International Journal of Psychology, 2014 DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12114
Emotional labour strategies as mediators of the relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction in Chinese teachers Mingjun Li1,2 and Zhenhong Wang1 1
School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China of Education, Shaanxi XueQian Normal University, Xi’an, China
2 Faculty
T
he purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between teachers’ public service motivation (PSM) and their job satisfaction levels and to investigate the mediating effects of surface acting (SA) and deep acting (DA) on that relationship. The teacher PSM scale, as well as emotional labour strategies and intrinsic satisfaction (IS) and extrinsic satisfaction (ES) scales, were administered to 317 primary and middle school teachers. Results indicated that PSM among Chinese teachers was significantly and positively related to both IS and ES. Furthermore, structural equation modelling analysis showed that SA and DA played mediating roles in the PSM-IS and PSM-ES relationships, respectively. These findings provide a new perspective that explains the mechanism underlying the association between PSM among teachers and their job satisfaction levels. Finally, the possible explanations and implications are discussed. Keywords: Public service motivation; Surface acting; Deep acting; Intrinsic satisfaction; Extrinsic satisfaction.
Job satisfaction refers to a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of employees’ job when achieving or facilitating their job values (Locke, 1976). It was not only can account for teachers’ engagement, work performance, occupational commitment, but also can explain turnover rates, burnout and other negative outcomes (Antón, 2009). Among the factors associated with job satisfaction, public service motivation (PSM), which represents “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions” (Perry & Wise, 1990, p. 368), has recently received much attention from researchers and practitioners. Many empirical studies have highlighted the importance of PSM in fostering public-sector job satisfaction in the United States (Naff & Crum, 1999), Australia (Taylor, 2008), Belgium (Vandenabeele, 2009) and China (Liu, Tang, & Zhu, 2008). In particular, individuals with a high PSM have higher job satisfaction levels compared with individuals with a low PSM. Although it is evident that PSM is associated with job satisfaction in the public service sector, few studies have focused on the influence
of PSM on job satisfaction in teachers, who are engaged in special work that is directly correlated with the overall development of our children. Even less attention has been directed towards the intervening mechanisms underlying this association. Recently, the framework of emotional labour studies suggests some presumable processes, with emphasising the role of emotional labour strategies (i.e. surface acting [SA] and deep acting [DA]). A recent meta-analysis of 116 primary studies (including a teacher cohort) demonstrated that SA was consistently related to low job satisfaction levels and high stress and exhaustion levels, whereas DA demonstrated a pattern of positive relationships with job satisfaction and job performance (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2013). Meanwhile, another important study also revealed that SA and DA were influenced by PSM (Hsieh, Yang, & Fu, 2011). Given the preceding rationale and the available literature concerning the connections between PSM, SA, DA and job satisfaction, it is reasonable to expect that SA and DA demonstrate a mediating effect in the relationship
Correspondence should be addressed to Zhenhong Wang, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, 199 South Chang’an Road, Xi’an 710062, China. (E-mail: [email protected]). This study was funded by The Key Projects of Philosophy and Social Sciences Research, Ministry of Education (11JZD044), China, The Ministry of Education Research of Social Sciences Youth Funded Projects (14YJC190011), China and The Projects of Philosophy and Social Science Fund of Shanxi Province (13N023), China.
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between PSM and job satisfaction in teachers. Therefore, this study aimed to replicate the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction and to expand the previous literature by examining the potential mediators (i.e. SA and DA) to help explain the PSM-job satisfaction relationship in the teaching profession. Teachers’ PSM and job satisfaction Teaching is a typical occupation for civil servants in China. Most teachers are recruited by the government and are expected to have higher PSM levels than other public professionals. This expectation stems from the basic demands of public work and the professional ethics of teachers, which, in the Chinese culture, advocate self-sacrifice and dedication, as well as placing the public interest first (Hofstede, 1980). In the educational context, we view PSM among teachers as their beliefs, values and attitudes, which extend beyond self-interest to include the interests of schools and student development, thereby motivating teachers to act accordingly, when appropriate. And it was comprised of attraction to school participation (ASP), commitment to education values (CEV), compassion (COM) and self-sacrifice (SS) (Li & Liu, 2014; Kim, 2012; Vandenabeele, 2009). According to the theoretical assumptions of teachers’ PSM, teachers with high PSM place a higher value on educational work, and are likely to have greater job satisfaction levels because education provides ample opportunities to serve the public interest. These opportunities provide a good match between personal values and the nature of the work. However, to the best of our knowledge, few studies have investigated the impact of PSM on job satisfaction in Chinese teachers. In consideration of the robust relationship between PSM and job satisfaction in the public sector, we can expect that PSM among teachers can be considered important in determining their job satisfaction. Emotional labour strategies and teachers’ job satisfaction Most jobs require staff to regulate their emotional expressions according to implicit or explicit organisational requirements or rules. Emotional labour is defined as an individual’s emotional management that is consistent with organisational or occupational display rules (Grandey, 2000). In order to conduct emotional labour effectively, some specific strategies are required for individuals to regulate their emotions and feelings. SA and DA are two classic strategies for individuals to regulate and manage their feelings when they are inconsistent with their internal emotional states (Grandey, 2000). SA refers to the strategy of pretending to feel unfelt emotions or hiding felt emotions to display the appropriate emotions required
by work, whereas DA is considered to be the process by which individuals attempt to modify their inner feelings to express the organisationally desired emotions. Furthermore, according to the conservation of resources theory (COR; Hobfoll, 1989), some studies have demonstrated that SA and DA play different roles in individuals’ job satisfaction because of the differences in their effects on psychological resources. Specifically, SA was found to be significantly associated with low job satisfaction because it consumed more resources and contributed none, whereas DA was positively correlated with job satisfaction because it contributed more resources than it consumed (Cheung, Tang, & Tang, 2011; Lam & Chen, 2012). Emotions are a central facet of education and teaching. Teachers experience emotion-laden interactions in their routine work and have a greater number of emotional demands compared with other professionals (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). Meanwhile, previous studies show that positive emotions in the workplace will broaden the cognitive scope among teachers, facilitate their innovative work and promote students’ interests, whereas negative emotions will narrow teachers’ thoughts and actions and harm students’ learning (Fredrickson, 2001). Thus, school administrators encourage their teachers to express positive emotions and to limit expressions of undesirable moods at school. Hence, teachers must make an effort to inhibit, generate and manage their feelings and expressions of emotion, according to their normative beliefs and the school’s expectations (Yin & Lee, 2012). Considering both theoretical and empirical studies of SA, DA and job satisfaction, we can expect that SA can negatively predict a teacher’s job satisfaction, whereas DA can positively predict it. PSM among teachers and emotional labour strategies Extant work has focused less directly on the link between PSM and emotional labour strategies, but many theorists have proposed that this link should exist (Grandey, 2000). COR (Hobfoll, 1989) suggests that people strive to obtain, retain, protect and foster valued resources and to minimise any threats of resource loss. Individuals with high PSM highly identify with their work values (Kim, 2012). This identification helps them to develop psychological resources. Thus, they are likely to modify their inner feelings and to perform DA when emotional dissonance occurs (Grandey, 2000). Conversely, low PSM reflects a self-interest motive—individuals are motivated to pursue a particular self-interest or to place self-interest first, according to Perry and Wise’s (1990) original conception. It is difficult for people with low PSM to receive more psychological resources from their work. These people are likely to merely externally conform to the © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
PSM AND JOB SATISFACTION Surface Acting -
+
Public Service Motivation +
Job Satisfaction
+ Deep Acting
Figure 1. The hypothesised model concerning about the mediator role of surface and deep acting in the relationship of teachers’ public service motivation with job satisfaction.
