Enhanced Photoreduction of Nitro-aromatic Compounds by Hydrated Electrons Derived from Indole on Natural Montmorillonite.

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Enhanced Photoreduction of Nitro-aromatic Compounds by Hydrated Electrons Derived from Indole on Natural Montmorillonite Haoting tian, Yong Guo, Bo Pan, Cheng Gu, Hui Li, and Stephen A. Boyd Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01026 • Publication Date (Web): 01 Jun 2015 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on June 11, 2015

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Environmental Science & Technology

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Enhanced Photoreduction of Nitro-aromatic Compounds

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by Hydrated Electrons Derived from Indole on Natural

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Montmorillonite Haoting Tian1, Yong Guo1, Bo Pan2, Cheng Gu*1, Hui Li3, Stephen A. Boyd3

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1

State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P.R. China

7 2

8

Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, P.R. China

9 10

3

Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States

11 12 13

*To whom correspondence should be addressed

14

Cheng Gu

15

Professor

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School of the Environment

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Nanjing University

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Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023

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P. R. China

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Phone/Fax: +86-25-89680636

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E-mail: [email protected] 1

ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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Abstract

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A new photoreduction pathway for nitro-aromatic compounds (NACs), and the

24

underlying degradation mechanism are described. 1,3-Dinitrobenzene was reduced to

25

3-nitroaniline by the widely distributed aromatic molecule indole; the reaction is

26

facilitated by montmorillonite clay mineral under both simulated and natural sunlight

27

irradiation. The novel chemical reaction is strongly affected by the type of

28

exchangeable cation present on montmorillonite. The photoreduction reaction is

29

initiated by the adsorption of 1,3-dinitrobenzene and indole in clay interlayers. Under

30

light irradiation, the excited indole molecule generates a hydrated electron and the

31

indole radical cation. The structural negative charge of montmorillonite plausibly

32

stabilizes the radical cation hence preventing charge recombination. This promotes

33

the release of reactive hydrated electrons for further reductive reactions. Similar

34

results were observed for the photoreduction of nitrobenzene. In situ irradiation

35

time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance and Fourier transform infrared

36

spectroscopies provided direct evidence for the generation of hydrated electrons and

37

the indole radical cations, which supported the proposed degradation mechanism. In

38

the photoreduction process, the role of clay mineral is to both enhance the generation

39

of hydrated electrons, and to provide a constrained reaction environment in the galley

40

regions, which increases the probability of contact between NACs and hydrated

41

electrons.

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TOC Art:

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46 47 48 49 50 51 52

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Introduction

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Nitro-aromatic compounds (NACs) are widely used as pesticides, explosives,

56

solvents and chemical intermediates. Prior studies reported that NACs are

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ubiquitously distributed in the natural environment and have adversely affected

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human and ecosystem health.1,2 Reduction of NACs is an important process for

59

complete degradation of NACs in the environment.3,4 Bacterial and fungi are known

60

to effectively reduce NACs under the proper environmental conditions.3,5,6 In addition,

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NACs also undergo abiotic reduction through direct reaction with reduced sulfur, iron

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species and extracellular polymeric substances; the reduction reactions were

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significantly facilitated in the presence of iron porphyrins7-9 and hydroquinone

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moieties present in dissolved organic matter, which could serve as electron transfer

65

mediators.10,11

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Photodegradation is also an important dissipation pathway for NACs.12 In most

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cases, hydroxyl radicals were involved in the degradation reaction, which is generally

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considered as a photooxidation process.13 However, under some specific

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environmental conditions, such as in paddy soils, the transformation of NACs is still

70

not fully understood. As rice fields are flooded, the soil becomes anoxic. In addition,

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due to the shallow depth of water, in such fields photo-induced reactions could also

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affect the transformation of NACs. Few prior studies have investigated the

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photodegradation process for some chloroaromatic and nitro-group containing 4


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pesticides, e.g. carfentrazone-chloropropionic acid14 and nitrofen15 in sunlit rice

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paddies. Further research is needed to elucidate other possible photodegradation

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pathways for organic contaminants, especially NACs under anaerobic conditions.

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As the most active reducing species, the hydrated electron is localized and

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stabilized within a cavity formed by surrounding water molecules, which could be

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generated by ultraviolet light irradiation of aromatic compounds such as indole in

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aqueous solution.16-21 When aromatics are excited to their first singlet state by light

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irradiation, aromatic radical cations and hydrated electrons are produced after charge

82

separation.22

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organic and inorganic contaminants,23,24 as well as perfluorinated compounds.25,26

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However, due to the strong reductive ability, the lifetime of hydrated electrons in

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solution is short, as it is quickly consumed by surrounding protons and oxygen or

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quenched through charge recombination.27,28 As a result, there are few documented

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instances for the degradation of contaminants by hydrated electrons under

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environmentally relevant conditions.

