Public
Health Policy Forum
Environmental Health and African Americans . -, IIIIIIi
iIIIFIIIIiiImh,I
Bailus Walker, Jr, PhD, MPH Environmental health is at a crossroad. It ranks among the top issues on the social agenda for the 1990s, and it has attracted significant private and public sector investments of resources. Despite these investments-which amount to billions of dollars-we have not at all completed the task of preventing environmentally provoked disease and of providing more protection for the ecological system. Even an abbreviated list will show how many problems remain to be solved: an epidemic of childhood lead poisoning, the increasing incidence of genetic diseases exacerbated by environmental stressors, pesticides in food and water, too much ozone at ground level and too little in the stratosphere, global temperature warming, slow implementation of national toxic waste policies, and flaws in the institutions and processes the nation relies on to reduce environmental risks. Obviously, environmental health activities cannot be narrowly focused but must recognize the critical interrelationships between environmental media and between policies and programs. This eclectic mix of scientific activities today is a broad realm, and its boundaries have been anything but stable since the modem environmental movement began more than 2 decades ago. It is this instability, along with a multitude of demographic, social, and economic constructs, that has brought into bolder reliefthe increasing demand for scientists who have the skills and knowledge to use the common metric ofrisk in matching national environmental management priorities and the degree of hazards to human health. To the extent that environmental health programs can be thought of as the synthesis of the contributions of the vast array of the physical and biological as well as the social sciences there is a need
for personnel who can bring varied specialized knowledge to bear on problems of specific environmental determinants of disease. This can be achieved through demanding the services of personnel wellground in basic disciplines who also have a broad understanding ofthe interrelationships of these disciplines in the solution to environmental health problems. Despite the well-publicized demands for more of these scientists, far too few young Americans-especially far too few people of color-want, or are prepared, to pursue careers in science. Thus there is a lack of input of historically underrepresented groups into the environmental health services. This report describes efforts to boost the number ofBlack scientists and to raise their participation in scientific activities. It concludes with an assessment ofwhy such efforts may not improve the representation of African Americans in a range of scientific disciplines related to environmental health research, policy development, and programs. In this panoramic sweep, which blurs an infinity of detail, one fundamental assumption is tacitly accepted (even though this assumption has by no means universal assent): increasing the number of Black students educated in science will enhance national efforts to prevent the occurrence of environmentally provoked disease and dysfunction and to conserve natural resources.
Bailus Walker, Jr, is with the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center. Requests for reprints should be sent to Bailus Walker, Jr, Professor and Dean of Public Health, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 801 Northeast 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK 73190.
American Journal of Public Health 1395
Public Health Polky Forum
Demographic Changes Before reviewing these efforts it is well to delineate selected demographic variables because programs to increase the supply of scientists largely derive from these data. Over the last decade, the number of Asian Americans more than doubled, and the Hispanic population grew by more than 50%. This development underscores the extraordinary pace of recent change in the nation's racial and ethnic profile. Data from the 1990 census show that Whites continue to decline as a proportion of the population and that Hispanics grew faster than demographers had predicted. Those identifying themselves as American Indians grew about 38% to nearly 2 million. The White population grew by more than 11 million to 199.7 million. But the White share of the total population decreased to 83% in 1980 and to about 80% last year. The 30 million Blacks accounted for 12.1% of the 1990 population, up from 11.7% a decade ago.1'2 So there are 54 million Blacks, Hispanics, American Indians, and Alaskan Natives in the United States-22% of the total population. In 1989 this groupwas awarded about 5% (65) of the 1268 PhD's in chemistry, a basic environmental health science. In biochemistry no more than 14 of the PhDs awarded in 1989 went to historically underrepresented groups.3 At the same time, science and engineering careers are becoming less attractive to white, middleclass men, the group that traditionally produced most of the nation's scientists and
engineers. It is in this setting that the National Science Foundation estimated that by the year 2010 the United States could suffer a shortfall of as many as 560 000 science and engineering professionals based on the levels that would have been produced had graduation rates in these fields remained at their 1984 to 1986 levels.3'4 These estimates are underscored by new data from the American Chemical Society's Committee on Professional Training (ACPT). The committee's data show that 1990 was the 7th consecutive year of decline in the level of BS graduates as fewer undergraduates chose chemistry as a major.5 The more than 500 chemistry curricula approved by the ACPT graduated 7650 chemists with BS degrees in 1989-1990. This was down from 8125 1 year earlier-a 21% decrease from the 9679 graduates 5 years earlier in 19841985. 1396 American Journal of Public Health
This trend is a cause for concern because chemistry is a central science that provides fundamental understanding needed to cope with a broad range of environmental health issues. Indeed, the understanding that follows from basic research in chemistry opens new options for addressing society's environmental health and ecological problems. In biology the picture is similar; the number of bachelor's degrees awarded in this field in the United States has been steadily declining since 1975 when there was a steep rise in bachelor's degrees in business and management, which have become the most popular professional degrees approaching 70 000 per year.6,7 This trend, too, is a cause for concern because the shortfall of biologists in environmental health activities could slow developments in cellular and molecular biology, developments that could help improve our understanding of the mechanisms of environmentally provoked disease and of biological markers ofexposure and susceptibility to environmental insults.
