Journal o f Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1986
Ego Development and Moral Development in Relation to Age and Grade Level During Adolescence Barbara M. Gfellner Received June 3, 1983; accepted February 25, 1986
The relation between Loevinger's measure o f ego development and moral development as indexed by Rest's Defining Issues Test was examined in a sample o f 517 adolescents between 12 and 21 years o f age. Major increases in moral capacity were f ound at the Conformist and Conscientious levels o f ego development. Low positive correlations between ego level and moral capacity were reported f or young adolescents but not for older ones. The development indices o f age and grade were compared. Both ego and moral development seemed more closely related to grade level than to age. Socioeconomic status predicted acceleration in ego development at the rate o f one half an ego level over middle to late adolescence. This effect persisted at university. Students o f higher socioeconomic background attained developmental levels one to two years before their contemporaries o f low socioeconomic status. Sex differences in ego development were in favor o f females. INTRODUCTION
Cognitive-developmental theorists assume a parallel development of the processes involved in logical and social-cognitive functioning. This does not This study was part of the author's Ph.D thesis at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. Partial funding for the study was provided by a Brandon University research grant. ~The author is an assistant professor in psychology at Brandon University with interests in social cognition, vocational development, and sexual socialization during adolescence. Requests for reprints should be addressed to the Department of Psychology, Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada R7A 6A9. 147 0047-2891/86/0400.0147505.00/0 9 1986Plenum PublishingCorporation
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imply that identical structures are operating in the two domains, but that the same basic modes of schema development are taking place across the different structures. A number of studies have indicated that there may be a hierarchical progression in the development of several cognitive domains: logical abilities precede social role taking (Selman, 1971; Tomlinson-Keasey and Keasey, 1974), which is in advance of moral development (Kohlberg, 1973; Smith, 1978; Walker, 1980). According to these investigators, each competence is necessary but not sufficient for development in the succeeding domain. Another assumption of cognitive-developmental theory is that structural reorganization is essential in stage advancement from one stage to the next (TurieI, 1966). Within social cognition, this may be achieved through the mediation of social-perspective taking. A number of investigators have used social role-taking procedures and participation in discussion groups to accelerate moral stage development (Blasi, 1976; Blatt and Kohlberg, 1974; Colby, 1972; Scharf, 1978). Loevinger and Wessler's (1970) conception of ego development includes abilities of social-perspective taking as defined by Selman (1971). According to these authors (see also Hauser, 1976), ego development is a global capacity that incorporates elements of cognitive, character, self- and interpersonal development as well as moral development. It depicts the individual "frame of reference" through which a person perceives the self, social relations, and the relationship between the self and social reality. Ego development is operationaIized by Loevinger in seven stages and three transitional phases: the presocial/symbolic (I-l, inaccessible to study according to this formulation of ego-functioning assessment); impulsive (I-2); self-protective (Delta); a transitional level between self-protective and conformist (Delta/3); conformist (I-3); transition between conformist and conscientious 0-3/4); conscientious 0-4); transition between conscientious and autonomous 0-4/5); autonomous (I-5); and integrated (I-6) levels. Tamashiro (1979) suggested a decalage in various areas of social cognitive functioning. He found that the conceptions adolescents had of marriage in areas outside their personal experience were significantly below their general ego level. Different experiences may be required as a ground for socialperspective taking in different social-cognitive domains. Moral development (Kohlberg, 1969) is considered to be another facet of social cognition conceptually included in ego development. Correlations between .4 and .6 have been reported between measures of moral reasoning and ego development (Lambert, 1972; Liberman et al., 1983; Sullivan et al., 1970)~ However, Lambert (1972) failed to isolate a moral factor in ego development. Another approach to the study of moral development is represented by Rest's (1976a, 1979) formulation of a "recognition" measure of moral
Ego and Moral Development