rules regarding emotional displays and to perform SA (Grandey, 2000). Recently, Hsieh et al. (2011) performed an empirical study (208 participants) that directly supports this assumption. They found that workers with high PSM were more likely to perform DA, whereas workers with low PSM were more likely to perform SA. Based on this finding, we propose that SA and DA will be significantly influenced by PSM among teachers. Teachers with low PSM will tend to perform SA, whereas teachers with high PSM will tend to perform DA. Furthermore, based on previous studies of the associations between PSM, SA, DA and job satisfaction, we can also expect that PSM, SA and DA will together impact teachers’ job satisfaction. Among teachers, PSM could exert a significant indirect influence on their job satisfaction through SA and DA. The present study The primary purpose of this study was to link PSM to teachers’ job satisfaction and to investigate whether these relationships were mediated by SA and DA in China. Based on the preceding argument, we expect that SA and DA could play mediating roles in the relationship between PSM among teachers and their job satisfaction. Specifically, teachers with high PSM are believed to perform DA at school, which promotes job satisfaction. However, teachers with low PSM have a greater propensity to perform SA, leading to decreased job satisfaction. The detailed hypothesised model is presented in Figure 1. METHOD Participants and procedures A total of 317 primary and middle school teachers in mainland China participated in the study. The sample consisted of 115 males and 202 females ranging from 22 to 51 years. The average age was 34.22 years (SD = 8.23 years), © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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and the average work history length was 13.14 years (SD = 9.64 years). Self-reported evaluations were administered to participants in the classroom environment. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to administering the evaluations. The participants were assured of the confidentiality of their responses, and they were encouraged to keep their answers confidential and to not discuss their answers with their colleagues. Each participant required approximately 15 minute to complete the questionnaires. Instruments Teacher PSM scales The teacher PSM scale, which was developed by the Li & Liu (2014), included 20 statements and was used to evaluate the PSM levels. The scale contains four dimensions: the 5-item ASP (e.g. “I am very enthusiastic about all kinds of school affairs”), which focuses on teachers’ inclination to participate in school affairs that contribute to the school’s development; the 6-item CEV (e.g. “Each of the students enjoys equal education rights”), which concerns teachers’ predispositions towards pursuing their school’s interests and commonly held education values; the 4-item COM (e.g. “I feel sympathy for students who are experiencing adversity in life”), which reflects teachers’ sympathy for, understanding of and identification with students’ pain; and the 5-item SS (e.g. “Doing something meaningful for the development of the school makes me feel good even with no reward”), which reflects teachers’ willingness to substitute service to others for tangible personal rewards. Participants’ responses were recorded on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). In this study, the results showed that the four PSM factors had good reliability, with Cronbach alpha coefficients ranging from .76 to .79. As for the construct validity, the CFA results showed that the four-factor model had acceptable to excellent goodness-of-fit indices (χ2 = 333.41, χ2 /df = 2.03, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, SRMR = 0.057, RMSEA = 0.051). Teachers’ emotional labour strategies SA and DA scales were assessed with a 10-item emotional labour strategies scale (Liu, 2007). The SA subscale consists of five items (e.g. “I pretend to have positive emotions when I am facing the students”), which indicates when teachers are pretending to feel unfelt emotions or hiding their felt emotions to display the appropriate emotions required by their work. The DA subscale also consists of five items (e.g. “I make an effort to actually feel the emotions that I need to display”), which reflects how teachers modify their felt emotions
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using cognitive techniques to ensure that the desired emotional displays follow. Each item used a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). In this study, the alpha coefficients for the SA and DA subscales were .70 and .78, respectively. Furthermore, the CFA results showed that the scales had acceptable construct validity with the following goodness-of-fit indices: χ2 = 92.04, χ2 /df = 2.86, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.069, RMSEA = 0.054. Teachers’ intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction scale Teachers’ job satisfaction, which is mainly characterised by intrinsic satisfaction (IS) and extrinsic satisfaction (ES), was measured using the short-form Minnesota Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). The IS subscale consists of 12 items (e.g. responsibility, social status and creativity), which reflect the satisfaction derived from the inherent features of the job. The ES subscale consists of six items (e.g. supervision-human relations, company policies and practices), which reflect the gratification derived from external aspects of the job. Respondents were asked to rate their satisfaction on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). In this, the alpha coefficients for the IS and ES subscales were .78 and .80, respectively. Moreover, the CFA results showed the two-factor model had acceptable goodness-of-fit (χ2 = 393.18, χ2 /df = 2.77, CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90, SRMR = 0.075, RMSEA = 0.057). Data analysis Descriptive statistics (M, SD and r) of the variables were first calculated. Then, structural equation modelling with maximum likelihood estimation, using AMOS 17.0, was employed to explore the mediator roles of SA and DA in the PSM–IS and PSM–ES relationships, respectively. Item parcels were created to serve as indicators of IS and ES because each construct was assessed with more than six items. Each item parcel comprised the average of three measured items using random assignment techniques. Thus, 4- and 2-item parcels were created for IS and ES, respectively. This procedure can improve the variable-to-sample-size ratio and aims to increase the stability of the parameter estimates (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002). Consistent with the recommendation of Hu and Bentler (1999) and Kline (2011), multiple indices were calculated in this study to evaluate the overall fit of the model to the data: the chi-squared statistic (χ2 ), χ2 /df ratio, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardised root mean square residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI).