Federal Progrs These projected shortfalls have not gone unnoticed as both the public and private sectors have been expanding existing programs and are developing new initiatives to promote the competence and the input of African Americans in science. At the federal level there is increasing emphasis on science and mathematics education. The proposed federal budget for fiscal year 1992 included a 13% increase to improve science and mathematics education. A committee chaired by Energy Secretary James Watkins took an inventory of all federal government's efforts in this area last year. The findings: a total investment of $1.7 billion, including programs ranging from precollege curricula to graduate fellowships. The Bush administration proposed that the total be increased to $1.94 billion next year with special emphasis on precollege education and teacher train-
ing.8 Among federal agencies perhaps the earliest effort to improve the participation of historically underrepresented groups in science was made by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH began to address shortages of scientists in 1972 with a program called the Minority Biomedical Research Support (MBRS) program.9'10 This program focuses on the institutions that traditionally graduate the largest number of minority students. The pro-
gram's initial 38 schools were primarily historically Black colleges and universities. But over the years it has expanded to include schools, particularly in the Southwest, that have predominantly Hispanic enrollments as well as a growing number of large inner-city universities that attract large numbers ofboth Black and Hispanic students. Since most of these institutions have teaching as their major function, the NIH program provided resources to expand the research capabilities of these academic programs. This expansion included equipment, renovation of laboratory space, financial aid for student projects and stronger mentorships-necessary components for many students interested in careers in science. This multifaceted program began with $2 million to invest in 38 institutions. It now operates with an annual budget of about $42 million, and it has put many students into the "science pipeline."9 Approximately 500 students from the MBRS program are awarded bachelor's degrees each year. Approximately 80% of them move forward to postgraduate studies. About 50%o of those go into the health professions and the other 50%1o pursue PhD studies in graduate school. A second NIH program is the Minority Access to Research Careers (MARC). MARC focuses on helping talented minority science majors make the transition from college to graduate school. Each year the program supports about 500 juniors and seniors at minority institutions. Of the 2700 students that the program has supported since it began in 1976, 80%o have gone on to professional or graduate school. Of that number, 60% earned a PhD.10
One of the attractive features of the MARC program is its requirement that all participants leave their home institution and spend at least a summer in a major research laboratory in some other part of the country. This approach helps the students gain confidence and develop new relationships that can enhance their professional careers. MARC is expanding. In 1991 the program will provide student stipends and other support to freshmen and sophomores as well as juniors and seniors at participating institutions. Moreover, the program will provide minority students with support for graduate studies regardless of whether they attend a historically Black institution or a predominantly
White graduate university. The size of this program should be enhanced by the $10 billion for research November 1991, Vol. 81, No. 11
Publc Health Poliy Fonum
and training requested for the Department of Health and Human Services in the administration's budget for fiscal year 1992, the bulk ofwhich is commanded by NIH. Developments at the National Science Foundation (NSF) are also encouraging for minority students. NSF, since 1987, has put much emphasis on infrastructure issues-undergraduates, graduates, and postdoctorate students-in science education. The foundation's proposed $2.72 billion budget (1992) includes a 16% increase for research and related activities and a 21% increase for science education programs. Benefiting from this increase will be NSFs Alliance for Minority Participation. One ofits goals is to decrease attrition among those who already have shown interest in math, science, and engineering."1 Also scheduled for more resources is NSF's "feeder" college program, a program involving small liberal arts colleges that supply a large number ofPhD science students. Walter Massey, the new director of NSF and a product of the feeder system, has emphasized the value of this program. He points out that, for whatever reason, there are still many students who are not accepted at the majority institution. These students are very talented and have a great deal of potential and ability, but they need more time in an environment that is nurturing while also setting rigorous academic standards. Feeder schools have traditionally met this need.12 Early in 1991, 10 states received a total of $75 million, so they can over 5 years, systematically improve their math and science education program according to NSF criteria. These