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reasoning abilities, the Defining Issues Test (DIT). The D I T assesses a person's ability to comprehend moral reasoning, and his/her evaluation and preference for the characteristics of the different moral stages. The D I T represents a different level in the acquisition of a moral concept than that tested for through traditional methodology. It is a level that precedes comprehension, which requires a paraphrasing or recapitulation of a moral statement to demonstrate understanding o f it. The D I T is an objective index of moral competence that overcomes m a n y of the difficulties associated with the traditional method (Kurtines and Grief, 1974). As would be expected from the different emphasis involved, only moderate correlations have been reported between the DIT and the Standard Interview Technique (Rest, 1979). For an extensive review of the construct, index, and a decade of research, see Rest (1979). Moral development can be operationally defined in terms of a sequence of stages that constitute a continuum as well as a characterization of individual differences in style. Each moral stage is defined by the qualitative criteria used in evaluating a moral dilemma. On the DIT, the most widely used index is the P-score, a composite of the principled level moral reasoning endorsed and ranked by the subject. It is a continuous measure rather than a discrete stage score. This review outlined some of the theoretical associations between ego and moral development and empirical findings with the traditional moral methodology. The D I T was described as a moral recognition measure that precedes moral comprehension in order of development. The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between ego development and moral capacity indexed by the DIT. If social-perspective taking is the major vehicle of cognitive reorganization in social cognition, ego development should precede moral development at corresponding levels of complexity. In the present study stage predictions could not be assessed directly. This was because P score rather than stage was used as the moral index 2 and a cross-sectional design was employed. It was possible, however, to predict that a positive relationship would be found between adolescents' level of ego development on Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test (SCT) and their moral P score on the DIT. The primary focus of the study was to investigate the degree of correspondence in the relationship between ego level and moral development during the critical years of social cognitive growth during adolescence. A second aim of this research was to assess the impact of different experiences of social-perspective taking upon ego development and moral
2Stagetyping is not a recommendedprocedureon the DIT due to high attrition in meetingthe criteria for stage placement (Rest, 1976a).
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Gfellner
development. That is, in the process of socialization different expectancies about one's potential for role taking as well as different actual experiences are provided by social institutions like family, school, and various social and political structures. These factors may be important determinants of the cognitive rendering necessary for structural development. Investigators report that individuals' level of moral and ego functioning tend to align with the diversity of role-taking opportunities available in their social environment (Fran and Quinlan, 1972; Holstein, 1972; Bar Yam et al., 1976; Thrower, 1972; Scharf, 1978). In the present study two determinants of socialization were examined. Socioeconomic status (SES) and sex were related to moral development and ego development during the adolescent years. To date, the few studies that have reported either sex or SES effects have involved homogeneous and/or restricted size sample (Hauser, 1976; Martin and Redmore, 1978; Rest, 1976b) that limit the generalizability of their findings. In this study the relationship between both SES and sex and moral development and ego development were examined in a heterogeneous adolescent sample. In addition, the influence of educational level (grade) and chronological age upon ego and moral development were compared. These are indices of maturational development that correlate highly in secondary school. However, age and grade may have different influences on the social-cognitive capacities in question. Grade is a more powerful influence in moral development (Rest, 1983), whereas age has been the primary index in the study of ego development (Hauser, 1976). Hauser (1976) emphasizes the importance of age in relation to ego development and other sequential cognitive functions, such as moral development, which may "unfold at different rates" (p. 947). This is a problem of the structural integrity of ego-development stages that theoretically include moral development. Alternatively, higher educational level (grade) not only exposes an individual to new problem-solving strategies that may be incorporated into his/her cognitive structure, but also provides various role-taking opportunities through the social milieu that may affect moral development (Rest, 1983). In the present study a comparison was made of the development gradients in order to determine the relative influence of grade and age during adolescence.
METHOD Subjects The sample consisted of 517 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 21 years in grades 7 to 12 and university freshmen. The grade by age by sex
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Table 1. Age and Sex of Adolescent Subjects by
Grade Level Sex
Grade 7 8 9 11 12 134 Total
Age* 12.7 (0.7) 13.7 (0.6) 14.6 (0.7) 16.5 (0.9) 17.5 (0.5) 19.1 (1.0)
n 117 119 99 61 24 97 517
Female 63 54 49 37 14 64 281
Male 54 65 50 24 10 33 236
"Standard deviations in parentheses. nUniversity students. distribution o f the sample is shown in Table I. The sample was drawn f r o m three rural communities and a small town in midwestern Canada. Adolescents from each o f the three local schools and a psychology class at the university volunteered to participate in the study.