Thus, the criteria used in this study acknowledged the potential for acceptable (χ2 /df ratio < 3, CFI and TLI > 0.90, RMSEA < 0.08, SRMR < 0.10) and excellent fit (χ2 /df ratio < 2, CFI and TLI > 0.95, RMSEA < 0.06, SRMR < 0.08) (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2011). Assessment of common method variance Harman’s single-factor test, which tests for the emergence of a single factor, or one factor that explains a majority of the variance, was used to examine common method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Exploratory factor analysis extracted eight factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, accounting for 62.30% of the total variance, of which the first factor explained 20.97% of the variance, less than 50% (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). Furthermore, confirmatory factor analysis showed that the single-factor model generated poor fit: χ2 = 3704.95, χ2 /df = 4.43, CFI = 0.49, TLI = 0.46, RMSEA = 0.108 (90% CI = 0.098–0.119), and SRMR = 0.105. Therefore, common method variance levels were not problematic in our data. RESULTS Correlations Means, standard deviations and bivariate correlations for all measured variables based on the raw data are displayed in Table 1. As shown, PSM among teachers was significantly and positively associated with IS (r = .49, p < .01) and ES (r = .38, p < .01). SA negatively predicted IS (r = −.27, p < .01) and ES (r = −.21, p < .01), whereas DA positively predicted these values: IS (r = .39, p < .01) and ES (r = .29, p < .01). Furthermore, we found that PSM among teachers was significantly and negatively correlated with SA (r = −.23, p < .01) but significantly and positively associated with DA (r = .41, p < .01). These relationships provided the necessary foundation for the structural equation modelling analysis. Structural equation modelling analysis Measurement model SEM analysis was conducted to validate the mediating effects of SA and DA on the relationships between PSM, IS and ES. According to the two-step procedure outlined by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS 17.0 with maximum likelihood estimation (ML) was used to test the measurement model before the structural relationships were tested. The measurement model consisted of five interrelated latent variables: PSM, SA, DA, IS and ES. The goodness-of-fit indices were as follows: χ2 = 223.77, © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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TABLE 1 Means, standard deviations and correlations between the measured variables
1 ASP 2 CEV 3 COM 4 SS 5 PSM 6 SA 7 DA 8 IS 9 ES
M
SD
20.72 30.75 20.80 24.02 96.29 12.24 15.47 42.74 19.62
5.31 4.44 3.02 4.23 12.99 3.43 4.29 5.82 4.09
1 1 0.39** 0.24** 0.41** 0.73** −0.22** 0.39** 0.42** 0.35**
2 1 0.63** 0.49** 0.81** −0.18** 0.24** 0.39** 0.26**
3
1 0.55** 0.72** −.0.11 0.22** 0.30** 0.19**
4
1 0.79** −0.17** 0.36** 0.39** 0.32**
5
1 −0.23** 0.41** 0.49** 0.38**
6
7
8
1 −0.19** −0.27** −0.21**
1 0.39** 0.29**
1 0.73**
Note: ASP = attraction to school participation; CEV = commitment to education values; COM = compassion; SS = self-sacrifice; PSM: public service motivation, SA = surface acting; DA = deep acting; IS = intrinsic satisfaction; ES = extrinsic satisfaction. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
χ2 /df = 1.51, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040 (90% CI = 0.029–0.051) and SRMR = 0.071. These values indicated that the measurement model provided excellent fit. Structural model The overall fit of the initial structural model was excellent: χ2 = 227.22, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040 (90% CI = 0.028–0.050), and SRMR = 0.053. All path coefficients of the postulated structural model were significant, except for the path from SA to IS (β = −.12, t = 1.36, p = .17) and the path from DA to ES (β = .09, t = 1.06, p = .29). Thus, we removed these two paths from the initial structural model to obtain the final model. The final structural model also fit the data well (χ2 = 230.91, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040, 90% CI = 0.029–0.050, SRMR = 0.056). Moreover, the final structural model did not fit the data significantly worse than the initial structural model: χ2 (2, n = 317) = 3.69, p > .05. These results suggested that SA and DA may play partial mediating roles in the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. Full versus partial mediation To test the hypothesis that SA would partially mediate the PSM–ES relationship, the following two mediation models were compared: (a) a partial mediation model with the direct path from PSM to ES not constrained; (b) a full mediation model with the above direct path constrained to zero. Results showed that, the fit indices of partial mediation model (χ2 = 230.91, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040, 90% CI = 0.029–0.050, SRMR = 0.056) were better than full mediation model (χ2 = 265.87, χ2 /df = 1.75, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.83, RMSEA = 0.048(90% CI = 0.038–0.057), SRMR = 0.073). The chi-squared difference test showed © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
that excluding the direct path significantly devalued the fit: ⊿χ2 (1, n = 317) = 34.96, p < .001. Consequently, the partial mediation model was supported. In a similar vein, the partial and full mediation models were compared with the chi-squared difference test to determine whether DA would partially mediate the PSM–IS. The results of this comparison showed that the fit indices of the partial mediation model with the direct paths from PSM to IS not constrained (χ2 = 230.91, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040, 90% CI = 0.029–0.050, SRMR = 0.056) were also better than those for the full mediation model (χ2 = 276.51, χ2 /df = 1.78, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.050, 90% CI = 0.040–0.059, SRMR = 0.066). Moreover, after eliminating the above direct path, the fit of the model reduced significantly (⊿χ2 (1, n = 317) = 45.60, p < .001). Consequently, the partial mediation model was supported. The standardised path coefficients of the final structural mode are shown in Figure 2. Assessment of mediation The Sobel (1986) test was used to examine the mediating roles of SA and DA in the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships. The results showed that the indirect effects were significant at the .05 level, Sobel Z = 2.14, SE = .01, p = .03 for SA and Sobel Z = 2.41, SE = .01, p = .02 for DA. These findings indicate that SA and DA had partial mediating effects on the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. DISCUSSION This study examined the association between PSM and job satisfaction in Chinese teachers and investigated the mediating effects of SA and DA on the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction among teachers. The findings of this study indicated that PSM was positively correlated with both IS and ES. This result supported
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SA-T2
0.54
0.43
SA-T4
SA-T3 0.50
0.41
SA-T5 0.60 -0.18*
Surface Acting ASP 0.63 CEV
-0.38***
0.46
0.55***
0.60***
0.64 0.65
0.70
ES-P1
0.81
ES-P2
Extrinsic Satisfaction
***
PSM
COM 0.74
0.66
SS
0.50 DA-T1
0.57
0.19**
Deep Acting
Intrinsic Satisfaction
0.53 0.77 DA-T2
0.75 0.50 DA-T3
DA-T4
0.59 0.61
IS-P1 IS-P2 IS-P3 IS-P4
DA-T5
Figure 2. The final structural equation model regarding the mediating effects of SA and DA on the relation between teachers’ PSM and job satisfaction. Note. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001; SA-T-items of surface acting; DA-T = items of deep acting; PSM = public service motivation; ASP = attraction to school participation; CEV = commitment to education values; COM = compassion; SS = self-sacrifice; IS-P = item parcel of intrinsic satisfaction; ES-P = item parcel of extrinsic satisfaction. For the sake of presentation clarity, the correlations among the variables error were excluded from the diagram.
