Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants used in the treatment of CNS disorders in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

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Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants used in the treatment of CNS disorders in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt$ Q1

T.A.F. Eissa, O.M. Palomino, M.E. Carretero, M.P. Gómez-Serranillos n Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Avda. Complutense s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain

art ic l e i nf o Article history: Received 13 June 2013 Received in revised form 22 October 2013 Accepted 23 October 2013 Keywords: Ethnopharmacology Sinai Egypt Medicinal plants Central nervous system disorders

a b s t r a c t Q5 Ethnopharmacological relevance: To provide ethnopharmacological information on the use of medicinal plants for central nervous system (CNS) disorders in the Sinai Peninsula region (Egypt). To collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about these medicinal plants in the Sinai Peninsula region (Egypt) with 61,000 km² and 379,000 inhabitants. Methodology: Field work was concluded between March 2006 and May 2011, using semi-structured questionnaire with 700 informants (mean age: 59; 100% men) from 117 settlements of 17 Bedouin tribes. Transects walks in wild herbal plant collection areas and bibliographical review on the collected plants were also conducted. The Interview/ Inhabitant index (I/P), relative importance value of the species and informant consensus factor (FIC) were calculated. Results: More than 300 species were traditionally used in folk medicine in the Sinai Peninsula; 101 of these species belonging to 40 families were reported as useful in different CNS disorders. Only 5 species are endemic of the studied area. All different part plants were used, leaves and aerial parts being the most frequent. Most of the remedies were prepared as infusion or decoction, while oral administration was the most common way to be used. Gastrointestinal (67.3%) and respiratory disorders (42.57%) were also reported as frequently treated by Bedouins with herbal remedies. Conclusions: Only a few species were found where the traditional use is supported by pharmacological studies (Acacia nilotica, Achillea fragrantissima, Ajuga iva or Mentha longifolia). No bibliographical references in the scientific literature were found for 22 species (21.78%); finally, several studies were published with different pharmacological activities than those provided by Bedouins. & 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The Convention for Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCOPRESS, Press Release No 2006–05, 2006. UNESCO 1995– 2007—ID: 31424) established that the knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe, as well as know-how linked to traditional crafts are part of Humankind cultural heritage: Ethnobotany, Ethnobiology, Ethnoecology, traditional medicine and pharmaceutical knowledge, between others, are known as essential components of culture and so they should be preserved (Guarrera, 2005; 2006; Heinrich et al., 2006; Pieroni et al., 2006). Ethnopharmacology, as the scientific study of indigenous drugs and their biological activities and ethnobotany, which focuses on the study of the relationship among people and plants as a cultural

☆ This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivative Works License, which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 34 913941767; fax: þ 34 913941726. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.P. Gómez-Serranillos).

value, are nowadays widely used as useful tools to discover new active compounds and to preserve traditional knowledge (Heinrich et al., 2006; Al-Qura’n, 2009). In fact, the information obtained from biological effects of traditional herbal remedies becomes a valuable contribution to the discovering of new active compounds and allows the development of new therapeutic lines. Several ethnopharmacological surveys have been published during last years on traditional medicine in several cultures from Africa (Karunamoorthi and Tsehaye, 2012a, 2012b; Semenya et al., 2012), Asia (Dey and De, 2012; Tag et al., 2012), Australia (Packer et al., 2012), China (Ghorbani et al., 2011) or South-America (De-Feo, 1992; Rehecho et al., 2011) and even in specific regions from Western countries (Calvo et al., 2011; Cavero et al., 2011;) with the aim of preserving their herbal remedies usage as well as finding an evidence-based approach to their corresponding use. The Sinai Peninsula extends over 61,000 km2 between Africa and Asia with only 379,000 inhabitants. Its flora and fauna have been influenced by both continental masses. The climate of Sinai is generally hot and dry, receiving an average of less than 100 mm of rain per year. No rivers run through the peninsula; there exist no sources of fresh water or natural lakes; even only few oasis such

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.10.041

Please cite this article as: Eissa, T.A.F., et al., Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants used in the treatment of CNS disorders in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.10.041i

