Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1990, 7 0 , 59-66.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1990
EFFECTS O F LATERAL BALL LOCATION, GRADE, AND SEX O N CATCHING ' ANN McCONNELL Department of Physical Education, Southeast Missouri State Universio
GLENN WADE Department of Health and Leisure, Southeast Missouri State Uniuersig Summary.-To investigate the effecrs of lateral movement on the quality and quantity of catching as they interact w i ~ hage, 108 children from Kindergarten through Grade 4 were tested. A ramp was construc~edwhich slowed the descent of the 4-in. fleece ball so that it took 1.8 sec. to arrive at the child's location. Each ball could be delivered to one of five different locations in relation to the child. The child practiced five times, with balls coming in a random sequence to each location, the center of the ramp, 1 ft. and 2 ft. each to the right and left of the center. An increase in number of catches made and in the qual~ty of the performance based on McClenaghan and Gallahue's evaluation were associated with grade. The locations 2 f t . from the center produced the fewest catches within a grade, but 1 ft. from center produced more catches from kindergarteners than the center location and occasionally for upper grades. Evaluations of the performances showed a steady improvement across grades, but there was no effect on the evaluation of catclung performance of ball location within a grade. Children appear to be at a preferred stage.
Research provides support for the conclusion that with a change from kindergarten to fifth grade and the concomitant increase in age, there is an increase in the number of catches made (MacCaskill & Wellman, 1938; Gutteridge, 1939; Hoadley, 1941; Seils, 1951; Warner, 1952; Bottomley, 1981; Starke, 1986). Limited research also supports the finding that catching changes in quality (Seelfeldt, 1977; Bottomley, 1981; McCracken, 1986). Normally only one of these aspects has been studied as the independent variable. However, Bottomley (1981) studied the effect of ball size on both the quantity and quality of catching, noting a relation between the two: as age increases the quality and number of catches tends to increase. There are, however, interactions with ball size. Younger children tend to produce their best performance and number of catches with a larger ball. Bottomley also found that in Grades 2 and 3 there was no correlation between quantity and quality of performance. Finally, fourth graders produced their best performance with a smaller ball but made more errors. Wickstrom (1977) listed seven major variables with affect catching and among them is the precatch change of position of the catcher. Pederson 'Address correspondence to Ann M c C o ~ e l l ,Ed.D., Department of Physical Education, Southeast ~M~ssouri State University, Cape Girardeau, MO 63701-4799.
60
A. McCONNELL & G. WADE
(1973) concluded that initial precatch movement often interfered with catching performance. O n the other hand, Bruce (1966) found no effect on the number of catches made by the subjects' lateral movements, but there was an effect when they moved forward or backward. In both the Pederson and Bruce studies, the distance traveled was 5 ft. and the subjects were elementary school age children. The quality of performance has been studied rarely. Victors (1961) and Isaacs (1980) have reported conflicting results with regard to the effect that ball size has upon the stage. SeeIfeldt and Haubenstricker (1977) indicated an increase in the stages of learning with age. The research seems unclear on the effects of lateral movement on number of catches made. Further, there is little research on both the quality and quantity of the performance and their possible interaction. This study was designed to investigate the effect of lateral movement o n the quality and quantity of performance as they interacted with age.
METHOD Subjects Subjects were solicited from St. Mary's Elementary School in Cape Gitardeau, Missouri. Parents of all children in kindergarten through fourth grades were asked for informed consent to allow their children to participate in the study. There were 108 children who participated. There were 28 kindergarteners (14 boys and 14 girls ages 5 yr., 10 mo.-6 yr., 9 mo.) from 48 in the class. The first grade had 20 boys and 10 girls (6 yr., 10 mo.-7 yr., 9 mo.) from 35 in the class. The second grade had 1 1 boys and 4 girls (7 yr., 10 mo.-8 yr., 9 mo.) from a class of 31. The third grade had 4 boys and 13 girls (8 yr., 10 mo.-9 yr., 9 mo.) from a class of 28. The fourth grade had 10 boys and 8 girls (9 yr., 10 mo.-10 yr., 9 mo.) from a class of 30. These children's parents were blue collar workers, small business owners, and the lower echelon of white collar workers. Instrumentation Ball projection device.-A 6-ft. ramp was designed to control the time the ball took to descend and allow the ball to be delivered from a hole in the middle of the ramp at the top or from holes 12 in. or 24 in. on either side of the center hole (see Fig. I). The ball left the ramp 3 ft., 5 in. above the floor. A helper, after consulting a random distribution sheet and hearing the experimenter say "Ready, go," rolled the ball down the incline from a designated hole. A ball was rolled down the ramp 15 times for each subject. The first five trials were not recorded. The distribution for the holes was based on a random table for five numbers. The holes were numbered with the hole farthest to the helper's left as 1. The next hole was 2, and the center hole was 3. The hole to the left of the center was 4, and the hole farthest to the right
CATCHING: BALL LOCATION, AGE, SEX
61
of the helper was 5. The initial five balls were delivered from the holes in the following order: 4, 1, 3, 2, and 5. There were two distributions, the A series (5, 2, 4, 5, I., 3, I, 4, 3, 2) and the B series (1, 5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 1, 2, 2, 4). The subject stood in front, below and centered in relation to the ramp. H e could not see the ball until it was placed in the hole to be released. (top view)
Delivery hole board
\ 6"
12"
FIG.1. Ball rolling ramp
Balls.-The balls were 4 in. in diameter and of multicolored fleece commercially made of 100% orlon fiber. The balls traveled down the ramp at 3.3 ft./sec. so the child had 1.8 sec. to respond. A preliminary study had indicated that this time would be sufficient. Scoring System Each attempt at catching was recorded as successful or unsuccessful. A successful catch was defined as control and maintenance of possession of the ball.