the findings of Naff and Crum (1999) and Vandenabeele (2009), but it was inconsistent with the findings of Alonso and Lewis (2001). There may be a number of explanations for the role of PSM among teachers in promoting IS and ES in the Chinese context. For example, teachers with high PSM show more affinity with the spirit of education. Working in schools may satisfy their aspirations, which, in turn increase their job satisfaction. In addition, the nature of teachers’ professional ethics in the Chinese cultural context scores highly on collectivism and advocates dedication, SS and altruism in the workplace (Hofstede, 1980). Thus, teachers with high PSM are more likely to have a strong sense of responsibility and identification with their work, which reflects the nature of IS (Weiss et al., 1967). Meanwhile, they are also endowed with the spirit of SS and are expected to care less about their working conditions, environments and rewards. Thus, their external job requirements are more easily satisfied, which increases their ES. Clearly, the essence of PSM is highly coincident with teachers’ professional ethics in the Chinese culture. Therefore, Chinese teachers’ PSM and job satisfaction are likely to be strengthened through the promotion of professional ethics. In line with previous studies (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2013; Lam & Chen, 2012), correlation analysis in the present research revealed that SA was negatively correlated with IS and ES, whereas DA was positively correlated with IS and ES. The significant influence of SA and DA on IS and ES highlights the importance of emotional displays that coincide with teachers’ inner feelings at school. However, it is noteworthy to mention that the SA–IS and DA–ES relationships were not
significant in the SEM analysis. Based on COR (Hobfoll, 1989), this result is primarily because teachers who perform SA are highly sensitive to working conditions and school demands, which increases their concerns about working conditions, salaries and management rules in their workplaces. Their emotional displays (e.g. pretending or hiding) are emotionally taxing. In this process, important resources are drained by emotional dissonance. Consequently, this results in the net loss of psychological resources and low satisfaction. Thus, teachers who perform SA are inclined to believe that their low satisfaction derives from their poor work environments and strict school rules. In contrast, teachers who perform DA strongly agree with their schools’ goals, which facilitate more concern for the intrinsic value of education than any external interests. Although these emotional displays consume many emotional resources, the teachers still experience higher job satisfaction because positive work outcomes (e.g. job performance, Grandey, 2000) can help individuals to restore or regain psychological resources (Cheung et al., 2011). Thus, teachers who perform DA tend to believe that their high satisfaction originates from the value of school work. In conclusion, the positive relationship between DA and IS in this study was significantly more closely aligned than that between DA and ES, and the SA–ES relationship was more negative than that between SA and IS. Although some studies have examined the potential mediators between PSM and job satisfaction (e.g. Wright & Pandey, 2008), little attention has been directed towards the possible mediators underlying this association from © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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the emotional labour perspective, particularly in the teaching profession. This study examined SA and DA as mediators between teachers’ PSM and their job satisfaction. SEM analyses showed that SA and DA, respectively, played partial mediating roles in the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships. This is probably because IS and ES can be promoted by teachers’ PSM. Meanwhile, SA was also found to be significantly and negatively related to ES, whereas DA showed a significantly positive association with IS. Importantly, and in line with Hsieh et al. (2011)’s finding, this study found that PSM among teachers was a possible predictor of SA and DA. Teachers with high PSM are less likely to engage in SA but more likely to engage in DA because high PSM levels in education provide ample psychological resources (Hobfoll, 1989). Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that teachers with high PSM tend to perform DA, which helps to promote IS, and teachers with low PSM are inclined to perform SA, which leads to reduced ES. Consequently, SA and DA can be treated as mediator variables to explain the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. Moreover, our data also support the idea that the person-organisation fit played a mediating role in the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction (Wright & Pandey, 2008), as teachers’ abilities to manage their emotions at school are one of the most important indicators of the teacher–school fit. Additionally, we should acknowledge that the mechanism underlying the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction is complex, and other factors that were not investigated in this study may also play an important role in this relationship. Therefore, SA and DA play only partial, intervening, variable roles. These other factors therefore represent a future research direction in this domain. Some limitations of this study should be considered. This study was cross-sectional in nature. It is therefore difficult to make cause–effect inferences. Future investigations should adopt an experimental or longitudinal design to determine the causal relationships between the study variables. Another limitation is the findings rely solely on self-report measures, thereby in future research we could consider adopting other measure methods (e.g. other-report). Thirdly, the sample size in this study was relatively small, which could have affected our ability to develop a model with a strong fit. The replication of the findings of this study in future studies with larger sample sizes can provide more evidence to support these results. Finally, the study sample was composed of teachers living in the Chinese culture, which may limit the generalisability of the research conclusions to other countries and work settings. Despite these limitations, this study provides important contributions to the literature and to teaching practices. It provides empirical evidence to illustrate the positive relationship between PSM and job satisfaction in the Chinese cultural context, and it examined the mediating effects of SA and DA on PSM among teachers and © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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their job satisfaction. These results also provide important insights for education management, such as personnel selection and teacher training, because PSM and DA played important roles in promoting job satisfaction. For example, schools can assess emotional labour strategies and PSM levels in personnel selection using standard written tests. Furthermore, schools can also help teachers to enhance their PSM by providing training workshops because it is possible to enhance PSM through training to alleviate the influence of SA on job satisfaction. In conclusion, this study presents an empirical framework for researchers by examining SA and DA as mediators in the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction in Chinese teachers. Teachers’ PSM was found to be significantly and positively associated with IS and ES. In addition, SA and DA can partially explain the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. Manuscript received March 2014 Revised manuscript accepted October 2014
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Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., Rubenstein, A. L., Long, D. M., Odio, M. A., Buckman, B. R., Zhang, Y. W., & Halvorsen-Ganepola, M. K. (2013). A meta-analytic structural model of dispositional affectivity and emotional labor. Personnel Psychology, 66, 47–90. Kim, S. (2012). Does person-organization fit matter in the public sector? Testing the mediating effect of person-organization fit in the relationship between public service motivation and work attitudes. Public Administration Review, 72, 830–840. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practices of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Lam, W., & Chen, Z. (2012). When I put on my service mask: Determinants and outcomes of emotional labor among hotel service providers according to affective event theory. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 3–11. Li, M., & Liu, Y. (2014). Development of public service motivation scale in primary and middle school teachers. China Journal of Health Psychology, 3, 366–368. Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173. Liu, Y. (2007). Research on teacher’s emotion work in elementary and middle school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwest University, Kirkland, WA. Liu, B., Tang, N., & Zhu, X. (2008). Public service motivation and job satisfaction in China: An investigation of generalisability and instrumentality. International Journal of Manpower, 29, 684–699. Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297–1349). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Naff, K. C., & Crum, J. (1999). Working for America: Does PSM make a difference? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 19, 5–16. Perry, J. L., & Wise, L. R. (1990). The motivational bases of public service. Public Administration Review, 50, 367–373. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903. Sobel, M. E. (1986). Some new results on indirect effects and their standard errors in covariance structure models. In N. Tuma (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 159–186). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association. Taylor, J. (2008). Organizational influences, public service motivation and work outcomes. International Public Management Journal, 11, 67–88. Vandenabeele, W. (2009). The mediating effect of job satisfaction and organizational commitment on self–reported performance: More robust evidence of the PSM–performance relationship. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 75, 11–34. Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Industrial Relations Center. Wright, B. E., & Pandey, S. K. (2008). Public service motivation and the assumption of person–organization fit: Testing the mediating effect of value congruence. Administration & Society, 40, 502–521. Yin, H. B., & Lee, J. C. K. (2012). Be passionate, but be rational as well: Emotional rules for Chinese teachers’ work. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 56–65.