Previous studies showed that hydrated electrons could reduce many

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Smectites, including montmorillonite, are 2:1 layered aluminosilicate clay minerals

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that are widely distributed in soils, subsoils, sediments, and prehistoric clay

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deposits.29 Due to isomorphic substitution in the tetrahedral Si and/or octahedral Al

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layers, smectites possess structural negative charges that are compensated by

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exchangeable cations. With their exceptionally large surface areas, smectites can

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function as efficient adsorbents for many organic compounds, including NACs, and 5



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the adsorption of NACs is strongly dependent on the exchangeable cations.30,31 More

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interestingly, the unique structure of smectite clays could induce the formation of

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organic radical cations,32,33 and subsequently localize these radicals in the interlayer

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regions.29,34-36 Related studies have shown that the smectite clay could effectively

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stabilize the photoinduced charge separation state thereby prolonging its lifetime from

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a few milliseconds to several hours.37 Here, we hypothesize that the presence of

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natural smectite clay minerals enhances the production of hydrated electrons by

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facilitating the separation of electrons and radical cations during the light irradiation

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of certain aromatic structures, and the formed hydrated electrons could effectively

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reduce NACs adsorbed on clay surfaces.

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The objective of this study was to investigate the mechanism for production of

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photoinduced hydrated electrons and subsequent reduction of NACs facilitated by

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natural montmorillonite clay. In this research, 1,3-dinitrobenzene (m-DNB) and

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indole were used as a model NAC and as a representative aromatic compound capable

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of generating hydrated electrons, respectively. Previous studies have shown that

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m-DNB was strongly adsorbed onto montmorillonite surfaces.30,31 In addition, indole

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and its derivatives (e.g. indole-3-acetic acid) are considered as common components

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of natural soil or sediment organic matter,38-40 and have been widely detected in the

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environment. Our experimental results showed that m-DNB can be reduced to

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3-nitroaniline (3-NA) by hydrated electrons derived from indole in the presence of

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montmorillonite clay when irradiated by either simulated or natural sunlight. The 6


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reductive process is strongly affected by the exchangeable cations in clay interlayer,

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following the order: Cs+ saturated montmorillonite (Cs+-montmorillonite) > K+

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saturated montmorillonite (K+-montmorillonite) > Na+ saturated montmorillonite

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(Na+-montmorillonite). The key role of montmorillonite, in addition to promoting the

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production of hydrated electrons, is to provide a unique matrix that increases direct

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contact between hydrated electrons and NACs.

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Materials and Methods

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Chemicals. Analytical grade nitrobenzene (NB), m-DNB, aniline, 3-NA, indole,

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5,5-dimethy-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO), sodium acetate, NaCl, KCl and CsCl were

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all obtained from Sigma-Aldrich with purity > 98%. Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (>

126

99%, NaH2PO4) and sodium phosphate dibasic (> 99%, Na2HPO4) were purchased

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from Shanghai Chemical Regent CO. (Shanghai, China). Acetonitrile was of HPLC

128

grade from Tedia Inc. (Fairfield, OH). All the chemicals were used as received.

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Preparation of Homoionic Na+-, K+- and Cs+-Montmorillonite. Montmorillonite

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was obtained from Fenghong Inc. (Zhejiang Province, China). Cation exchange

131

capacity (CEC) of the montmorillonite was measured as 770 mmol kg-1. The

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preparation of Na+, K+ and Cs+ saturated montmorillonite followed the method

133

described by Arroyo et al.41 Briefly, the clay suspension was first titrated to pH 6.8

134

with 0.5 M sodium acetate buffer (pH = 5) to remove carbonate impurities. Clay-sized

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particles (< 2 µm) were obtained by centrifugation of the clay suspension for 6 min at

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60 g, and the clay fraction was resuspended in 0.1 M NaCl, KCl or CsCl solution for 8 7



137

h, then centrifuged at 3295 g for 20 min, and the supernatant was discarded. This

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procedure was repeated six times to ensure montmorillonite cation exchange sites

139

were fully saturated by Na+, K+ or Cs+. The Na+-, K+-, Cs+-montmorillonite was then

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washed using Milli-Q water until free of chloride as indicated by a negative test with

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AgNO3, then freeze-dried to receive clay powders. Silica and kaolinite (> 99%) were

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used as controls and purchased from Nanjing Chemical Regent CO. (Nanjing, China)

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and Sigma-Aldrich, respectively, with purity > 99%.