62
A. McCONNELL & G. WADE
The stages selected were those described by McClenaghan and Gallahue (1978, pp. 94-96). The descriptions used are as follows: Stage 1: The arms are held in front of the body with the palms up. The contact of the ball triggers the roll-up of the arms. The ball is trapped between the arms and the body. Stage 2: The elbows are held at the sides with a bend. Hands are held in opposition to one another. The hands and/or arms slap together in attempting to trap the ball. The ball may be brought to the body if the entrapment is insecure. Stage 3: The elbows are held at the sides with a bend with the forearms in front of the body. Fingers grasp the ball and give contact.
These stages were used because they were observable. A score of one was given for Stage 1, three for Stage 2, and five for Stage 3. Procedure The experimenter and a helper went to a classroom with a list of the subjects. The teacher explained who the researchers were and selected five children who would be the initial participants from those who had given consent. The children were led to the testing station in the gymnasium, where they sat on chairs from which they could observe the demonstrated procedures. All children were allowed to handle the fleece balls before participating so any fear of being struck by a ball would be alleviated. The helper went to an elevated platform behind the ramp to be in position to roll the ball. The experimenter told the children that the object was to catch the ball and put it into a bucket. The procedure was demonstrated. The children were asked whether they understood; whoever volunteered went first. After 15 trials the volunteer returned to the classroom, and the next volunteer came. By using volunteers all children had adequate time to become famihar with the situation and the task.
RESULTS The mean number of catches made increased from kindergarten through the fourth grade for both boys and girls. One group (third-grade girls) did not show an increase; their scores actually declined. Several researchers have reported a sex difference in catching (MacCaskill & Wellman, 1938; Gutteridge, 1939; Seils, 195 1; Seelfeldt, 1978), and over-all, in this research the boys' median score was 5 and girls' 4. Table 1 shows a sex difference. Also, there was a significant difference in catching between classes (age) (F,,*,,,,= 31.74, p < .0001) and between boys and girls (F,,,,,= 22.16, p < .0001) according to the 2 x 5 x 5 analysis of variance. The location of the hole affected the number of catches. Those holes 2 ft. from center produced significantly poorer catching than the center using a Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test (2 = 1.79, p< .07). However, for some grades those holes only slightly off center were, in fact, easier for students to catch. I n the kindergarten and first grade this performance was
63
CATCHING: BALL LOCATION, AGE, SEX TABLE 1
Sex
Grade K
Boys Catches
M
SD Stage
M
SD Girls Catches
M
SD Stage
M
SD Total Catches
M
SD Stage
M
SD
1
2
3
4
2.86 1.79 19.07 6.03
5.40 2.06 20.95 10.85
6.27 1.95 25.00 11.89
7.25 1.26 38.75 6.50
7.90 2.38 37.90 12.06
2.14 1.75 11.71 2.33
3.10 2.13 15.90 6.71
5.50 1.73 26.25 12.31
5.15 1.82 23.31 7.85
6.50 2.00 28.88 9.94
2.50 1.47 15.39 5.85
4.63 2.33 19.27 9.84
6.07 1.87 25.33 11.57
5.64 1.90 26.94 9.98
7.28 2.27 33.89 11.79
apparent as well as in some other cases; see Table 2. There was a significant difference in catching for first graders when the location was moved 1 ft. to the left of center, according to a Wilcoxon matched- airs signed-ranks test (2= 1.79, p < .07). There was a significant difference in the catches made across holes (F,,4,,o= 10.65, p < .0001) and at each hole by sex (F,,,,,= 2.56, p = .04). MEANS A N D
TABLE 2 STANDARD DEVIATIONS FORNUMBERSOF CATCHES A N D STAGES BY LOCATION A N D GRADE
Grade 2 ft.