were the first awards under NSF's Statewide Systematic Initiative program whose goal it is to catalyze reform in all aspects of science education, from kindergarten through 12th grade. This program should help address one of the principal determinants of success in college level science education, high school preparation in math and science. The high school situation was accurately descnbed by Henry McBay, professor of chemistry at Morehouse College. He suggested "that black students are not coming out of high school with the academic tools necessary for successful progress through the basic sciences."3 A similar assessment was made by Allan Bromley, the president's science adviser, "I am convinced that the heart of the problem remains in the secondary school and that we cannot realistically expect November 1991, Vol. 81, No. 11
much improvement elsewhere until we make substantial changes at this secondary level."'14 Black participation in the sciences should also be enhanced by a memorandum of understanding between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a newly formed academic consortium of minority universities. As part of the agreement, NASA will fund seven research projects, 31 undergraduate student fellowships, and 20 graduate fellowships totaling $1 million. To give NASA credit, much of the research and development the agency has supported has significant relevance to the field of environmental health science and technology, includingmethods forthe prevention of air and water pollution and for monitoring and surveillance of global changes over time.'0 For minority students, NASA research also has the broadest possible implications. It is similar to learning to read. Once a student can read a short story, learning how to read poetry or novels is less of a challenge. Thus, fundamental insights into global changes and into broad dimensions of meteorology and climatology, which are research priorities for NASA, are readily transferable to other environmental phenomena: ozone depletion, greenhouse warming, deforestation, sea level rise, and related adverse ecological alterations.
Nonfedrl Initfives The federal government is not the only source of programs and services to increase minority representation in the sciences. Among the prominent nonfederal programs is the Southeastern Consortium of the Minorities in Engineering (SECME),3 a consortium of 28 engineering schools in eight southeastern states. The consortium rns science and math enrichment programs for 240 of the region's high schools. The program establishes partnerships between local schools, the engineering colleges, and industry. It has now reached 18 000 high school students, 93% ofwhom are black. Each year for the past decade, 85% of the program's graduates have entered college. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)14 has established the Linkage Prgram whose objective it is to involve community groups in improving science for minority populations and other underrepresented groups.
The AAAS Black churches program, for example, provides training and educational material for church groups interested in providing hands-on science and mathematics projects for Black children. More than 500 churches participate in this effort. In March 1991 AAAS held the first of several regional workshops aimed at attracting more than 180 churches to the program. In these forums local project personnel explain to parents the importance of early math and science education and instruct high school teachers on how to run hands-on science projects. The American Chemical Society's career development and social action program has been operating since 1968. This program focuses on exposing high school students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds to scientific careers. Although the program is not specifically designed for minority students, more than 60% of the student participants have been from underrepresented minorities.15
Impedmnt The sum vector of this selected list of initiatives cited in the preceding paragraphs is evidence of broadening support for educating Blacks in science. Clearly resources from both the private and public sectors have poured into the breach to meet present and future needs in science brainpower. This is not to suggest that there has been, or will be, a geometric increase in the number of Black science graduates. Nor should itbe concluded from this list of initiatives that African Americans or Hispanics will in the foreseeable future constitute the majority of top level managers in private and public sector environmental health programs. In science as in other fields, the demands and requirements of society most often run ahead of the development of institutions, of imaginative approaches and willingness to commit resources. In the development of science manpower (a term I use here to refer to the collective strength of men and women), the lag between the two has sometimes been wide and long sustained. Indeed, the demand for science brainpower is still there, and the supply is lagging. And despite stepped up efforts to address the problem, historically underrepresented groups are severely below strength in a whole range of scientific disciplines. Attenuating this problem may turn out to be a long and arduous task for many reasons. Only one will be cited here.