Instruments
Each subject completed the SCT (Loevinger and Wessler, 1970) and the short f o r m o f the D I T (Rest, 1979). The D I T short f o r m consists o f the three stories that have the highest correlations with the full six-story form. Rest reported correlations o f .93 (n = 160) and .91 (n = 1080) for P score between the two versions. H e maintained that the short f o r m has "substantially the same properties" (6.7) as the longer version. I n f o r m a t i o n was collected concerning sex, age, grade, and SES. SES was indexed by the revised Blishen Scale (Blishen and McRoberts, 1976) for occupations in Canada based on 1971 census statistics. This scale was constructed by ranking occupations on the criteria o f income, education, and prestige using the same m e t h o d as D u n c a n (1961) to index SES in the United States. Procedure
The D I T and SCT forms were administered to all subjects during a regular classroom period by the same female experimenter. After filling in demographic i n f o r m a t i o n subjects were asked to complete the DIT. Specific instructions were given by reading aloud the i n f o r m a t i o n on the first page o f the D I T with the student and carefully going t h r o u g h the illustrated example o f the D I T format. Following completion o f the DIT, the SCT was administered. 3 The students were instructed to finish writing the 36 sentence ~The test order was chosen after pilot work indicated it would ensure completion of the two forms during the class period and avoid fatigue effects.
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stems in a n y w a y t h e y wished. A discussion p e r i o d was p r o v i d e d at the end o f each session. Subjects' P scores were c o m p u t e d as the measure o f m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t (Rest, 1979). T o d e t e r m i n e subjects' ego levels, two self-trained raters scored the f e m a l e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y the m a l e p r o t o c o l s sentence b y sentence. D i s a g r e e m e n t s in scoring a p a r t i c u l a r response were discussed b y the raters a n d a f i n a l / - s c o r e agreed u p o n . I n t e r r a t e r reliability was .78 for the f e m a l e a n d .86 for the male responses. These reliabilities are c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e given in L o e v i n g e r a n d Wessler (1970), a n d R e d m o r e a n d W a l d m a n (1975). A f t e r scoring had been c o m p l e t e d , each p r o t o c o l was r e a s s e m b l e d a n d t o t a l protocol ratings (TPRs) were assigned according to the cognitive rules given in L o e v i n g e r a n d Wessler (1970). R e s p o n d e n t s were assigned to the c a t e g o r y o f high, .medium, o r low SES a c c o r d i n g to their scores o n the Blishen I n d e x with the c u t - o f f p o i n t d e f i n e d as one h a l f a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a b o v e a n d below the m e a n . T w o designs were used in this study. T h e m a j o r h y p o t h e s i s was tested by c o r r e l a t i o n a n d analysis o f v a r i a n c e with the i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ego level and the dependent variable m o r a l P score. S e p a r a t e analyses o f variance were c o m p u t e d for ego level a n d m o r a l P score as a f u n c t i o n o f age, g r a d e , SES, a n d sex.
RESULTS The correlation between ego level and moral P score was .44 (p < .0001) which d r o p p e d to .24 (p < .0001) with age c o n t r o l l e d . T h e p a r t i a l correlation was .19 (p < .0001) with the effects o f g r a d e r e m o v e d . A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e for m o r a l P score as a f u n c t i o n o f ego level achieved significance IF(8) = 20.93, p < .0001]. As presented in Table II, two significant increases Table 11. Grade and Moral P Scores of Adolescent Subjects by Ego Level
Ego level I-2 Delta Delta/3 I-3 I-3/4 I-4 I-4/5 I-5 I-6 Total
7 33 39 24 5 13 2 0 0 0 116
8 34 48 8 3 24 2 0 0 0 119
Grade 9 11 19 3 25 12 14 5 5 4 33 28 3 9 0 1 0 0 0 0 99 62
"University students. bStandard deviations in parentheses. ~Mean that differ at the .01 level.