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T.A.F. Eissa et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

as Ain Umm Ahmed and Wadi Feiran can be found. For three millennia, Sinai remained sparsely inhabited, serving primarily as a mining region and as a route between Egypt and the great civilizations of the Fertile Crescent. Five phytogeographic regions meet and overlap in Sinai; three of these areas are of the Saharo-Arabian complex territories where Saharo-Arabian species dominate the list of species in all of them. The fourth area consists of the Irano-Turanian species that occupy the southern Sinai Massif including Saint Catherine mountain. The fifth element is represented by the Sudanese species along the Gulf of Aqaba consisting mainly in Acacia species. The flora of Sinai comprises around 1000 species which represent a high percentage of the Egyptian flora (56.2%) despite the low area percentage occupied by the peninsula itself (6.1% of Egypt area) (Fig. 1). Most of the inhabitants of the Sinai Peninsula can be found along the north coast and the oasis, Bedouins being the most abundant population. They belong to different tribes such as Gebeliya, Alleget, Sawalha, Uzbeliya and Muszeina between others, that usually live in small clusters of 3–4 households near to each other, and separated from other clusters by around 1-2 km. Very few papers have documented the traditional medical uses of medicinal plants in the area of Sinai Peninsula (Khafagi and Dewedar, 2000; Pieroni et al., 2006; El-Seedi et al., 2013). Our research aimed to report the medicinal plants species used to relieve central nervous system (CNS) disorders by the population in this Egyptian area, and the mode of preparation. Moreover, an updated review in the scientific literature has been conducted in order to find pharmacological studies that support the traditional use of the cited species.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Data collection Field work began on March 2006 and lasted until May 2011. Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews by means of meetings with Bedouins throughout their living locations in fields and mountains (Martin, 1995). A total of 700 informants belonging to 17 different Bedouin tribes were interviewed in 117 settlements; 100% of them were men, as Bedouins culture is a patriarchal social organization where healer men are responsible of the medical practice management. This situation can also be observed in cultures from other areas throughout the world, such as Peruvian communities (Rehecho et al., 2011). They were aged between 49 and 69 years (mean age Q3 59 years), elderly people being the population with the greatest knowledge upon the use of medicinal plants; younger people showed nearly no knowledge and even no interest on the usage of herbal remedies because of the use of conventional medicine. This situation was also detected in previous ethnopharmacological studies in development countries (Akerreta et al., 2010). In the field work for each plant, the local name(s), place and collection method, season of the year and day for the collection, part used, applications, risks, method of preparation, dosage and administration, preservation system, and other comments were noted. Other medicinal uses different from CNS disorders were also recorded. Photographs and a voucher specimen of each plant were taken. Herbarium voucher specimens were collected and authenticated by a Botanist from the Cairo Herbarium. These species were

Fig. 1. Location of the Sinai Peninsula in Africa, Egypt, and phytogeographical regions in Sinai Peninsula: (I) Mediterranean sea area; (II) Northeast area of Wadi Tumilat and Northern desert; (III) Isthmic desert and Northwest area of Wadi Tumilat; (IV) South of El-Tih desert; (V) Red sea area.


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 Family, scientific name

Common name

ASCLEPIADACEAE Harggal Solenostemma argel (Delile) Hayne CAPPARACEAE (Capparis Lassaaf spinosa L.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE Herniaria hirsuta Makir L. Paronychia arabica (L.) DC. Spergularia rubra (L.) J. & C. Presl. Vaccaria pyramidata Medik.

Bassisa, Ramram

CLEOMACEAE Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile COMPOSITAE Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. Achillea santolina L. Ambrosia maritima L.

Ethnopharmacological use

Pharmacological activity

Use UV frequency

References

CNS

Others

Leaves

Infusion for hysteria and epilepsy

Cough, constipation gastrointestinal cramps

Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, antifungal, antibacterial

0.05

0.2

Boulos (1983), Heneidy (2004), Innocenti et al. (2005)

Whole plant, root, buds, fruits

Infusion and decoction of the plant as stimulant, to preserve strength and decrease fatigue. Root as analgesic, tonic, to decrease fever

Emmenagogue, diuretic, renal disinfectant, antidiarrhoeic, for gout, rheumatism, atherosclerosis, dysmenorrhoea, to prevent scurvy. External use for skin ulcers