American Journal of Public Health 1397
PubLic Health Policy Forum
For example, among many Black students, there is a perception of limited opportunity and hostile climate for education in and the practice of science. They have often read and heard of the dissatisfaction of practicing Black scientists and perceive that their own opportunities are better outside science. For example, many AfricanAmerican students decided to study science during the early days of US efforts to land a man on the moon. It was in the late 1970s that these students completed the requirements for doctorates in science and entered the workforce. They quickly realized that their opportunities in academia, in government, and in industry were not equal. They confronted overt evidence that the "old boy" network of middle management made it difficult, if not impossible, for racial minorities to move into top management positions despite clearly articulated policies of equal employment opportunities. Thus the children of these Black scientists who began working in the 1970s became less enthusiastic about pursuing careers in science. And today many young Black people, unlike their parents, do not see a future in science as a good career choice. This mindset is fueled by another factor-economics. Logic would suggest that as the distribution of education becomes more equal so would the distribution in earnings. Bluestone16 points out that a "marginal productivity-human capital" analysis would suggest that changes in earning equality should correspond to education. Statistics indicate the contrary: Substantial economic differences still exist between college-educated black and white men despite major improvements in the educational qualifications among black men. College-educated Black men in science, aged 25 to 64years, had median weekly earnings in 1989 of $544 (plus or minus $21) compared with $719 (plus or minus $6) for their White counterparts. This gap was greater than 10 years earlier when college-educated Black men earned 80% to 90% as much as their White counterparts. This can be attributed in part to the fact that college-educated Black men are considerably more likely than their White counterparts to work outside of managerial and professional fields of science. In addition to the occupational differences, a number of other factors may contribute to this earning gap: the degree attained (workers at the master's and doctoral level earn more than those with bachelor's degrees), local labor market factors, job performance, and the size and finan-
1398 American Joumal of Public Health
cial strength of employers.17 Although the legal barriers have been removed, discrimination is still a factor in widening the earning gap. It has a new dimension, which is most pervasive in the foreignowned science and technology-based enterprises that are beginning to dominate the US economic and industrial landscapes. In many of these workplaces there is heavy reliance on and preference for managers of a single nationality. The intensity of this form of discrimination came to light last year when a federal court in Chicago penalized a Japanese company for discriminating on the grounds of national origin. The corporation had dismissed 66 American managers to allegedly cut costs but retained all Japanese managers.18 It is understandable then why young African Americans and other racial minorities reading periodic reports on careers and on earning differences and observing the increasing number of employment discrimination lawsuits being filed may have reason to question the notion that a college education in science can contribute to closing the economic gap between Black and White men and women. Little progress has been made in narrowing the gap in the last decade, which has been a period of significant economic growth. In colleges and universities-the scientific crucible that should help the nation address new and emerging environmental health issues-there have been many perturbations that have raised doubts about the integrity of the academic process and the nature and the worth of a college education in science. These include allegations of scientific misconduct and of inappropriate use of federal research funds. And many campuses have been immersed in debates about free speech and so-called "political correctness"-debates that have bred divisions and alliances among minority groups and heightened racial tensions. Meanwhile the federal government appears to be reassessing its historical partnership with higher education with an eye toward more regulation and surveillance of the educational enterprise, including stricter control on compensating universities and on related educational enhancement efforts. These developments are weakening efforts of colleges and universities to provide a stable and supportive environment for those students who wish to study science but who often come with greater educational needs than the typical student of
past years. If these fissures continue to develop, they could result in major losses of potential scientists and make the shortfall far worse than predicted. This, in turn, could have serious adverse consequences on human health, environmental quality, and the competitiveness of this country. So, clearly, we in the scientific community, broadly defined, and all of our friends and allies have much more work to do to change attitudes and behavior to make the scientific community more hospitable to and nurturing of its ethnic minority members. El
References 1. Freedman DA. Adjusting the 1990 census. Science. 1991;252:1233-1236. 2. Vobejda B. Hispanic population of U.S. soared in 1980's census reveals. Washington Post. February 24, 1991:A1-A5. 3. Rawls RL. Minorities in science. Chem Eng News. 1991;69:20-35. 4. Office of Technology Assessment. Federaly Funded Research Decision fora Decade. Washington, DC: US Congress;1991. 5. Heylin M. Number of new chemistry graduates plunges again. Chem Eng News. 1991;69:29-30. 6. Healy B. Innovators for the 21st century: will we face a crisis in biomedical-research brainpower?NEnglJMed. 1988;319:10581064. 7. Roberts L. Who will do science in the 1990's? Science. 1990;248:433-454. 8. Hanson DJ, Long JR, Zurer PS. Administration's 1992 budget proposes a healthy boost for R&D. Chem Eng News. 1991;69:7-13. 9. Culliton B. Biomedical funding: the eternal 'crisis.' Science. 1991;250:1652-1653. 10. Weisfeld VD. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation SpecialReport. Princeton, NJ: The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation; 1987. 11. Norman C. Science budget: growth amid red ink. Science. 1991;251:616-618. 12. US Department of Health and Human Services. Health Status of the Disadvantaged. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1990. Chart Book. 13. Lepowski W. Walter Massey takes over helm of National Science Foundation. Chem Eng News. 1991;69:22. 14. Bromley DA. The other frontiers of science. Science. 1982;215:1035-1045. 15. Holden C. Career trends for the 90's. Science. 1991;252:1110-1120. 16. Bluestone B. The impact of schooling and industrial restructuring on recent trends in wage inequality in the United States. In: Proceedings of the 102nd Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association;
Washington, DC, 1991;304. 17. Meisenheimer JR. Black college graduates
in the labor market, 1979 and 1989. Monthly LaborRev. 1990;113:13-21.