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Batch Adsorption Experiments. The adsorption of indole, m-DNB and 3-NA on

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Na+-, K+-, Cs+-montmorillonite was conducted by a standard batch equilibrium

146

method. For each experiment, Na+-, K+-, or Cs+-montmorillonite clay (10 mg) was

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weighed into a 15 mL glass centrifuge tube containing 10.0 mL solution of adsorbate,

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with the initial concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.2 mM for m-DNB, 3-NA, and

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from 0.05 to 1.25 mM for indole. A constant pH of 7.3 was maintained using 5 mM

150

phosphate buffer. The centrifuge tubes were covered with aluminum foil to prevent

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exposure to light and shaken at 40 rpm on a rotary shaker for 24 h at room

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temperature (~ 25 °C), and then centrifuged at 1250 g for 20 min. Preliminary studies

153

showed that adsorption equilibrium was achieved within this time period. There was

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no significant loss of adsorbate due to adsorption to glassware or other transformation

155

under our experimental conditions. The concentration of indole, m-DNB or 3-NA in

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supernatant was analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

157

(Waters Alliance 2695, Milford, MA) monitored at 262 nm for indole and m-DNB and 8


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227 nm for 3-NA using a Waters 2998 photodiode array detector. A 4.6 × 250 mm

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Waters XBridge Shield C18 column was used and the mobile phase was a mixture of

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acetonitrile/water at 35:65 with the flow rate of 1 mL min-1. The amount of adsorbate

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adsorbed on montmorillonite was calculated from the difference between the

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concentrations of blanks (no clay) and the supernatants from the sorbent-containing

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samples. The adsorption of m-DNB and indole on kaolinite and silica was also

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conducted under the same reaction conditions.

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Photoreduction of m-DNB by Indole on Montmorillonite Mineral Surfaces.

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The photoreduction experiments were conducted in a simulated soil colloid solution

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(10 mL) containing montmorillonite clay (or silica and kaolinite) (1 g L-1), indole (0.5

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mM), m-DNB (0.0125 mM) and phosphate buffer (5 mM, pH = 7.3) using a XPA-7

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model photochemical reactor (Xujiang Electromechanical Inc., Nanjing, China). A

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500W xenon lamp (Institute of Electric Light Source, Beijing) was used to simulate

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solar light irradiation, which was positioned in the cylindrical quartz cold trap. The

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light intensity on the surface of the reaction tube was 45 mW cm-2 as recorded by a

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radiometer (CEL-NP2000-10, Ceaulight, Beijing, China). Before the photoreaction,

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all water used in the experiment was fully deoxygenated by purging with N2 for 1 h.

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The quartz reaction tubes were then placed within the merry-go-round at the center of

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the reactor and rotated at 8 rpm to ensure uniform exposure. Magnetic stir bar was

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placed in each tube to provide stirring. The temperature of the reaction was

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maintained at 25 ºC by a constant temperature water bath. At predetermined time 9



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interval over the course of reaction, samples were sacrificed and transferred to a

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centrifuge tube. The reaction products were extracted by adding 10 mL acetonitrile for

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8 h, then the tube was centrifuged at 1250 g for 20 min. Preliminary experiment

182

indicated that the recoveries for m-DNB and its major reduction product 3-NA

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were >95%, respectively. The concentrations of m-DNB and the reaction products in

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supernatant were analyzed by the same HPLC system as mentioned above. To further

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investigate other possible degradation pathways, the reaction products were also

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analyzed by a Thermo gas chromatograph fitted with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS,

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Trace ISQ) on full scan mode (50 to 800 amu) after the sample was extracted with 10

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mL n-hexane for 8 h and concentrated to 1 mL. A HP-5 MS capillary column (length

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= 30 m; internal diameter = 250 µm; film thickness = 0.25 µm) was employed.

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Helium was the carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL min-1 with splitless injection at 280

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º

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min-1, 5 min hold), and then to 280 ºC (15 ºC min-1, 2 min hold). Dark control

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experiments were also carried out by wrapping the tubes with aluminum foil and

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shaken at 40 rpm on a rotary shaker. All the experiments were conducted in triplicate.

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The photodegradation of NB under the same reaction conditions was also

196

investigated.

C. The oven temperature was programmed from 60 ºC (2 min hold) to 150 ºC (10 ºC

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Similar experiments were carried out under natural sunlight irradiation. Samples

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were exposed to sunlight from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on sunny or partially cloudy days from

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March 22, 2014 to March 27, 2014 on the roof of the environmental science and 10


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engineering building of Kunming University of Science and Technology (Kunming,

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Yunnan province, 102°51′ E, 24°50′ N, altitude: 1954 m). Reaction vessels were

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quartz tubes (16mm × 150 mm) and were fixed on a rotary shaker by end-over-end

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rotation at 15 rpm. The rotator was positioned toward the sun once every hour. When

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not exposed to sunlight, samples were kept in the dark. During the irradiation period,

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the information of solar intensity, humidity and temperature at the experimental site

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was recorded with a radiometer (UV-B, FZ-A, photoelectric instrument factory of

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Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China) and a hygrothermograph (DT8002, Kejian,

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Shanghai, China). At specific time interval, samples were scarified and analyzed by

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HPLC and GC-MS.