Analgesic, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antiinflammatory, antiviral, antitumoral, hepatoprotective, diuretic, hypoglycaemic

0.05

0.2

Boulos (1983), Chaya et al. (1995), Shirwaikar et al. (1996), Batanouny et al. (1999), Gadgoli and Mishra (1999), Eddouks et al. (2005), Arena et al. (2008), Zhou et al. (2011)

Diuretic, antiseptic of the urinary tract, anti-lithiasis

–

–

–

0.05

0.4

Boulos (1983), Atmani et al. (2003), Atmani et al. (2004), Meiouet et al. (2011) –

Expectorant, diuretic Decoction as narcotic and antispasmodic, for throat and stomach aches Aerial part Infusion as stimulant and aphrodisiac Diuretic

Whole plant

Eshba harma Whole plant

Infusion as sedative

Diuretic, for common cold

Antioxidant, diuretic, antiseptic, hypoglycaemic

–

–

Boulos (1983), Vinholes et al. (2011)

Ful el arab

Decoction as stimulant

Emmenagogue. External use for skin disorders

–

0.05

0.2

Boulos (1983)

Aerial part Infusion as analgesic, stimulant, to decrease fever

Emmenagogue, anti-helminthic, carminative, antispasmodic

0.05

0.4

Boulos (1983), Kokanova-Nedialkova et al. (2009), Prasad et al. (2010), Monzote et al. (2011)

Qeihaniy, Muntinah, Alodw, Rimth

Whole Infusion as sedative, for hysteria plant Aerial part Infusion as a general tonic

Antispasmodic, anti-rheumatic, antihelminthic, emmenagogue Antispasmodic. External use for skin wounds

Stimulant, antioxidant, anstispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial, antifungal, antileishmanial –

–

–

–

Antimicrobial, anticoagulant

0.11

0.09 Awaad et al. (2001)

Samwa, Mashda

Aerial part Infusion for headache, as general sedative

For renal colics, diabetes

Hypoglycaemic, antimicrobial, diuretic, hepatoprotective, relaxant, antihistaminic, anti-schistosomiasis

0.11

0.27 Batanouny et al. (1999), Fushiya et al. (1999), Abdel-Kawy et al. (2000), ElShenawy et al. (2006), Abdel-Kader et al. (2009)

Qaysum

Aerial part Infusion as a general analgesic, for headache, fits of hysteria

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, Anti-helminthic, emmenagogue, antispasmodic, for anaemia. External use antimicrobial, antiviral, ileumrelaxant for eyes diseases

0.17

Be’eitheran

Aerial Infusion as analgesic, for fits of part, root hysteria. Aerial part Infusion and decoction as stimulant, to improve memory

Carminative, stomachic, anti-helminthic, anti-inflammatory Anti-rheumatic, anti-diabetic, for asthma symptoms

0.21

0.23 Ahmed et al. (1988), Barel et al. (1991), Mustafa et al. (1992), Batanouny et al. (1999), Al-Mustafa and Al-Thunibat (2008), Elmann et al. (2011) 0.14 Yazdanparast et al. (2007), Zaringhalam et al. (2010) 0.27 Boulos (1983), El-Sawy et al. (1989), Abadome et al. (1994), Ahmed and Khater (2001)

CHENOPODIACEAE Sorbeyh, Chenopodium Minatteena ambrosioides L. Chenopodium vulvaria L. Hammada elegans (Bunge) Botsch.

Part used

Damaseisa

Root

Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic Anti-schistosomiasis, hepatoprotective, molluscicidal

0.11



Table 1 Plants used in traditional medicine by Bedouins in Sinai Peninsula for CNS disorders and other therapeutic uses.

3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 4

Family, scientific name

Common name

Rigl elAnacyclus ghoraab alexandrinus Willd. Artemisia inculta Shihh Del.