© 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
Emotional labour strategies as mediators of the relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction in Chinese teachers Mingjun Li1,2 and Zhenhong Wang1 1
School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China of Education, Shaanxi XueQian Normal University, Xi’an, China
2 Faculty
T
he purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between teachers’ public service motivation (PSM) and their job satisfaction levels and to investigate the mediating effects of surface acting (SA) and deep acting (DA) on that relationship. The teacher PSM scale, as well as emotional labour strategies and intrinsic satisfaction (IS) and extrinsic satisfaction (ES) scales, were administered to 317 primary and middle school teachers. Results indicated that PSM among Chinese teachers was significantly and positively related to both IS and ES. Furthermore, structural equation modelling analysis showed that SA and DA played mediating roles in the PSM-IS and PSM-ES relationships, respectively. These findings provide a new perspective that explains the mechanism underlying the association between PSM among teachers and their job satisfaction levels. Finally, the possible explanations and implications are discussed. Keywords: Public service motivation; Surface acting; Deep acting; Intrinsic satisfaction; Extrinsic satisfaction.
Job satisfaction refers to a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of employees’ job when achieving or facilitating their job values (Locke, 1976). It was not only can account for teachers’ engagement, work performance, occupational commitment, but also can explain turnover rates, burnout and other negative outcomes (Antón, 2009). Among the factors associated with job satisfaction, public service motivation (PSM), which represents “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions” (Perry & Wise, 1990, p. 368), has recently received much attention from researchers and practitioners. Many empirical studies have highlighted the importance of PSM in fostering public-sector job satisfaction in the United States (Naff & Crum, 1999), Australia (Taylor, 2008), Belgium (Vandenabeele, 2009) and China (Liu, Tang, & Zhu, 2008). In particular, individuals with a high PSM have higher job satisfaction levels compared with individuals with a low PSM. Although it is evident that PSM is associated with job satisfaction in the public service sector, few studies have focused on the influence
of PSM on job satisfaction in teachers, who are engaged in special work that is directly correlated with the overall development of our children. Even less attention has been directed towards the intervening mechanisms underlying this association. Recently, the framework of emotional labour studies suggests some presumable processes, with emphasising the role of emotional labour strategies (i.e. surface acting [SA] and deep acting [DA]). A recent meta-analysis of 116 primary studies (including a teacher cohort) demonstrated that SA was consistently related to low job satisfaction levels and high stress and exhaustion levels, whereas DA demonstrated a pattern of positive relationships with job satisfaction and job performance (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2013). Meanwhile, another important study also revealed that SA and DA were influenced by PSM (Hsieh, Yang, & Fu, 2011). Given the preceding rationale and the available literature concerning the connections between PSM, SA, DA and job satisfaction, it is reasonable to expect that SA and DA demonstrate a mediating effect in the relationship
Correspondence should be addressed to Zhenhong Wang, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, 199 South Chang’an Road, Xi’an 710062, China. (E-mail: [email protected]). This study was funded by The Key Projects of Philosophy and Social Sciences Research, Ministry of Education (11JZD044), China, The Ministry of Education Research of Social Sciences Youth Funded Projects (14YJC190011), China and The Projects of Philosophy and Social Science Fund of Shanxi Province (13N023), China.
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between PSM and job satisfaction in teachers. Therefore, this study aimed to replicate the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction and to expand the previous literature by examining the potential mediators (i.e. SA and DA) to help explain the PSM-job satisfaction relationship in the teaching profession. Teachers’ PSM and job satisfaction Teaching is a typical occupation for civil servants in China. Most teachers are recruited by the government and are expected to have higher PSM levels than other public professionals. This expectation stems from the basic demands of public work and the professional ethics of teachers, which, in the Chinese culture, advocate self-sacrifice and dedication, as well as placing the public interest first (Hofstede, 1980). In the educational context, we view PSM among teachers as their beliefs, values and attitudes, which extend beyond self-interest to include the interests of schools and student development, thereby motivating teachers to act accordingly, when appropriate. And it was comprised of attraction to school participation (ASP), commitment to education values (CEV), compassion (COM) and self-sacrifice (SS) (Li & Liu, 2014; Kim, 2012; Vandenabeele, 2009). According to the theoretical assumptions of teachers’ PSM, teachers with high PSM place a higher value on educational work, and are likely to have greater job satisfaction levels because education provides ample opportunities to serve the public interest. These opportunities provide a good match between personal values and the nature of the work. However, to the best of our knowledge, few studies have investigated the impact of PSM on job satisfaction in Chinese teachers. In consideration of the robust relationship between PSM and job satisfaction in the public sector, we can expect that PSM among teachers can be considered important in determining their job satisfaction. Emotional labour strategies and teachers’ job satisfaction Most jobs require staff to regulate their emotional expressions according to implicit or explicit organisational requirements or rules. Emotional labour is defined as an individual’s emotional management that is consistent with organisational or occupational display rules (Grandey, 2000). In order to conduct emotional labour effectively, some specific strategies are required for individuals to regulate their emotions and feelings. SA and DA are two classic strategies for individuals to regulate and manage their feelings when they are inconsistent with their internal emotional states (Grandey, 2000). SA refers to the strategy of pretending to feel unfelt emotions or hiding felt emotions to display the appropriate emotions required
by work, whereas DA is considered to be the process by which individuals attempt to modify their inner feelings to express the organisationally desired emotions. Furthermore, according to the conservation of resources theory (COR; Hobfoll, 1989), some studies have demonstrated that SA and DA play different roles in individuals’ job satisfaction because of the differences in their effects on psychological resources. Specifically, SA was found to be significantly associated with low job satisfaction because it consumed more resources and contributed none, whereas DA was positively correlated with job satisfaction because it contributed more resources than it consumed (Cheung, Tang, & Tang, 2011; Lam & Chen, 2012). Emotions are a central facet of education and teaching. Teachers experience emotion-laden interactions in their routine work and have a greater number of emotional demands compared with other professionals (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). Meanwhile, previous studies show that positive emotions in the workplace will broaden the cognitive scope among teachers, facilitate their innovative work and promote students’ interests, whereas negative emotions will narrow teachers’ thoughts and actions and harm students’ learning (Fredrickson, 2001). Thus, school administrators encourage their teachers to express positive emotions and to limit expressions of undesirable moods at school. Hence, teachers must make an effort to inhibit, generate and manage their feelings and expressions of emotion, according to their normative beliefs and the school’s expectations (Yin & Lee, 2012). Considering both theoretical and empirical studies of SA, DA and job satisfaction, we can expect that SA can negatively predict a teacher’s job satisfaction, whereas DA can positively predict it. PSM among teachers and emotional labour strategies Extant work has focused less directly on the link between PSM and emotional labour strategies, but many theorists have proposed that this link should exist (Grandey, 2000). COR (Hobfoll, 1989) suggests that people strive to obtain, retain, protect and foster valued resources and to minimise any threats of resource loss. Individuals with high PSM highly identify with their work values (Kim, 2012). This identification helps them to develop psychological resources. Thus, they are likely to modify their inner feelings and to perform DA when emotional dissonance occurs (Grandey, 2000). Conversely, low PSM reflects a self-interest motive—individuals are motivated to pursue a particular self-interest or to place self-interest first, according to Perry and Wise’s (1990) original conception. It is difficult for people with low PSM to receive more psychological resources from their work. These people are likely to merely externally conform to the © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
PSM AND JOB SATISFACTION Surface Acting -
+
Public Service Motivation +
Job Satisfaction
+ Deep Acting
Figure 1. The hypothesised model concerning about the mediator role of surface and deep acting in the relationship of teachers’ public service motivation with job satisfaction.