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In situ Electron Paramagnetic Resonance and Fourier Transform Infrared

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Measurements. In situ irradiation time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance

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(RTR-EPR) was conducted on a Bruker X-band A300-6/1 EPR spectrometer at room

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temperature. DMPO was used as the effective ion trap to scavenge the generated

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hydrated electrons in the reaction. The initial concentrations of indole, DMPO and

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montmorillonite clay were 0.5 mM, 10 mM and 1 g L-1, respectively. For each

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RTR-EPR measurement, 20 µL reaction mixture was filled into a quartz thin-wall

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EPR tube (707-SQ-250M, Wilmad, USA). The parameters used for EPR measurement

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were: microwave frequency of 9.87 GHz, modulation frequency of 100 kHz,

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microwave power of 20 mW, modulation amplitude of 1 G, receiver gain of 1.0×103,

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sweep width of 100 G, center field of 3518 G. The relative intensity of radical 11



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response was measured as peak-to-peak height. The irradiation system was provided

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by an arc light source (LOT-Oriel GmbH & Co. KG, Germany), equipped with a 100

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W mercury lamp (USH-102D, Ushio, Japan). The emission spectrum of the mercury

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lamp is shown in Fig. S1a. The light can go through the window-shades of the

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resonant cavity onto the sample for in situ irradiation.

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Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were collected using a Bruker tensor 27

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FTIR spectrometer equipped with a mercury cadmium telluride detector and an

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attenuated total reflection (ATR) flow cell accessory (Pike Technology, USA). A total

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of 64 scans with a spectral resolution of 2 cm-1 were employed. To increase the

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aqueous solubility, indole was dissolved in methanol/phosphate buffer mixture, in

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which the methanol fraction was kept at 5%. The sample was prepared by initially

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mixing 100 mg clay with 10 mL indole solution (10 mM) on a rotary shaker at 40 rpm

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for 3 h. Then the clay suspension was centrifuged, after the supernatant was discarded,

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the clay paste was collected and uniformly applied to the ATR element. Nitrogen

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atmosphere was maintained during sample preparation and FTIR measurement. The

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IR spectra of indole solution (10 mM) and clay paste without indole were also

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collected. The spectrum attributable only to indole in indole/clay mixture was

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obtained by subtraction of the clay/phosphate buffer paste signal from the indole/clay

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paste spectrum. A 500 W xenon lamp (CEL-S500, Ceaulight, Beijing, China) was

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used as the light source for in situ FTIR measurement, and the lamp was fixed on the

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top of the ATR cell with a distance of 25 cm. The emission spectrum of the xenon 12


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lamp is shown in Fig. S1b

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Computational Methods. B3LYP methods42 in Gaussian 03 program43 have been

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performed to investigate the structure and infrared spectra of indole and indole radical

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cation. Full atom model was adopted for indole and indole radical cation. 6-311++(d,p)

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basis set was applied to C, H and N atoms. All molecular structures were constructed

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with Gview program based on the optimized results.

248 249

Results and Discussion

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Photoreduction of m-DNB Catalyzed by Natural Montmorillonite. As shown in

251

Figure S2, in dark (no irradiation) control experiments, there is no degradation of

252

m-DNB in any samples (Fig. S2a). In addition, even under light irradiation, negligible

253

degradation (> 95% recovery) of m-DNB was observed in the absence of indole under

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anoxic condition (Fig. S2b). When indole was added, a significant portion of m-DNB

255

is reduced to 3-NA (Fig. 1a, b, c, d). No further reduction to m-phenylenediamine was

256

observed. These results clearly showed that natural montmorillonite clay mineral

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greatly enhanced the transformation process, i.e. the reduction of m-DNB. The

258

fraction

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from 4.9% (indole only) to 11.1, 19.8 and 31% in the presence of Na+, K+ and Cs+

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saturated montmorillonite after 24 h reaction period, respectively (Fig. 1a, b, c, d).

261

The reduction of m-DNB is attributed to production of hydrated electrons induced by

262

light irradiation of indole, which subsequently reduced m-DNB to 3-NA. Furthermore,

of

m-DNB

converted

to

13


3-NA

increased


263

this process was facilitated by the unique structure of montmorillonite clay mineral.

264

For comparison, when silica and kaolinite were used to represent the non-expandable

265

minerals, only slight increases for reduction of m-DNB (6.8 and 6.5% in the presence

266

of kaolinite and silica) were observed (Fig. S3), which indicates that the

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photoreduction process mainly occurs in the interlayer region of montmorillonite.