12 0 0 1 1 I0 I1 1 0 0 23
13" 0 1 2 1 22 41 17 13 1 98
Moral P scoresb 4.7 (3.2) ~ 4.9 (3.5)" 4.8 (3.1)" 7.3 (4.7) ~ 7.3 (4.6) c 10.2 (5.2) ~ 12.2 (5.4) " 12.8 (4.8)" 11.0 (0.0) "
Ego and Moral Development
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I
(
Ego Development and Moral Development in Relation to Age and Grade Level During Adolescence Barbara M. Gfellner Received June 3, 1983; accepted February 25, 1986
The relation between Loevinger's measure o f ego development and moral development as indexed by Rest's Defining Issues Test was examined in a sample o f 517 adolescents between 12 and 21 years o f age. Major increases in moral capacity were f ound at the Conformist and Conscientious levels o f ego development. Low positive correlations between ego level and moral capacity were reported f or young adolescents but not for older ones. The development indices o f age and grade were compared. Both ego and moral development seemed more closely related to grade level than to age. Socioeconomic status predicted acceleration in ego development at the rate o f one half an ego level over middle to late adolescence. This effect persisted at university. Students o f higher socioeconomic background attained developmental levels one to two years before their contemporaries o f low socioeconomic status. Sex differences in ego development were in favor o f females. INTRODUCTION
Cognitive-developmental theorists assume a parallel development of the processes involved in logical and social-cognitive functioning. This does not This study was part of the author's Ph.D thesis at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. Partial funding for the study was provided by a Brandon University research grant. ~The author is an assistant professor in psychology at Brandon University with interests in social cognition, vocational development, and sexual socialization during adolescence. Requests for reprints should be addressed to the Department of Psychology, Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada R7A 6A9. 147 0047-2891/86/0400.0147505.00/0 9 1986Plenum PublishingCorporation
148
Gfellner
imply that identical structures are operating in the two domains, but that the same basic modes of schema development are taking place across the different structures. A number of studies have indicated that there may be a hierarchical progression in the development of several cognitive domains: logical abilities precede social role taking (Selman, 1971; Tomlinson-Keasey and Keasey, 1974), which is in advance of moral development (Kohlberg, 1973; Smith, 1978; Walker, 1980). According to these investigators, each competence is necessary but not sufficient for development in the succeeding domain. Another assumption of cognitive-developmental theory is that structural reorganization is essential in stage advancement from one stage to the next (TurieI, 1966). Within social cognition, this may be achieved through the mediation of social-perspective taking. A number of investigators have used social role-taking procedures and participation in discussion groups to accelerate moral stage development (Blasi, 1976; Blatt and Kohlberg, 1974; Colby, 1972; Scharf, 1978). Loevinger and Wessler's (1970) conception of ego development includes abilities of social-perspective taking as defined by Selman (1971). According to these authors (see also Hauser, 1976), ego development is a global capacity that incorporates elements of cognitive, character, self- and interpersonal development as well as moral development. It depicts the individual "frame of reference" through which a person perceives the self, social relations, and the relationship between the self and social reality. Ego development is operationaIized by Loevinger in seven stages and three transitional phases: the presocial/symbolic (I-l, inaccessible to study according to this formulation of ego-functioning assessment); impulsive (I-2); self-protective (Delta); a transitional level between self-protective and conformist (Delta/3); conformist (I-3); transition between conformist and conscientious 0-3/4); conscientious 0-4); transition between conscientious and autonomous 0-4/5); autonomous (I-5); and integrated (I-6) levels. Tamashiro (1979) suggested a decalage in various areas of social cognitive functioning. He found that the conceptions adolescents had of marriage in areas outside their personal experience were significantly below their general ego level. Different experiences may be required as a ground for socialperspective taking in different social-cognitive domains. Moral development (Kohlberg, 1969) is considered to be another facet of social cognition conceptually included in ego development. Correlations between .4 and .6 have been reported between measures of moral reasoning and ego development (Lambert, 1972; Liberman et al., 1983; Sullivan et al., 1970)~ However, Lambert (1972) failed to isolate a moral factor in ego development. Another approach to the study of moral development is represented by Rest's (1976a, 1979) formulation of a "recognition" measure of moral
Ego and Moral Development
149