rules regarding emotional displays and to perform SA (Grandey, 2000). Recently, Hsieh et al. (2011) performed an empirical study (208 participants) that directly supports this assumption. They found that workers with high PSM were more likely to perform DA, whereas workers with low PSM were more likely to perform SA. Based on this finding, we propose that SA and DA will be significantly influenced by PSM among teachers. Teachers with low PSM will tend to perform SA, whereas teachers with high PSM will tend to perform DA. Furthermore, based on previous studies of the associations between PSM, SA, DA and job satisfaction, we can also expect that PSM, SA and DA will together impact teachers’ job satisfaction. Among teachers, PSM could exert a significant indirect influence on their job satisfaction through SA and DA. The present study The primary purpose of this study was to link PSM to teachers’ job satisfaction and to investigate whether these relationships were mediated by SA and DA in China. Based on the preceding argument, we expect that SA and DA could play mediating roles in the relationship between PSM among teachers and their job satisfaction. Specifically, teachers with high PSM are believed to perform DA at school, which promotes job satisfaction. However, teachers with low PSM have a greater propensity to perform SA, leading to decreased job satisfaction. The detailed hypothesised model is presented in Figure 1. METHOD Participants and procedures A total of 317 primary and middle school teachers in mainland China participated in the study. The sample consisted of 115 males and 202 females ranging from 22 to 51 years. The average age was 34.22 years (SD = 8.23 years), © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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and the average work history length was 13.14 years (SD = 9.64 years). Self-reported evaluations were administered to participants in the classroom environment. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to administering the evaluations. The participants were assured of the confidentiality of their responses, and they were encouraged to keep their answers confidential and to not discuss their answers with their colleagues. Each participant required approximately 15 minute to complete the questionnaires. Instruments Teacher PSM scales The teacher PSM scale, which was developed by the Li & Liu (2014), included 20 statements and was used to evaluate the PSM levels. The scale contains four dimensions: the 5-item ASP (e.g. “I am very enthusiastic about all kinds of school affairs”), which focuses on teachers’ inclination to participate in school affairs that contribute to the school’s development; the 6-item CEV (e.g. “Each of the students enjoys equal education rights”), which concerns teachers’ predispositions towards pursuing their school’s interests and commonly held education values; the 4-item COM (e.g. “I feel sympathy for students who are experiencing adversity in life”), which reflects teachers’ sympathy for, understanding of and identification with students’ pain; and the 5-item SS (e.g. “Doing something meaningful for the development of the school makes me feel good even with no reward”), which reflects teachers’ willingness to substitute service to others for tangible personal rewards. Participants’ responses were recorded on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). In this study, the results showed that the four PSM factors had good reliability, with Cronbach alpha coefficients ranging from .76 to .79. As for the construct validity, the CFA results showed that the four-factor model had acceptable to excellent goodness-of-fit indices (χ2 = 333.41, χ2 /df = 2.03, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, SRMR = 0.057, RMSEA = 0.051). Teachers’ emotional labour strategies SA and DA scales were assessed with a 10-item emotional labour strategies scale (Liu, 2007). The SA subscale consists of five items (e.g. “I pretend to have positive emotions when I am facing the students”), which indicates when teachers are pretending to feel unfelt emotions or hiding their felt emotions to display the appropriate emotions required by their work. The DA subscale also consists of five items (e.g. “I make an effort to actually feel the emotions that I need to display”), which reflects how teachers modify their felt emotions
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using cognitive techniques to ensure that the desired emotional displays follow. Each item used a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). In this study, the alpha coefficients for the SA and DA subscales were .70 and .78, respectively. Furthermore, the CFA results showed that the scales had acceptable construct validity with the following goodness-of-fit indices: χ2 = 92.04, χ2 /df = 2.86, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.069, RMSEA = 0.054. Teachers’ intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction scale Teachers’ job satisfaction, which is mainly characterised by intrinsic satisfaction (IS) and extrinsic satisfaction (ES), was measured using the short-form Minnesota Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). The IS subscale consists of 12 items (e.g. responsibility, social status and creativity), which reflect the satisfaction derived from the inherent features of the job. The ES subscale consists of six items (e.g. supervision-human relations, company policies and practices), which reflect the gratification derived from external aspects of the job. Respondents were asked to rate their satisfaction on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). In this, the alpha coefficients for the IS and ES subscales were .78 and .80, respectively. Moreover, the CFA results showed the two-factor model had acceptable goodness-of-fit (χ2 = 393.18, χ2 /df = 2.77, CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90, SRMR = 0.075, RMSEA = 0.057). Data analysis Descriptive statistics (M, SD and r) of the variables were first calculated. Then, structural equation modelling with maximum likelihood estimation, using AMOS 17.0, was employed to explore the mediator roles of SA and DA in the PSM–IS and PSM–ES relationships, respectively. Item parcels were created to serve as indicators of IS and ES because each construct was assessed with more than six items. Each item parcel comprised the average of three measured items using random assignment techniques. Thus, 4- and 2-item parcels were created for IS and ES, respectively. This procedure can improve the variable-to-sample-size ratio and aims to increase the stability of the parameter estimates (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002). Consistent with the recommendation of Hu and Bentler (1999) and Kline (2011), multiple indices were calculated in this study to evaluate the overall fit of the model to the data: the chi-squared statistic (χ2 ), χ2 /df ratio, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardised root mean square residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI).