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Similar results were also found in sunlight irradiation experiments. Natural sunlight

269

induced the reduction of m-DNB to 3-NA by indole, and the formation of 3-NA as a

270

function of exchangeable cation followed the same order: Cs+-montmorillonite

271

(14.6%) > K+-montmorillonite (11.4%) > Na+-montmorillonite (7.3%) > indole only

272

(1.4%) (Fig. 2). Solar intensity, humidity and temperature for the days when sunlight

273

experiments were conducted is listed in Figure S4. A good mass balance (> 90%) was

274

obtained for simulated sunlight experiments during the reaction period (24 h) (Fig. 1),

275

indicating that reduction to 3–NA is the predominant process. Under natural sunlight,

276

with much longer reaction time, the mass balance was initially over 90% in the first 4

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d; as the reaction proceeds the recovery (m-DNB + 3-NA) decreased to 86% for

278

Cs+-montmorillonite system after 6 d (Fig. 2d). This could plausibly be explained by

279

the leakage of atmospheric O2 into the system. As suggested in the literature, hydrated

280

electrons could react with O2 to form superoxide radical (O2·-) and H2O2,28 and these

281

reactive species might react further with organic contaminants, which is indicated by

282

our GC-MS analysis. For the system with Cs+-montmorillonite, after 6 d reaction

283

some oxidation products from m-DNB and indole were observed. Isatin (product A) 14


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(Fig. S5b) and formanilide (product D) (Fig. S5e) result from the oxidation and ring

285

cleavage of indole molecules.44 Phenyl phenylacetate (product B) (Fig. S5c) results

286

from the condensation of phenol and phenylacetic acid, which are the common

287

oxidation products from m-DNB and indole, respectively,45 by direct esterification.

288

Due to the complexity of the oxidation reactions, other reaction products in GC-MS

289

chromatogram were not fully identified (Fig. S5a).

290

To extend our results to another NAC, NB was also used. Similarly, under

291

simulated sunlight condition we observed that the reduction of NB to aniline was

292

promoted by the presence of Na+-montmorillonite; the production of aniline after 24 h

293

was 7.7% compared to 1.6% in the absence of the clay mineral (Fig. S6).

294

In situ RTR-EPR and FTIR Analysis. To further investigate the underlying

295

reaction mechanism, in situ RTR-EPR and FTIR spectroscopic techniques were

296

utilized to monitor the photo-induced reduction reaction of m-DNB. The protonated

297

DMPO-electron spin adduct (DMPO-H) was detected during continuous irradiation of

298

samples containing indole and 10 mM DMPO with and without clay minerals (Fig.

299

S7). The spin Hamiltonian parameters observed for DMPO-H spin adduct are in good

300

agreement with literature values.46 Nine peaks with the intensity ratio of

301

1:1:2:1:2:1:2:1:1 were observed, and the EPR parameters are: a(N,NO) = 16.51 ± 0.01

302

G, a(H,CH2) = 22.59 ± 0.01 G), respectively, indicating the formation of hydrated

303

electrons after irradiation of indole molecules. The time-dependent changes of the

304

EPR signals are shown in Figure 3. The DMPO-H signals increased quickly during 15



305

the irradiation period and decreased gradually once irradiation was stopped. The

306

presence of montmorillonite, especially Cs+-montmorillonite, significantly enhanced

307

the production of photo-induced hydrated electrons, which explains the higher

308

photoreduction of m-DNB in the presence of the natural clay mineral (Fig. 3).

309

Due to the strong IR absorption below frequencies of 1160 cm-1 by the clay

310

structure and the strong interference around 1600 cm-1 from H2O, only the IR bands

311

attributed to indole in the region between 1160 and 1400 cm-1 were distinctly

312

identified. In accordance with IR band assignments reported in the literature,47,48

313

peaks for indole are as follows (Table S1): vibrations of the pyrrole ring in-plane

314

stretching and N-H bending (1207 cm-1), synchronous bending of hydrogen in both

315

rings (1248 cm-1), pyrrole ring in-plane bending and stretching (1280 cm-1), benzene

316

ring in-plane stretching and C-N stretching (1338 cm-1), and asynchronous bending of

317

hydrogen in both rings (1354 cm-1) (lines 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in Figure 4c). Upon

318

irradiation, a new peak at 1200 cm-1 (line 3’ in Fig. 4) appeared in the indole/clay

319

system (Fig. 4e, f, g). Furthermore, the 1200 cm-1 peak only appeared during the

320

irradiation and disappeared quickly in the absence of light (Fig. S8, S9 and S10). In

321

contrast, for indole only system, no such peak was observed (Fig. 4d and S11). We

322

attribute the new light-induced peak at 1200 cm-1 to the indole radical cation.

323

Similar results were reported in our previous study of radical cation formation from

324

pentachlorophenol on Fe3+ saturated montmorillonite, and it is involved in the

325

formation of octachlorodibenzodioxin.36 16


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To better understand the IR spectral peak shifts that occurred upon irradiation of

327

the clay/indole suspension, theoretical spectra of the indole and indole radical cation

328

were calculated and compared with our experimental results (Fig. 4a, b, c). The

329

optimized geometries of indole and indole radical cation molecules in gas phase are

330

shown in Figure S12. The computed spectrum of indole agrees well with the

331

experimental results (Fig. 4a, c and Table S1). Compared to indole molecule, the

332

calculated vibrational peaks in the region of 1160-1400 cm-1 for indole radical cation

333

have red shifts to lower frequencies as the loss of an electron might weaken the

334

C-C/C-N bonds within the pyrrole and benzene rings, and part of C-H bonds (Fig. S12

335

and Table S1). According to peak intensity ratios and the vibrational pattern, the two

336

predominant IR peaks at 1185 and 1235 cm-1 in the spectrum of indole radical cation

337

correspond to 1287 and 1263 cm-1 peaks in molecular (neutral) indole, respectively.