reasoning abilities, the Defining Issues Test (DIT). The D I T assesses a person's ability to comprehend moral reasoning, and his/her evaluation and preference for the characteristics of the different moral stages. The D I T represents a different level in the acquisition of a moral concept than that tested for through traditional methodology. It is a level that precedes comprehension, which requires a paraphrasing or recapitulation of a moral statement to demonstrate understanding o f it. The D I T is an objective index of moral competence that overcomes m a n y of the difficulties associated with the traditional method (Kurtines and Grief, 1974). As would be expected from the different emphasis involved, only moderate correlations have been reported between the DIT and the Standard Interview Technique (Rest, 1979). For an extensive review of the construct, index, and a decade of research, see Rest (1979). Moral development can be operationally defined in terms of a sequence of stages that constitute a continuum as well as a characterization of individual differences in style. Each moral stage is defined by the qualitative criteria used in evaluating a moral dilemma. On the DIT, the most widely used index is the P-score, a composite of the principled level moral reasoning endorsed and ranked by the subject. It is a continuous measure rather than a discrete stage score. This review outlined some of the theoretical associations between ego and moral development and empirical findings with the traditional moral methodology. The D I T was described as a moral recognition measure that precedes moral comprehension in order of development. The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between ego development and moral capacity indexed by the DIT. If social-perspective taking is the major vehicle of cognitive reorganization in social cognition, ego development should precede moral development at corresponding levels of complexity. In the present study stage predictions could not be assessed directly. This was because P score rather than stage was used as the moral index 2 and a cross-sectional design was employed. It was possible, however, to predict that a positive relationship would be found between adolescents' level of ego development on Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test (SCT) and their moral P score on the DIT. The primary focus of the study was to investigate the degree of correspondence in the relationship between ego level and moral development during the critical years of social cognitive growth during adolescence. A second aim of this research was to assess the impact of different experiences of social-perspective taking upon ego development and moral
2Stagetyping is not a recommendedprocedureon the DIT due to high attrition in meetingthe criteria for stage placement (Rest, 1976a).
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Gfellner
development. That is, in the process of socialization different expectancies about one's potential for role taking as well as different actual experiences are provided by social institutions like family, school, and various social and political structures. These factors may be important determinants of the cognitive rendering necessary for structural development. Investigators report that individuals' level of moral and ego functioning tend to align with the diversity of role-taking opportunities available in their social environment (Fran and Quinlan, 1972; Holstein, 1972; Bar Yam et al., 1976; Thrower, 1972; Scharf, 1978). In the present study two determinants of socialization were examined. Socioeconomic status (SES) and sex were related to moral development and ego development during the adolescent years. To date, the few studies that have reported either sex or SES effects have involved homogeneous and/or restricted size sample (Hauser, 1976; Martin and Redmore, 1978; Rest, 1976b) that limit the generalizability of their findings. In this study the relationship between both SES and sex and moral development and ego development were examined in a heterogeneous adolescent sample. In addition, the influence of educational level (grade) and chronological age upon ego and moral development were compared. These are indices of maturational development that correlate highly in secondary school. However, age and grade may have different influences on the social-cognitive capacities in question. Grade is a more powerful influence in moral development (Rest, 1983), whereas age has been the primary index in the study of ego development (Hauser, 1976). Hauser (1976) emphasizes the importance of age in relation to ego development and other sequential cognitive functions, such as moral development, which may "unfold at different rates" (p. 947). This is a problem of the structural integrity of ego-development stages that theoretically include moral development. Alternatively, higher educational level (grade) not only exposes an individual to new problem-solving strategies that may be incorporated into his/her cognitive structure, but also provides various role-taking opportunities through the social milieu that may affect moral development (Rest, 1983). In the present study a comparison was made of the development gradients in order to determine the relative influence of grade and age during adolescence.
METHOD Subjects The sample consisted of 517 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 21 years in grades 7 to 12 and university freshmen. The grade by age by sex
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151
Table 1. Age and Sex of Adolescent Subjects by
Grade Level Sex
Grade 7 8 9 11 12 134 Total
Age* 12.7 (0.7) 13.7 (0.6) 14.6 (0.7) 16.5 (0.9) 17.5 (0.5) 19.1 (1.0)
n 117 119 99 61 24 97 517
Female 63 54 49 37 14 64 281
Male 54 65 50 24 10 33 236
"Standard deviations in parentheses. nUniversity students. distribution o f the sample is shown in Table I. The sample was drawn f r o m three rural communities and a small town in midwestern Canada. Adolescents from each o f the three local schools and a psychology class at the university volunteered to participate in the study.