1 ft.
Left
Left
1.20 .77
1.20 .86
Ball Location Center
Kindergarten Catches Stage First Catches Stage Second Catches
(continued on next page)
1.40 .74
1 ft. Right
2 ft. Right
64
A. McCONNELL & G . WADE TABLE 2 (CONT'D) MEANSAND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FORNUMBERS OF CATCHES AND STAGES BY LOCATION AND GRADE Grade
M
Stage
SD
Third Catches
M SD
Stage
M SD
Fourth Catches
M SD
M
Stage
SD
2 ft.
1 ft.
Left
Left
5.07 2.86
5.07 2.71
.82 .63 5.35 2.67 1.17 .71 6.83 2.71
Ball Location Center
1 ft. Right
Right
5.00 2.65
5.47 2.80
4.73 2.31
1.50 .72 5.76 2.46
1.40 .62 5.29 2.14
1.23 .83 5.53 1.87
.71 .77 5.00 2.47
1.50 .71 6.39 2.81
1.67 .69 7.22 2.44
1.72 .57 6.94 2.41
1.22 .81 6.50 3.07
2 ft.
When stage scores were compared across grades, there was evidence of improved quality of performance with grade; see Table 2; however, there was a similar drop in stage scores for the third grade girls as there had been on the measure, number of catches. There is support for the belief that as grade (age) increases the mean stage score would increase. When the stage scores by locations of holes were compared, students were consistent. Only movement to the hole on the far right had any detrimental effect on the stage of catching. There was no significant difference between mean stage scores and the location of the hole. TABLE 3 RARSON CORRELATIONS FORSTAGESAND NUMBERS OF CATCHES BY GRADE AND SEX Grade K Boys
GLI~ Total
.36 .21 .27
1 .59t .69' .63t
2 .27 .85 .38
3 .29 .32 .53
4 .34 .63 .51
Total ,597 .70t .65t
*p = .05. tp
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1990
EFFECTS O F LATERAL BALL LOCATION, GRADE, AND SEX O N CATCHING ' ANN McCONNELL Department of Physical Education, Southeast Missouri State Universio
GLENN WADE Department of Health and Leisure, Southeast Missouri State Uniuersig Summary.-To investigate the effecrs of lateral movement on the quality and quantity of catching as they interact w i ~ hage, 108 children from Kindergarten through Grade 4 were tested. A ramp was construc~edwhich slowed the descent of the 4-in. fleece ball so that it took 1.8 sec. to arrive at the child's location. Each ball could be delivered to one of five different locations in relation to the child. The child practiced five times, with balls coming in a random sequence to each location, the center of the ramp, 1 ft. and 2 ft. each to the right and left of the center. An increase in number of catches made and in the qual~ty of the performance based on McClenaghan and Gallahue's evaluation were associated with grade. The locations 2 f t . from the center produced the fewest catches within a grade, but 1 ft. from center produced more catches from kindergarteners than the center location and occasionally for upper grades. Evaluations of the performances showed a steady improvement across grades, but there was no effect on the evaluation of catclung performance of ball location within a grade. Children appear to be at a preferred stage.
Research provides support for the conclusion that with a change from kindergarten to fifth grade and the concomitant increase in age, there is an increase in the number of catches made (MacCaskill & Wellman, 1938; Gutteridge, 1939; Hoadley, 1941; Seils, 1951; Warner, 1952; Bottomley, 1981; Starke, 1986). Limited research also supports the finding that catching changes in quality (Seelfeldt, 1977; Bottomley, 1981; McCracken, 1986). Normally only one of these aspects has been studied as the independent variable. However, Bottomley (1981) studied the effect of ball size on both the quantity and quality of catching, noting a relation between the two: as age increases the quality and number of catches tends to increase. There are, however, interactions with ball size. Younger children tend to produce their best performance and number of catches with a larger ball. Bottomley also found that in Grades 2 and 3 there was no correlation between quantity and quality of performance. Finally, fourth graders produced their best performance with a smaller ball but made more errors. Wickstrom (1977) listed seven major variables with affect catching and among them is the precatch change of position of the catcher. Pederson 'Address correspondence to Ann M c C o ~ e l l ,Ed.D., Department of Physical Education, Southeast ~M~ssouri State University, Cape Girardeau, MO 63701-4799.