18. Kilborn PT. U.S. managers claim job bias by Japanese. New York Tirnes. June 3, 1991;1.
November 1991, Vol. 81, No. 11
Health Policy Forum
Environmental Health and African Americans . -, IIIIIIi
iIIIFIIIIiiImh,I
Bailus Walker, Jr, PhD, MPH Environmental health is at a crossroad. It ranks among the top issues on the social agenda for the 1990s, and it has attracted significant private and public sector investments of resources. Despite these investments-which amount to billions of dollars-we have not at all completed the task of preventing environmentally provoked disease and of providing more protection for the ecological system. Even an abbreviated list will show how many problems remain to be solved: an epidemic of childhood lead poisoning, the increasing incidence of genetic diseases exacerbated by environmental stressors, pesticides in food and water, too much ozone at ground level and too little in the stratosphere, global temperature warming, slow implementation of national toxic waste policies, and flaws in the institutions and processes the nation relies on to reduce environmental risks. Obviously, environmental health activities cannot be narrowly focused but must recognize the critical interrelationships between environmental media and between policies and programs. This eclectic mix of scientific activities today is a broad realm, and its boundaries have been anything but stable since the modem environmental movement began more than 2 decades ago. It is this instability, along with a multitude of demographic, social, and economic constructs, that has brought into bolder reliefthe increasing demand for scientists who have the skills and knowledge to use the common metric ofrisk in matching national environmental management priorities and the degree of hazards to human health. To the extent that environmental health programs can be thought of as the synthesis of the contributions of the vast array of the physical and biological as well as the social sciences there is a need
for personnel who can bring varied specialized knowledge to bear on problems of specific environmental determinants of disease. This can be achieved through demanding the services of personnel wellground in basic disciplines who also have a broad understanding ofthe interrelationships of these disciplines in the solution to environmental health problems. Despite the well-publicized demands for more of these scientists, far too few young Americans-especially far too few people of color-want, or are prepared, to pursue careers in science. Thus there is a lack of input of historically underrepresented groups into the environmental health services. This report describes efforts to boost the number ofBlack scientists and to raise their participation in scientific activities. It concludes with an assessment ofwhy such efforts may not improve the representation of African Americans in a range of scientific disciplines related to environmental health research, policy development, and programs. In this panoramic sweep, which blurs an infinity of detail, one fundamental assumption is tacitly accepted (even though this assumption has by no means universal assent): increasing the number of Black students educated in science will enhance national efforts to prevent the occurrence of environmentally provoked disease and dysfunction and to conserve natural resources.
Bailus Walker, Jr, is with the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center. Requests for reprints should be sent to Bailus Walker, Jr, Professor and Dean of Public Health, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 801 Northeast 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK 73190.