Thus, the criteria used in this study acknowledged the potential for acceptable (χ2 /df ratio < 3, CFI and TLI > 0.90, RMSEA < 0.08, SRMR < 0.10) and excellent fit (χ2 /df ratio < 2, CFI and TLI > 0.95, RMSEA < 0.06, SRMR < 0.08) (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2011). Assessment of common method variance Harman’s single-factor test, which tests for the emergence of a single factor, or one factor that explains a majority of the variance, was used to examine common method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Exploratory factor analysis extracted eight factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, accounting for 62.30% of the total variance, of which the first factor explained 20.97% of the variance, less than 50% (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). Furthermore, confirmatory factor analysis showed that the single-factor model generated poor fit: χ2 = 3704.95, χ2 /df = 4.43, CFI = 0.49, TLI = 0.46, RMSEA = 0.108 (90% CI = 0.098–0.119), and SRMR = 0.105. Therefore, common method variance levels were not problematic in our data. RESULTS Correlations Means, standard deviations and bivariate correlations for all measured variables based on the raw data are displayed in Table 1. As shown, PSM among teachers was significantly and positively associated with IS (r = .49, p < .01) and ES (r = .38, p < .01). SA negatively predicted IS (r = −.27, p < .01) and ES (r = −.21, p < .01), whereas DA positively predicted these values: IS (r = .39, p < .01) and ES (r = .29, p < .01). Furthermore, we found that PSM among teachers was significantly and negatively correlated with SA (r = −.23, p < .01) but significantly and positively associated with DA (r = .41, p < .01). These relationships provided the necessary foundation for the structural equation modelling analysis. Structural equation modelling analysis Measurement model SEM analysis was conducted to validate the mediating effects of SA and DA on the relationships between PSM, IS and ES. According to the two-step procedure outlined by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS 17.0 with maximum likelihood estimation (ML) was used to test the measurement model before the structural relationships were tested. The measurement model consisted of five interrelated latent variables: PSM, SA, DA, IS and ES. The goodness-of-fit indices were as follows: χ2 = 223.77, © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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TABLE 1 Means, standard deviations and correlations between the measured variables
1 ASP 2 CEV 3 COM 4 SS 5 PSM 6 SA 7 DA 8 IS 9 ES
M
SD
20.72 30.75 20.80 24.02 96.29 12.24 15.47 42.74 19.62
5.31 4.44 3.02 4.23 12.99 3.43 4.29 5.82 4.09
1 1 0.39** 0.24** 0.41** 0.73** −0.22** 0.39** 0.42** 0.35**
2 1 0.63** 0.49** 0.81** −0.18** 0.24** 0.39** 0.26**
3
1 0.55** 0.72** −.0.11 0.22** 0.30** 0.19**
4
1 0.79** −0.17** 0.36** 0.39** 0.32**
5
1 −0.23** 0.41** 0.49** 0.38**
6
7
8
1 −0.19** −0.27** −0.21**
1 0.39** 0.29**
1 0.73**
Note: ASP = attraction to school participation; CEV = commitment to education values; COM = compassion; SS = self-sacrifice; PSM: public service motivation, SA = surface acting; DA = deep acting; IS = intrinsic satisfaction; ES = extrinsic satisfaction. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
χ2 /df = 1.51, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040 (90% CI = 0.029–0.051) and SRMR = 0.071. These values indicated that the measurement model provided excellent fit. Structural model The overall fit of the initial structural model was excellent: χ2 = 227.22, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040 (90% CI = 0.028–0.050), and SRMR = 0.053. All path coefficients of the postulated structural model were significant, except for the path from SA to IS (β = −.12, t = 1.36, p = .17) and the path from DA to ES (β = .09, t = 1.06, p = .29). Thus, we removed these two paths from the initial structural model to obtain the final model. The final structural model also fit the data well (χ2 = 230.91, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040, 90% CI = 0.029–0.050, SRMR = 0.056). Moreover, the final structural model did not fit the data significantly worse than the initial structural model: χ2 (2, n = 317) = 3.69, p > .05. These results suggested that SA and DA may play partial mediating roles in the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. Full versus partial mediation To test the hypothesis that SA would partially mediate the PSM–ES relationship, the following two mediation models were compared: (a) a partial mediation model with the direct path from PSM to ES not constrained; (b) a full mediation model with the above direct path constrained to zero. Results showed that, the fit indices of partial mediation model (χ2 = 230.91, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040, 90% CI = 0.029–0.050, SRMR = 0.056) were better than full mediation model (χ2 = 265.87, χ2 /df = 1.75, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.83, RMSEA = 0.048(90% CI = 0.038–0.057), SRMR = 0.073). The chi-squared difference test showed © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
that excluding the direct path significantly devalued the fit: ⊿χ2 (1, n = 317) = 34.96, p < .001. Consequently, the partial mediation model was supported. In a similar vein, the partial and full mediation models were compared with the chi-squared difference test to determine whether DA would partially mediate the PSM–IS. The results of this comparison showed that the fit indices of the partial mediation model with the direct paths from PSM to IS not constrained (χ2 = 230.91, χ2 /df = 1.50, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.040, 90% CI = 0.029–0.050, SRMR = 0.056) were also better than those for the full mediation model (χ2 = 276.51, χ2 /df = 1.78, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.050, 90% CI = 0.040–0.059, SRMR = 0.066). Moreover, after eliminating the above direct path, the fit of the model reduced significantly (⊿χ2 (1, n = 317) = 45.60, p < .001). Consequently, the partial mediation model was supported. The standardised path coefficients of the final structural mode are shown in Figure 2. Assessment of mediation The Sobel (1986) test was used to examine the mediating roles of SA and DA in the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships. The results showed that the indirect effects were significant at the .05 level, Sobel Z = 2.14, SE = .01, p = .03 for SA and Sobel Z = 2.41, SE = .01, p = .02 for DA. These findings indicate that SA and DA had partial mediating effects on the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. DISCUSSION This study examined the association between PSM and job satisfaction in Chinese teachers and investigated the mediating effects of SA and DA on the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction among teachers. The findings of this study indicated that PSM was positively correlated with both IS and ES. This result supported
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LI AND WANG SA-T1
SA-T2
0.54
0.43
SA-T4
SA-T3 0.50
0.41
SA-T5 0.60 -0.18*
Surface Acting ASP 0.63 CEV
-0.38***
0.46
0.55***
0.60***
0.64 0.65
0.70
ES-P1
0.81
ES-P2
Extrinsic Satisfaction
***
PSM
COM 0.74
0.66
SS
0.50 DA-T1
0.57
0.19**
Deep Acting
Intrinsic Satisfaction
0.53 0.77 DA-T2
0.75 0.50 DA-T3
DA-T4
0.59 0.61
IS-P1 IS-P2 IS-P3 IS-P4
DA-T5
Figure 2. The final structural equation model regarding the mediating effects of SA and DA on the relation between teachers’ PSM and job satisfaction. Note. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001; SA-T-items of surface acting; DA-T = items of deep acting; PSM = public service motivation; ASP = attraction to school participation; CEV = commitment to education values; COM = compassion; SS = self-sacrifice; IS-P = item parcel of intrinsic satisfaction; ES-P = item parcel of extrinsic satisfaction. For the sake of presentation clarity, the correlations among the variables error were excluded from the diagram.