60
A. McCONNELL & G. WADE
(1973) concluded that initial precatch movement often interfered with catching performance. O n the other hand, Bruce (1966) found no effect on the number of catches made by the subjects' lateral movements, but there was an effect when they moved forward or backward. In both the Pederson and Bruce studies, the distance traveled was 5 ft. and the subjects were elementary school age children. The quality of performance has been studied rarely. Victors (1961) and Isaacs (1980) have reported conflicting results with regard to the effect that ball size has upon the stage. SeeIfeldt and Haubenstricker (1977) indicated an increase in the stages of learning with age. The research seems unclear on the effects of lateral movement on number of catches made. Further, there is little research on both the quality and quantity of the performance and their possible interaction. This study was designed to investigate the effect of lateral movement o n the quality and quantity of performance as they interacted with age.
METHOD Subjects Subjects were solicited from St. Mary's Elementary School in Cape Gitardeau, Missouri. Parents of all children in kindergarten through fourth grades were asked for informed consent to allow their children to participate in the study. There were 108 children who participated. There were 28 kindergarteners (14 boys and 14 girls ages 5 yr., 10 mo.-6 yr., 9 mo.) from 48 in the class. The first grade had 20 boys and 10 girls (6 yr., 10 mo.-7 yr., 9 mo.) from 35 in the class. The second grade had 1 1 boys and 4 girls (7 yr., 10 mo.-8 yr., 9 mo.) from a class of 31. The third grade had 4 boys and 13 girls (8 yr., 10 mo.-9 yr., 9 mo.) from a class of 28. The fourth grade had 10 boys and 8 girls (9 yr., 10 mo.-10 yr., 9 mo.) from a class of 30. These children's parents were blue collar workers, small business owners, and the lower echelon of white collar workers. Instrumentation Ball projection device.-A 6-ft. ramp was designed to control the time the ball took to descend and allow the ball to be delivered from a hole in the middle of the ramp at the top or from holes 12 in. or 24 in. on either side of the center hole (see Fig. I). The ball left the ramp 3 ft., 5 in. above the floor. A helper, after consulting a random distribution sheet and hearing the experimenter say "Ready, go," rolled the ball down the incline from a designated hole. A ball was rolled down the ramp 15 times for each subject. The first five trials were not recorded. The distribution for the holes was based on a random table for five numbers. The holes were numbered with the hole farthest to the helper's left as 1. The next hole was 2, and the center hole was 3. The hole to the left of the center was 4, and the hole farthest to the right
CATCHING: BALL LOCATION, AGE, SEX
61
of the helper was 5. The initial five balls were delivered from the holes in the following order: 4, 1, 3, 2, and 5. There were two distributions, the A series (5, 2, 4, 5, I., 3, I, 4, 3, 2) and the B series (1, 5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 1, 2, 2, 4). The subject stood in front, below and centered in relation to the ramp. H e could not see the ball until it was placed in the hole to be released. (top view)
Delivery hole board
\ 6"
12"
FIG.1. Ball rolling ramp
Balls.-The balls were 4 in. in diameter and of multicolored fleece commercially made of 100% orlon fiber. The balls traveled down the ramp at 3.3 ft./sec. so the child had 1.8 sec. to respond. A preliminary study had indicated that this time would be sufficient. Scoring System Each attempt at catching was recorded as successful or unsuccessful. A successful catch was defined as control and maintenance of possession of the ball.
62
A. McCONNELL & G. WADE
The stages selected were those described by McClenaghan and Gallahue (1978, pp. 94-96). The descriptions used are as follows: Stage 1: The arms are held in front of the body with the palms up. The contact of the ball triggers the roll-up of the arms. The ball is trapped between the arms and the body. Stage 2: The elbows are held at the sides with a bend. Hands are held in opposition to one another. The hands and/or arms slap together in attempting to trap the ball. The ball may be brought to the body if the entrapment is insecure. Stage 3: The elbows are held at the sides with a bend with the forearms in front of the body. Fingers grasp the ball and give contact.
These stages were used because they were observable. A score of one was given for Stage 1, three for Stage 2, and five for Stage 3. Procedure The experimenter and a helper went to a classroom with a list of the subjects. The teacher explained who the researchers were and selected five children who would be the initial participants from those who had given consent. The children were led to the testing station in the gymnasium, where they sat on chairs from which they could observe the demonstrated procedures. All children were allowed to handle the fleece balls before participating so any fear of being struck by a ball would be alleviated. The helper went to an elevated platform behind the ramp to be in position to roll the ball. The experimenter told the children that the object was to catch the ball and put it into a bucket. The procedure was demonstrated. The children were asked whether they understood; whoever volunteered went first. After 15 trials the volunteer returned to the classroom, and the next volunteer came. By using volunteers all children had adequate time to become famihar with the situation and the task.