American Journal of Public Health 1395
Public Health Polky Forum
Demographic Changes Before reviewing these efforts it is well to delineate selected demographic variables because programs to increase the supply of scientists largely derive from these data. Over the last decade, the number of Asian Americans more than doubled, and the Hispanic population grew by more than 50%. This development underscores the extraordinary pace of recent change in the nation's racial and ethnic profile. Data from the 1990 census show that Whites continue to decline as a proportion of the population and that Hispanics grew faster than demographers had predicted. Those identifying themselves as American Indians grew about 38% to nearly 2 million. The White population grew by more than 11 million to 199.7 million. But the White share of the total population decreased to 83% in 1980 and to about 80% last year. The 30 million Blacks accounted for 12.1% of the 1990 population, up from 11.7% a decade ago.1'2 So there are 54 million Blacks, Hispanics, American Indians, and Alaskan Natives in the United States-22% of the total population. In 1989 this groupwas awarded about 5% (65) of the 1268 PhD's in chemistry, a basic environmental health science. In biochemistry no more than 14 of the PhDs awarded in 1989 went to historically underrepresented groups.3 At the same time, science and engineering careers are becoming less attractive to white, middleclass men, the group that traditionally produced most of the nation's scientists and
engineers. It is in this setting that the National Science Foundation estimated that by the year 2010 the United States could suffer a shortfall of as many as 560 000 science and engineering professionals based on the levels that would have been produced had graduation rates in these fields remained at their 1984 to 1986 levels.3'4 These estimates are underscored by new data from the American Chemical Society's Committee on Professional Training (ACPT). The committee's data show that 1990 was the 7th consecutive year of decline in the level of BS graduates as fewer undergraduates chose chemistry as a major.5 The more than 500 chemistry curricula approved by the ACPT graduated 7650 chemists with BS degrees in 1989-1990. This was down from 8125 1 year earlier-a 21% decrease from the 9679 graduates 5 years earlier in 19841985. 1396 American Journal of Public Health
This trend is a cause for concern because chemistry is a central science that provides fundamental understanding needed to cope with a broad range of environmental health issues. Indeed, the understanding that follows from basic research in chemistry opens new options for addressing society's environmental health and ecological problems. In biology the picture is similar; the number of bachelor's degrees awarded in this field in the United States has been steadily declining since 1975 when there was a steep rise in bachelor's degrees in business and management, which have become the most popular professional degrees approaching 70 000 per year.6,7 This trend, too, is a cause for concern because the shortfall of biologists in environmental health activities could slow developments in cellular and molecular biology, developments that could help improve our understanding of the mechanisms of environmentally provoked disease and of biological markers ofexposure and susceptibility to environmental insults.
Federal Progrs These projected shortfalls have not gone unnoticed as both the public and private sectors have been expanding existing programs and are developing new initiatives to promote the competence and the input of African Americans in science. At the federal level there is increasing emphasis on science and mathematics education. The proposed federal budget for fiscal year 1992 included a 13% increase to improve science and mathematics education. A committee chaired by Energy Secretary James Watkins took an inventory of all federal government's efforts in this area last year. The findings: a total investment of $1.7 billion, including programs ranging from precollege curricula to graduate fellowships. The Bush administration proposed that the total be increased to $1.94 billion next year with special emphasis on precollege education and teacher train-
ing.8 Among federal agencies perhaps the earliest effort to improve the participation of historically underrepresented groups in science was made by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH began to address shortages of scientists in 1972 with a program called the Minority Biomedical Research Support (MBRS) program.9'10 This program focuses on the institutions that traditionally graduate the largest number of minority students. The pro-
gram's initial 38 schools were primarily historically Black colleges and universities. But over the years it has expanded to include schools, particularly in the Southwest, that have predominantly Hispanic enrollments as well as a growing number of large inner-city universities that attract large numbers ofboth Black and Hispanic students. Since most of these institutions have teaching as their major function, the NIH program provided resources to expand the research capabilities of these academic programs. This expansion included equipment, renovation of laboratory space, financial aid for student projects and stronger mentorships-necessary components for many students interested in careers in science. This multifaceted program began with $2 million to invest in 38 institutions. It now operates with an annual budget of about $42 million, and it has put many students into the "science pipeline."9 Approximately 500 students from the MBRS program are awarded bachelor's degrees each year. Approximately 80% of them move forward to postgraduate studies. About 50%o of those go into the health professions and the other 50%1o pursue PhD studies in graduate school. A second NIH program is the Minority Access to Research Careers (MARC). MARC focuses on helping talented minority science majors make the transition from college to graduate school. Each year the program supports about 500 juniors and seniors at minority institutions. Of the 2700 students that the program has supported since it began in 1976, 80%o have gone on to professional or graduate school. Of that number, 60% earned a PhD.10
One of the attractive features of the MARC program is its requirement that all participants leave their home institution and spend at least a summer in a major research laboratory in some other part of the country. This approach helps the students gain confidence and develop new relationships that can enhance their professional careers. MARC is expanding. In 1991 the program will provide student stipends and other support to freshmen and sophomores as well as juniors and seniors at participating institutions. Moreover, the program will provide minority students with support for graduate studies regardless of whether they attend a historically Black institution or a predominantly