Instruments
Each subject completed the SCT (Loevinger and Wessler, 1970) and the short f o r m o f the D I T (Rest, 1979). The D I T short f o r m consists o f the three stories that have the highest correlations with the full six-story form. Rest reported correlations o f .93 (n = 160) and .91 (n = 1080) for P score between the two versions. H e maintained that the short f o r m has "substantially the same properties" (6.7) as the longer version. I n f o r m a t i o n was collected concerning sex, age, grade, and SES. SES was indexed by the revised Blishen Scale (Blishen and McRoberts, 1976) for occupations in Canada based on 1971 census statistics. This scale was constructed by ranking occupations on the criteria o f income, education, and prestige using the same m e t h o d as D u n c a n (1961) to index SES in the United States. Procedure
The D I T and SCT forms were administered to all subjects during a regular classroom period by the same female experimenter. After filling in demographic i n f o r m a t i o n subjects were asked to complete the DIT. Specific instructions were given by reading aloud the i n f o r m a t i o n on the first page o f the D I T with the student and carefully going t h r o u g h the illustrated example o f the D I T format. Following completion o f the DIT, the SCT was administered. 3 The students were instructed to finish writing the 36 sentence ~The test order was chosen after pilot work indicated it would ensure completion of the two forms during the class period and avoid fatigue effects.
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GfeUner
stems in a n y w a y t h e y wished. A discussion p e r i o d was p r o v i d e d at the end o f each session. Subjects' P scores were c o m p u t e d as the measure o f m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t (Rest, 1979). T o d e t e r m i n e subjects' ego levels, two self-trained raters scored the f e m a l e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y the m a l e p r o t o c o l s sentence b y sentence. D i s a g r e e m e n t s in scoring a p a r t i c u l a r response were discussed b y the raters a n d a f i n a l / - s c o r e agreed u p o n . I n t e r r a t e r reliability was .78 for the f e m a l e a n d .86 for the male responses. These reliabilities are c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e given in L o e v i n g e r a n d Wessler (1970), a n d R e d m o r e a n d W a l d m a n (1975). A f t e r scoring had been c o m p l e t e d , each p r o t o c o l was r e a s s e m b l e d a n d t o t a l protocol ratings (TPRs) were assigned according to the cognitive rules given in L o e v i n g e r a n d Wessler (1970). R e s p o n d e n t s were assigned to the c a t e g o r y o f high, .medium, o r low SES a c c o r d i n g to their scores o n the Blishen I n d e x with the c u t - o f f p o i n t d e f i n e d as one h a l f a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a b o v e a n d below the m e a n . T w o designs were used in this study. T h e m a j o r h y p o t h e s i s was tested by c o r r e l a t i o n a n d analysis o f v a r i a n c e with the i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ego level and the dependent variable m o r a l P score. S e p a r a t e analyses o f variance were c o m p u t e d for ego level a n d m o r a l P score as a f u n c t i o n o f age, g r a d e , SES, a n d sex.
RESULTS The correlation between ego level and moral P score was .44 (p < .0001) which d r o p p e d to .24 (p < .0001) with age c o n t r o l l e d . T h e p a r t i a l correlation was .19 (p < .0001) with the effects o f g r a d e r e m o v e d . A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e for m o r a l P score as a f u n c t i o n o f ego level achieved significance IF(8) = 20.93, p < .0001]. As presented in Table II, two significant increases Table 11. Grade and Moral P Scores of Adolescent Subjects by Ego Level
Ego level I-2 Delta Delta/3 I-3 I-3/4 I-4 I-4/5 I-5 I-6 Total
7 33 39 24 5 13 2 0 0 0 116
8 34 48 8 3 24 2 0 0 0 119
Grade 9 11 19 3 25 12 14 5 5 4 33 28 3 9 0 1 0 0 0 0 99 62
"University students. bStandard deviations in parentheses. ~Mean that differ at the .01 level.
12 0 0 1 1 I0 I1 1 0 0 23
13" 0 1 2 1 22 41 17 13 1 98
Moral P scoresb 4.7 (3.2) ~ 4.9 (3.5)" 4.8 (3.1)" 7.3 (4.7) ~ 7.3 (4.6) c 10.2 (5.2) ~ 12.2 (5.4) " 12.8 (4.8)" 11.0 (0.0) "
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I
(