the findings of Naff and Crum (1999) and Vandenabeele (2009), but it was inconsistent with the findings of Alonso and Lewis (2001). There may be a number of explanations for the role of PSM among teachers in promoting IS and ES in the Chinese context. For example, teachers with high PSM show more affinity with the spirit of education. Working in schools may satisfy their aspirations, which, in turn increase their job satisfaction. In addition, the nature of teachers’ professional ethics in the Chinese cultural context scores highly on collectivism and advocates dedication, SS and altruism in the workplace (Hofstede, 1980). Thus, teachers with high PSM are more likely to have a strong sense of responsibility and identification with their work, which reflects the nature of IS (Weiss et al., 1967). Meanwhile, they are also endowed with the spirit of SS and are expected to care less about their working conditions, environments and rewards. Thus, their external job requirements are more easily satisfied, which increases their ES. Clearly, the essence of PSM is highly coincident with teachers’ professional ethics in the Chinese culture. Therefore, Chinese teachers’ PSM and job satisfaction are likely to be strengthened through the promotion of professional ethics. In line with previous studies (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2013; Lam & Chen, 2012), correlation analysis in the present research revealed that SA was negatively correlated with IS and ES, whereas DA was positively correlated with IS and ES. The significant influence of SA and DA on IS and ES highlights the importance of emotional displays that coincide with teachers’ inner feelings at school. However, it is noteworthy to mention that the SA–IS and DA–ES relationships were not
significant in the SEM analysis. Based on COR (Hobfoll, 1989), this result is primarily because teachers who perform SA are highly sensitive to working conditions and school demands, which increases their concerns about working conditions, salaries and management rules in their workplaces. Their emotional displays (e.g. pretending or hiding) are emotionally taxing. In this process, important resources are drained by emotional dissonance. Consequently, this results in the net loss of psychological resources and low satisfaction. Thus, teachers who perform SA are inclined to believe that their low satisfaction derives from their poor work environments and strict school rules. In contrast, teachers who perform DA strongly agree with their schools’ goals, which facilitate more concern for the intrinsic value of education than any external interests. Although these emotional displays consume many emotional resources, the teachers still experience higher job satisfaction because positive work outcomes (e.g. job performance, Grandey, 2000) can help individuals to restore or regain psychological resources (Cheung et al., 2011). Thus, teachers who perform DA tend to believe that their high satisfaction originates from the value of school work. In conclusion, the positive relationship between DA and IS in this study was significantly more closely aligned than that between DA and ES, and the SA–ES relationship was more negative than that between SA and IS. Although some studies have examined the potential mediators between PSM and job satisfaction (e.g. Wright & Pandey, 2008), little attention has been directed towards the possible mediators underlying this association from © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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the emotional labour perspective, particularly in the teaching profession. This study examined SA and DA as mediators between teachers’ PSM and their job satisfaction. SEM analyses showed that SA and DA, respectively, played partial mediating roles in the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships. This is probably because IS and ES can be promoted by teachers’ PSM. Meanwhile, SA was also found to be significantly and negatively related to ES, whereas DA showed a significantly positive association with IS. Importantly, and in line with Hsieh et al. (2011)’s finding, this study found that PSM among teachers was a possible predictor of SA and DA. Teachers with high PSM are less likely to engage in SA but more likely to engage in DA because high PSM levels in education provide ample psychological resources (Hobfoll, 1989). Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that teachers with high PSM tend to perform DA, which helps to promote IS, and teachers with low PSM are inclined to perform SA, which leads to reduced ES. Consequently, SA and DA can be treated as mediator variables to explain the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. Moreover, our data also support the idea that the person-organisation fit played a mediating role in the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction (Wright & Pandey, 2008), as teachers’ abilities to manage their emotions at school are one of the most important indicators of the teacher–school fit. Additionally, we should acknowledge that the mechanism underlying the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction is complex, and other factors that were not investigated in this study may also play an important role in this relationship. Therefore, SA and DA play only partial, intervening, variable roles. These other factors therefore represent a future research direction in this domain. Some limitations of this study should be considered. This study was cross-sectional in nature. It is therefore difficult to make cause–effect inferences. Future investigations should adopt an experimental or longitudinal design to determine the causal relationships between the study variables. Another limitation is the findings rely solely on self-report measures, thereby in future research we could consider adopting other measure methods (e.g. other-report). Thirdly, the sample size in this study was relatively small, which could have affected our ability to develop a model with a strong fit. The replication of the findings of this study in future studies with larger sample sizes can provide more evidence to support these results. Finally, the study sample was composed of teachers living in the Chinese culture, which may limit the generalisability of the research conclusions to other countries and work settings. Despite these limitations, this study provides important contributions to the literature and to teaching practices. It provides empirical evidence to illustrate the positive relationship between PSM and job satisfaction in the Chinese cultural context, and it examined the mediating effects of SA and DA on PSM among teachers and © 2014 International Union of Psychological Science
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their job satisfaction. These results also provide important insights for education management, such as personnel selection and teacher training, because PSM and DA played important roles in promoting job satisfaction. For example, schools can assess emotional labour strategies and PSM levels in personnel selection using standard written tests. Furthermore, schools can also help teachers to enhance their PSM by providing training workshops because it is possible to enhance PSM through training to alleviate the influence of SA on job satisfaction. In conclusion, this study presents an empirical framework for researchers by examining SA and DA as mediators in the relationship between PSM and job satisfaction in Chinese teachers. Teachers’ PSM was found to be significantly and positively associated with IS and ES. In addition, SA and DA can partially explain the PSM–ES and PSM–IS relationships, respectively. Manuscript received March 2014 Revised manuscript accepted October 2014
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