338

The more significant IR shift for the pyrrole ring bending and stretching peak (-102

339

cm-1, from 1287 to 1185 cm-1) can plausibly be attributed to the stronger disturbance

340

on the pyrrole ring caused by the extraction of one electron from indole. For the peak

341

corresponding to the synchronous bending of hydrogen (-28 cm-1, from 1263 to 1235

342

cm-1), changes in the lengths of C-H bonds are limited (Fig. S12). Due to the low

343

yield of indole radical cations in the system, only the peak with the highest intensity

344

(1200 cm-1) was observed in our experiment, which is also in good agreement with

345

the calculated value (1185 cm-1) by first principle density functional theory (DFT).

346

The slight discrepancy between computational results and the experimental spectra 17



Page 18 of 38

347

can be attributed to the complexity of indole/clay system, since in the theoretical

348

calculations we only considered the indole and indole radical cation molecules in an

349

isolated ideal condition, whereas in the actual experimental sample, the clay structure

350

likely influences the IR band positions.36 Our experimental (FTIR) and theoretical

351

(DFT) results mutually support the formation of indole radical cation in the

352

experimental system containing clay and suggest that the radical cation produced after

353

charge separation could be stabilized by the planar negatively charged clay surface.

354

Effects of Exchangeable Cations on Photoreduction of m-DNB. Another

355

interesting observation in our photoreduction reaction is that the degradation process

356

is strongly affected by the type of exchangeable cations in clay interlayer (Fig. 1, 2).

357

The

358

Cs+-montmorillonite, followed by K+-montmorillonite and then Na+-montmorillonite.

359

It has been well documented that Cs+, with the lowest hydration energy and smallest

360

hydration sphere (-258 kJ mol-1 and 3.6 Å) compared to K+ (-304 kJ mol-1 and 5.3 Å)

361

and Na+ (-375 kJ mol-1 and 7.9 Å), manifests more unobscured clay siloxane domains

362

for adsorption and these surfaces are relatively less hydrated.49-51 Furthermore,

363

complexes between exchangeable cations and the nitro groups of NACs are more

364

energetically favorable for the weakly hydrated cations, which promotes the

365

adsorption of NACs by Cs+-montmorillonite clay.51 The adsorption of m-DNB on

366

montmorillonite with different exchangeable cations also shows much higher

367

adsorption of m-DNB on Cs+-montmorillonite compared to Na+- or K+-clay (Fig. 5).

magnitude

and

rate

for

reduction

of

m-DNB

18


is

the

highest

on

Page 19 of 38


368

The adsorption coefficient (Kd = 2121.12 L kg-1) on Cs+-montmorillonite is 179 and

369

1727 times higher than those on K+-montmorillonite (Kd = 11.82 L kg-1) and

370

Na+-montmorillonite (Kd = 1.23 L kg-1), respectively (Table 1). Indole could also be

371

adsorbed onto montmorillonite surfaces (Fig. S13), and the fitted adsorption

372

coefficients follow the same order of Cs+-montmorillonite (5.13 L kg-1) >

373

K+-montmorillonite (3.88 L kg-1) ≈ Na+-montmorillonite (3.92 L kg-1) (Table 1).

374

Hence, the adsorption results clearly indicate that montmorillonite with less hydrated

375

cations could more effectively concentrate both m-DNB and indole in the constrained

376

interlayer region of the clay mineral thereby increasing the contact possibilities

377

between m-DNB and hydrated electrons. This would explain the cation-dependence

378

for the photoreduction process observed in our experiments.

379

Proposed Mechanism for Photoreduction of NACs Catalyzed by Natural

380

Montmorillonite. Based on our experimental and spectroscopic results, the

381

mechanism for photoreduction of NACs by indole in the presence of natural

382

montmorillonite can be described as follows: Indole and NAC molecules are initially

383

adsorbed in the galley regions or interlayers of montmorillonite. Upon light irradiation,

384

photolysis of indole molecules associated with the clay mineral produces hydrated

385

electrons and the indole radical cations. Due to the planar layered aluminosilicate

386

structure with embedded negative charges, montmorillonite clay could stabilize the

387

newly formed radical cations, consequently preventing the recombination of hydrated

388

electrons and indole radical cations, which would increase the concentration of 19



389

hydrated electrons. Finally, NACs adsorbed on clay surface are reduced to

390

corresponding anilines by the hydrated electrons. For minerals without interlayer

391

region (e.g. silica and kaolinite), only limited adsorption (Fig. S14, 15, and Table 1)

392

and insignificant increase for reduction of NACs (Fig. S3) were observed, which can

393

be attributed to the lower surface area and the lack of negatively charged surface.