White graduate university. The size of this program should be enhanced by the $10 billion for research November 1991, Vol. 81, No. 11
Publc Health Poliy Fonum
and training requested for the Department of Health and Human Services in the administration's budget for fiscal year 1992, the bulk ofwhich is commanded by NIH. Developments at the National Science Foundation (NSF) are also encouraging for minority students. NSF, since 1987, has put much emphasis on infrastructure issues-undergraduates, graduates, and postdoctorate students-in science education. The foundation's proposed $2.72 billion budget (1992) includes a 16% increase for research and related activities and a 21% increase for science education programs. Benefiting from this increase will be NSFs Alliance for Minority Participation. One ofits goals is to decrease attrition among those who already have shown interest in math, science, and engineering."1 Also scheduled for more resources is NSF's "feeder" college program, a program involving small liberal arts colleges that supply a large number ofPhD science students. Walter Massey, the new director of NSF and a product of the feeder system, has emphasized the value of this program. He points out that, for whatever reason, there are still many students who are not accepted at the majority institution. These students are very talented and have a great deal of potential and ability, but they need more time in an environment that is nurturing while also setting rigorous academic standards. Feeder schools have traditionally met this need.12 Early in 1991, 10 states received a total of $75 million, so they can over 5 years, systematically improve their math and science education program according to NSF criteria. These were the first awards under NSF's Statewide Systematic Initiative program whose goal it is to catalyze reform in all aspects of science education, from kindergarten through 12th grade. This program should help address one of the principal determinants of success in college level science education, high school preparation in math and science. The high school situation was accurately descnbed by Henry McBay, professor of chemistry at Morehouse College. He suggested "that black students are not coming out of high school with the academic tools necessary for successful progress through the basic sciences."3 A similar assessment was made by Allan Bromley, the president's science adviser, "I am convinced that the heart of the problem remains in the secondary school and that we cannot realistically expect November 1991, Vol. 81, No. 11
much improvement elsewhere until we make substantial changes at this secondary level."'14 Black participation in the sciences should also be enhanced by a memorandum of understanding between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a newly formed academic consortium of minority universities. As part of the agreement, NASA will fund seven research projects, 31 undergraduate student fellowships, and 20 graduate fellowships totaling $1 million. To give NASA credit, much of the research and development the agency has supported has significant relevance to the field of environmental health science and technology, includingmethods forthe prevention of air and water pollution and for monitoring and surveillance of global changes over time.'0 For minority students, NASA research also has the broadest possible implications. It is similar to learning to read. Once a student can read a short story, learning how to read poetry or novels is less of a challenge. Thus, fundamental insights into global changes and into broad dimensions of meteorology and climatology, which are research priorities for NASA, are readily transferable to other environmental phenomena: ozone depletion, greenhouse warming, deforestation, sea level rise, and related adverse ecological alterations.
Nonfedrl Initfives The federal government is not the only source of programs and services to increase minority representation in the sciences. Among the prominent nonfederal programs is the Southeastern Consortium of the Minorities in Engineering (SECME),3 a consortium of 28 engineering schools in eight southeastern states. The consortium rns science and math enrichment programs for 240 of the region's high schools. The program establishes partnerships between local schools, the engineering colleges, and industry. It has now reached 18 000 high school students, 93% ofwhom are black. Each year for the past decade, 85% of the program's graduates have entered college. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)14 has established the Linkage Prgram whose objective it is to involve community groups in improving science for minority populations and other underrepresented groups.
The AAAS Black churches program, for example, provides training and educational material for church groups interested in providing hands-on science and mathematics projects for Black children. More than 500 churches participate in this effort. In March 1991 AAAS held the first of several regional workshops aimed at attracting more than 180 churches to the program. In these forums local project personnel explain to parents the importance of early math and science education and instruct high school teachers on how to run hands-on science projects. The American Chemical Society's career development and social action program has been operating since 1968. This program focuses on exposing high school students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds to scientific careers. Although the program is not specifically designed for minority students, more than 60% of the student participants have been from underrepresented minorities.15
Impedmnt The sum vector of this selected list of initiatives cited in the preceding paragraphs is evidence of broadening support for educating Blacks in science. Clearly resources from both the private and public sectors have poured into the breach to meet present and future needs in science brainpower. This is not to suggest that there has been, or will be, a geometric increase in the number of Black science graduates. Nor should itbe concluded from this list of initiatives that African Americans or Hispanics will in the foreseeable future constitute the majority of top level managers in private and public sector environmental health programs. In science as in other fields, the demands and requirements of society most often run ahead of the development of institutions, of imaginative approaches and willingness to commit resources. In the development of science manpower (a term I use here to refer to the collective strength of men and women), the lag between the two has sometimes been wide and long sustained. Indeed, the demand for science brainpower is still there, and the supply is lagging. And despite stepped up efforts to address the problem, historically underrepresented groups are severely below strength in a whole range of scientific disciplines. Attenuating this problem may turn out to be a long and arduous task for many reasons. Only one will be cited here.
