acids in the seeds from all ecotypes. In addition, eight more fatty acids were identified in all analysed oil samples: myristic, margaric, arachidic, behenic, lignoceric, a-linolenic, margaroleic and gadoleic. However, as all the fatty acids were present traces, they were omitted. Table 2 reveals that P. lentiscus oils contain a significant amount of unsaturated fatty acids (between 68.62% and 75.3% of total fatty acid content). This content is slightly lower than that determined by Aranda et al. (2004) for olive oil (81.67 – 90.82%). The major components of unsaturated fatty acids are oleic and linoleic acids: oleic acid content of seed oils was in the range of 42.09 – 55.66% of total fatty acid content and linoleic acid rate varied from 16.25% to 23.6% of total fatty acid content. The oils also contain an appreciably large amount of saturated-chain fatty acids, especially palmitic acid (ranging between 22.22% and 29.26% of total fatty acid content). This is in agreement with our earlier observations (Mezni et al. 2012) and the findings of Tej Yakoubi and Dhaou (2007) which demonstrated that the main fatty acid contents in P. lentiscus seed oils are oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids, respectively. According to statistical analyses of data, most of the fatty acids in P. lentiscus were significantly affected by growth location. Oil extracted from the seeds of P. lentiscus grown in the Kebouche ecosystem exhibited the highest oleic acid content (55.66% of total fatty acid content) and the lowest palmitic and linoleic acid content (22.22% and 16.25% of total fatty acid content, respectively). Nevertheless, the most significant palmitic and linoleic acid percentages were determined, respectively, for Ouled Salem (29.26% of total fatty acid content) and Oueslatia (23.6% of total fatty acid content) ecotypes. Variations in oleic and linoleic acids content observed in oil samples are probably related to both genetic and pedoclimatic factors. Several studies on olive oil reported that the biosynthesis of oleic and linoleic acids in plant during maturation process is highly affected by climatic, edaphic and genetic factors (Lavee & Wodner 1995; Lanza et al. 1998; Morello et al. 2004). Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that light, temperature and water stress are the principal factors that affect lipid levels and metabolism in the olive fruit, and some authors have observed that oleic acid and the oleic/linoleic acid ratio are connected to the rainfall in the summer period (Harwood 1984).
3. Conclusions This investigation reports, for the first time, the effect of growing area on carotenoids, tocopherols and fatty acid composition of P. lentiscus fixed oil. Results indicated that this edible oil contains a significant amount of b-carotene, a-tocopherol and unsaturated fatty acids. These findings highlight its nutritional value and increase the ability of its use for pharmaceutical and medicinal purposes.
Supplementary material Experimental details relating to this article are available online, alongside Table S1.
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Acknowledgements Authors kindly acknowledge IRDC – Canada (105568-006) for the financial support.
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