394

During the photoreduction process, the role of montmorillonite clay mineral is not

395

only to promote the separation of electron and organic cation, but also it acts as a

396

nano-reactor in which both NACs and hydrated electrons accumulate in a constrained

397

environment, hence promoting their direct contact. Therefore, a higher photoreduction

398

rate is expected for pollutants with greater adsorption, i.e. strong adsorption of NACs

399

in the clay interlayers is a prerequisite for effective photoreduction in the

400

montmorillonite-indole system. It could also partially explain why no further

401

reduction of 3-nitroaniline to m-phenylenediamine occurs. As shown in Figure S16

402

and Table 1, there is negligible adsorption for 3-nitroaniline on montmorillonite. After

403

3-nitroaniline is produced, it may be released from clay surface into aqueous solution,

404

thereby decreasing the possibility for further contact with hydrated electrons.

405

Environmental Implications

406

Our results demonstrate that NACs can be photoreduced in the presence of indole

407

and the clay mineral montmorillonite under neutral pH and simulated irradiation

408

conditions. Natural sunlight exposure experiments further support that the

409

photoreduction process could occur naturally, which is a previously unknown route 20


Page 20 of 38

Page 21 of 38


410

for the degradation of NACs in natural environment. It has been well established that

411

many persistent organic contaminants, e.g.

412

polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins, could form strong interaction with montmorillonite

413

and be intercalated in clay interlayer.29,35,36 Furthermore, indoles are common organic

414

molecules found in the environment. The primary natural source of indoles is from

415

feces of animals, microbial decomposition of proteins, and secretion of various plants

416

and microbes.52-56 The concentration of indoles has been reported to be in the part per

417

million (mg L-1) level in natural environments,52,53,56 and in the dozens of mg L-1 in

418

coking and swine wastewater.57,58 Therefore, it is reasonable that other contaminants

419

could undergo a similar degradation reaction. The new photoreduction pathway

420

described herein improves our understanding for the transformation of persistent

421

organic pollutants in the natural environment.

polychlorinated biphenyls and

422 423 424

Acknowledgements

425

This work was financially supported by the National Science Foundation of China

426

(grants 21222704), National Key Basic Research Program of China (2014CB441102),

427

the Collaborative Innovation Center for Regional Environmental Quality and Grant

428

P42 ES004911 from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

429

(NIEHS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), and by the Michigan AgBioResearch.

430

The contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily 21



431

represent the official views of NIEHS or NIH. We thank the Analytical Center and

432

High Performance Computing Center of Nanjing University for the characterization

433

of samples and computational study.

434 435 436 437

Supporting Information Available

438

Calculated and experimentally observed FTIR frequencies of indole and indole radical

439

cation in the region between 1160 and 1400 cm-1; emission spectra of the mercury and

440

xenon lamps used in RTR-EPR and FTIR experiments; degradation of m-DNB in

441

control experiments; degradation of m-DNB by indole in the presence of kaolinite or

442

silica; weather information during sunlight irradiation period; GC-MS chromatogram;

443

degradation of NB under simulated solar light irradiation; the first derivative EPR

444

spectra of indole solution during continuous mercury lamp irradiation; in situ FTIR

445

spectra

446

indole/Cs+-montmorillonite and indole only; the optimized molecular structures of

447

indole and indole radical cation as obtained from theoretical calculations; adsorption

448

isotherms of indole and 3-NA on Na+-, K+- and Cs+-montmorillonite; adsorption

449

isotherms of m-DNB and indole on kaolinite and silica. This material is available free

450

of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

451

References:

452

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30


Page 30 of 38

Page 31 of 38


623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637

Table 1. Fitted linear adsorption coefficients for m-DNB, indole, 3-NA and NB adsorption on Na+-, K+- and Cs+-montmorillonite. m-DNB

Indole

3-NA

NB

Smectite clay Kd (L kg-1)

R2

Kd (L kg-1)

R2

Kd (L kg-1)

R2

Kd (L kg-1)

R2

Na+-montmorillonite

1.23

0.828

3.92

0.995

0.39

0.810

0.55

0.916

K+-montmorillonite

11.82

0.894

3.88

0.989

0.34

0.811

Cs+-montmorillonite

2121.12

0.931

5.13

0.980

18.68

0.987

31



Kaolinite

1.18

0.909

1.66

0.957

Silica

0.91

0.957

1.76

0.921

638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659

The adsorption data were fitted with a linear isotherm model: qe = Kd × Ce, where qe is the amount of adsorbate adsorbed on mineral surfaces in mmol kg-1, Kd is the linear adsorption coefficient in L kg-1, Ce is the equilibrium concentration in mM, R2 is the coefficient of determination from the overall regression analysis.