RESULTS The mean number of catches made increased from kindergarten through the fourth grade for both boys and girls. One group (third-grade girls) did not show an increase; their scores actually declined. Several researchers have reported a sex difference in catching (MacCaskill & Wellman, 1938; Gutteridge, 1939; Seils, 195 1; Seelfeldt, 1978), and over-all, in this research the boys' median score was 5 and girls' 4. Table 1 shows a sex difference. Also, there was a significant difference in catching between classes (age) (F,,*,,,,= 31.74, p < .0001) and between boys and girls (F,,,,,= 22.16, p < .0001) according to the 2 x 5 x 5 analysis of variance. The location of the hole affected the number of catches. Those holes 2 ft. from center produced significantly poorer catching than the center using a Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test (2 = 1.79, p< .07). However, for some grades those holes only slightly off center were, in fact, easier for students to catch. I n the kindergarten and first grade this performance was
63
CATCHING: BALL LOCATION, AGE, SEX TABLE 1
Sex
Grade K
Boys Catches
M
SD Stage
M
SD Girls Catches
M
SD Stage
M
SD Total Catches
M
SD Stage
M
SD
1
2
3
4
2.86 1.79 19.07 6.03
5.40 2.06 20.95 10.85
6.27 1.95 25.00 11.89
7.25 1.26 38.75 6.50
7.90 2.38 37.90 12.06
2.14 1.75 11.71 2.33
3.10 2.13 15.90 6.71
5.50 1.73 26.25 12.31
5.15 1.82 23.31 7.85
6.50 2.00 28.88 9.94
2.50 1.47 15.39 5.85
4.63 2.33 19.27 9.84
6.07 1.87 25.33 11.57
5.64 1.90 26.94 9.98
7.28 2.27 33.89 11.79
apparent as well as in some other cases; see Table 2. There was a significant difference in catching for first graders when the location was moved 1 ft. to the left of center, according to a Wilcoxon matched- airs signed-ranks test (2= 1.79, p < .07). There was a significant difference in the catches made across holes (F,,4,,o= 10.65, p < .0001) and at each hole by sex (F,,,,,= 2.56, p = .04). MEANS A N D
TABLE 2 STANDARD DEVIATIONS FORNUMBERSOF CATCHES A N D STAGES BY LOCATION A N D GRADE
Grade 2 ft.
1 ft.
Left
Left
1.20 .77
1.20 .86
Ball Location Center
Kindergarten Catches Stage First Catches Stage Second Catches
(continued on next page)
1.40 .74
1 ft. Right
2 ft. Right
64
A. McCONNELL & G . WADE TABLE 2 (CONT'D) MEANSAND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FORNUMBERS OF CATCHES AND STAGES BY LOCATION AND GRADE Grade
M
Stage
SD
Third Catches
M SD
Stage
M SD
Fourth Catches
M SD
M
Stage
SD
2 ft.
1 ft.
Left
Left
5.07 2.86
5.07 2.71
.82 .63 5.35 2.67 1.17 .71 6.83 2.71
Ball Location Center
1 ft. Right
Right
5.00 2.65
5.47 2.80
4.73 2.31
1.50 .72 5.76 2.46
1.40 .62 5.29 2.14
1.23 .83 5.53 1.87
.71 .77 5.00 2.47
1.50 .71 6.39 2.81
1.67 .69 7.22 2.44
1.72 .57 6.94 2.41
1.22 .81 6.50 3.07
2 ft.
When stage scores were compared across grades, there was evidence of improved quality of performance with grade; see Table 2; however, there was a similar drop in stage scores for the third grade girls as there had been on the measure, number of catches. There is support for the belief that as grade (age) increases the mean stage score would increase. When the stage scores by locations of holes were compared, students were consistent. Only movement to the hole on the far right had any detrimental effect on the stage of catching. There was no significant difference between mean stage scores and the location of the hole. TABLE 3 RARSON CORRELATIONS FORSTAGESAND NUMBERS OF CATCHES BY GRADE AND SEX Grade K Boys
GLI~ Total
.36 .21 .27
1 .59t .69' .63t
2 .27 .85 .38
3 .29 .32 .53
4 .34 .63 .51
Total ,597 .70t .65t
*p = .05. tp