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For example, among many Black students, there is a perception of limited opportunity and hostile climate for education in and the practice of science. They have often read and heard of the dissatisfaction of practicing Black scientists and perceive that their own opportunities are better outside science. For example, many AfricanAmerican students decided to study science during the early days of US efforts to land a man on the moon. It was in the late 1970s that these students completed the requirements for doctorates in science and entered the workforce. They quickly realized that their opportunities in academia, in government, and in industry were not equal. They confronted overt evidence that the "old boy" network of middle management made it difficult, if not impossible, for racial minorities to move into top management positions despite clearly articulated policies of equal employment opportunities. Thus the children of these Black scientists who began working in the 1970s became less enthusiastic about pursuing careers in science. And today many young Black people, unlike their parents, do not see a future in science as a good career choice. This mindset is fueled by another factor-economics. Logic would suggest that as the distribution of education becomes more equal so would the distribution in earnings. Bluestone16 points out that a "marginal productivity-human capital" analysis would suggest that changes in earning equality should correspond to education. Statistics indicate the contrary: Substantial economic differences still exist between college-educated black and white men despite major improvements in the educational qualifications among black men. College-educated Black men in science, aged 25 to 64years, had median weekly earnings in 1989 of $544 (plus or minus $21) compared with $719 (plus or minus $6) for their White counterparts. This gap was greater than 10 years earlier when college-educated Black men earned 80% to 90% as much as their White counterparts. This can be attributed in part to the fact that college-educated Black men are considerably more likely than their White counterparts to work outside of managerial and professional fields of science. In addition to the occupational differences, a number of other factors may contribute to this earning gap: the degree attained (workers at the master's and doctoral level earn more than those with bachelor's degrees), local labor market factors, job performance, and the size and finan-
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cial strength of employers.17 Although the legal barriers have been removed, discrimination is still a factor in widening the earning gap. It has a new dimension, which is most pervasive in the foreignowned science and technology-based enterprises that are beginning to dominate the US economic and industrial landscapes. In many of these workplaces there is heavy reliance on and preference for managers of a single nationality. The intensity of this form of discrimination came to light last year when a federal court in Chicago penalized a Japanese company for discriminating on the grounds of national origin. The corporation had dismissed 66 American managers to allegedly cut costs but retained all Japanese managers.18 It is understandable then why young African Americans and other racial minorities reading periodic reports on careers and on earning differences and observing the increasing number of employment discrimination lawsuits being filed may have reason to question the notion that a college education in science can contribute to closing the economic gap between Black and White men and women. Little progress has been made in narrowing the gap in the last decade, which has been a period of significant economic growth. In colleges and universities-the scientific crucible that should help the nation address new and emerging environmental health issues-there have been many perturbations that have raised doubts about the integrity of the academic process and the nature and the worth of a college education in science. These include allegations of scientific misconduct and of inappropriate use of federal research funds. And many campuses have been immersed in debates about free speech and so-called "political correctness"-debates that have bred divisions and alliances among minority groups and heightened racial tensions. Meanwhile the federal government appears to be reassessing its historical partnership with higher education with an eye toward more regulation and surveillance of the educational enterprise, including stricter control on compensating universities and on related educational enhancement efforts. These developments are weakening efforts of colleges and universities to provide a stable and supportive environment for those students who wish to study science but who often come with greater educational needs than the typical student of
past years. If these fissures continue to develop, they could result in major losses of potential scientists and make the shortfall far worse than predicted. This, in turn, could have serious adverse consequences on human health, environmental quality, and the competitiveness of this country. So, clearly, we in the scientific community, broadly defined, and all of our friends and allies have much more work to do to change attitudes and behavior to make the scientific community more hospitable to and nurturing of its ethnic minority members. El
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