660

Figure Legends

661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674

Figure 1. Photoreduction of m-DNB by indole under simulated solar light irradiation as a function of time with a) no montmorillonite (control experiment), and in the presence of b) Na+-montmorillonite, c) K+-montmorillonite, d) Cs+-montmorillonite. Experimental conditions: the initial concentrations of m-dinitrobenzene, indole, and clay mineral were 0.0125 mM, 0.5 mM and 1 g L-1, respectively; pH was controlled at 7.3 with 5 mM phosphate buffer; a 500W xenon lamp was used to simulate solar light irradiation. Error bars are the standard deviations of triplicate analyses. Figure 2. Photoreduction of m-DNB by indole under sunlight irradiation as a function of time with a) no montmorillonite (control experiment), and in the presence of b) Na+-montmorillonite, c) K+-montmorillonite, d) Cs+-montmorillonite. Experimental conditions: the initial concentrations of m-dinitrobenzene, indole, and clay mineral were 0.0125 mM, 0.5 mM and 1 g L-1, respectively; pH was controlled at 7.3 with 5 32


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mM phosphate buffer. Sunlight exposure was performed from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on sunny or partly cloudy days from March 22 to March 27, 2014. Error bars are the standard deviations of triplicate analyses. Figure 3. Kinetics of buildup and decay of DMPO-H adduct as a function of the irradiation time in the presence of indole and Na+, K+ or Cs+-montmorillonite. Experimental conditions: the initial concentrations of DMPO, indole and clay mineral were 10 mM, 0.5 mM, and 1 g L-1, respectively. Error bars are the standard deviations of triplicate analyses. Linear kinetic plot of the spectral intensities of the DMPO-H illustrated the rapid production of hydrated electrons during light irradiation. Figure 4. Comparison of calculated and experimental IR spectra: calculated IR spectra of a) indole and b) indole radical cation; observed IR spectra of c) indole in solution, d) indole solution irradiated by simulated solar light, and indole solution irradiated by simulated solar light in the presence of e) Na+-montmorillonite, f) K+-montmorillonite, and g) Cs+-montmorillonite. Experimental conditions: the initial concentrations of indole, and clay mineral were 10 mM and 10 g L-1, respectively; pH was controlled at 7.3 with 5 mM phosphate buffer. Figure 5. Adsorption isotherms of m-DNB on Na+-, K+- and Cs+-montmorillonite. qe is the amount of m-DNB adsorbed on montmorillonite clay mineral in mmol kg-1, Ce is the equilibrium concentration of m-DNB in mM. Experimental conditions: 10 mg montmorillonite, m-DNB with initial concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.2 mM, reaction medium: 10 mL phosphate buffer (5 mM, pH=7.3).

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Figure 5.

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Complete Defluorination of Perfluorinated Compounds by Hydrated Electrons Generated from 3-Indole-acetic-acid in Organomodified Montmorillonite.

Mutagen formation on nitrite treatment of indole compounds derived from indole-glucosinolate.

Hydrated electrons and prebiotic evolution.

Montmorillonite K-10 promoted synthesis of chiral dioxa-caged compounds derived from levoglucosenone.

Synthesis of 1H-indazoles from N-tosylhydrazones and nitroaromatic compounds.

Potential Pharmacological Resources: Natural Bioactive Compounds from Marine-Derived Fungi.

Reduction of nitroaromatic compounds by anaerobic bacteria isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract.

Mechanism of the reaction of hydrated electrons with ferrocytochrome c.

Natural indole butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors from Nauclea officinalis.

Generating hydrated electrons through photoredox catalysis with 9-anthrolate.

Effects of radiation damage with 400-kV electrons on frozen, hydrated actin bundles.

A DFT study of the cis-dihydroxylation of nitroaromatic compounds catalyzed by nitrobenzene dioxygenase.

Electron transfer from pyridinyl radicals, hydrated electrons, CO2.- and O2.- to bacterial cytochrome P450.

Cisplatin intrastrand adducts sensitize DNA to base damage by hydrated electrons.

Efficient Removal of Co2+ from Aqueous Solution by 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane Functionalized Montmorillonite with Enhanced Adsorption Capacity.

Microbial transformation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene and other nitroaromatic compounds.

Nitroaromatic compounds: Environmental toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, therapy and mechanism.

Microstructural response of variably hydrated Ca-rich montmorillonite to supercritical CO2.

Divergent Reactivity of Rhodium(I) Carbenes Derived from Indole Annulations.

Molecular dynamics simulations of turbostratic dry and hydrated montmorillonite with intercalated carbon dioxide.

The effect of CTAB on the radiation sensitivity of benzocaine to hydrated electrons and hydroxyl radicals in aqueous solution [proceedings].

Time- and angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy of hydrated electrons near a liquid water surface.

Production of indole antibiotics induced by exogenous gene derived from sponge metagenomes.

Correction: Efficient Removal of Co2+ from Aqueous Solution by 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane Functionalized Montmorillonite with Enhanced Adsorption Capacity.