Part used



Use UV frequency

References

–

CNS

Others

Root

Decoction as stimulant

Sinusitis. External use for rheumatic pain –

0.05

0.6

Whole plant

Infusion as analgesic, sedative, antipyretic

Antiseptic, diuretic, anti-rheumatic

Immunomodulatory, antiinflammatory

0.21

Antihelminthic, expectorant

0.21 Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-helminthic, antimicrobial, insecticidal Antispasmodic, antimicrobial. Highly 0.05 toxic for pregnant women because it promotes abortion and inhibits labour – 0.05

0.19 Trabut (1935), Boulos (1983), Tariq et al. (1987), Al-Mustafa and AlThunibat (2008), Messaondene et al. (2011) 0.14 Soliman (1995), Abdelgaleil et al. (2008)

Artemisia judaica L.

Baethran

Aerial part Infusion as analgesic, antipyretic

Artemisia monosperma Del. Atractylis carduus (Forssk.) C. Chr. Atractylis mernephthae Asch. Centaurea calcitrapa L. Centaurea sinaica DC. Chiliadenus montanus (Vahl) Brullo

Aader

Aerial part, root

Infusion as sedative, to relieve several Laxative, antispasmodic CNS disorders

Shoak elgamal

Root

Decoction as narcotic, for fits of hysteria

External use for rheumatic pain, skin infections

Kharshoof

Root

Decoction as narcotic, for fits of hysteria

External use for rheumatic pain

–

Hassak

Whole Infusion and decoction for headache, plant as sedative, antipyretic Aerial part Infusion and decoction as sedative, to relieve fever, for headache Aerial part Infusion and decoction as tonic, to relieve fever, for headache

Astringent, appetite stimulant, diuretic, hypoglycaemic –

Antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, digestive, diuretic, antimicrobial –

Antidiabetic, expectorant, diuretic, antiemetic, antispasmodic, for hypertension

Chrysanthemum coronarium L. Lactuca serriola L.

Mandiliya, Qurrass Khass elbaqar

Flowers

Vermifuge, to relieve itching

Tonic, antiviral, antimicrobial, diuretic, 0.21 antiprotozoal, hypoglycaemic, antiinflammatory, antihistaminic, antiemetic, antidiarrheic, antispasmodic, mucolitic, expectorant Antioxidant, antifungal, anti0.05 angiogenic, anti-atherosclerotic Analgesic, antioxidant, antibacterial –

Mrar, berkaan Heneida

Barnoof Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC. Pulicaria undulada (L.) C.A. Mey. Senecio desfontainei Druce Senecio flavus (Decne) Sch. Bip. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.

Rabool, Rabl

Infusion for headache

0.6

0.6

Abu-Nicaj et al. (1993), Elgamal et al. (1997), Mohamed (2000), Hijazi and Salhab (2010) –

0.05

0.6

–

0.05

0.6

–

0.6

Toribio et al. (2004), Csupor et al. (2011) –

0.14 Hammerschmidt et al. (1993), AlHowiriny et al. (2005), Soltan and Zaki (2009)

0.2 –

Aerial part Eaten as sedative

Antispasmodic, diuretic. External use as emollient. Decoction as antidote after snake or scorpion bites

Aerial part, leaves

External use for rheumatic pain. Vapour Analgesic, antioxidant, antigiven off from burnt leaves is inhaled to inflammatory, anti-diarrheic, antimicrobial improve cold symptoms

0.05

0.8

Carminative

Juice for children’ epilepsy, to improve memory, in Alzheimer’s disease, as aphrodisiac

Aerial part Infusion for headache, as general analgesic, stimulant

Trabut (1935), Bellakhdar (1978), Choi et al. (2007), Kim et al. (2011) Fournier (1947–1948), Nauroy (1954), Boulos (1983), Ahmad et al. (1992), Kim (2001), Yadava and Jharbade (2008) El-Lakwah et al. (1998), Batanouny et al. (1999), Grace (2002), Atta and Abo El-Sooud (2004), Atta and Mouneir (2004), Awaad et al. (2011) Al-Fatimi et al. (2005), Bakkali et al. (2008), Maghraby et al. (2010)

0.05

0.4

0.05

0.4

Metwally and Dawidar (1986), Bicchi et al. (1991), El-Shazly (1999) –

Qorreis, Aerial part Infusion and decoction as sedative, Omm Lonein analgesic

Emetic, diuretic

Anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antitumoral Antibacterial, antifungal

Abu Remeiha

Aerial part Infusion and decoction as sedative, analgesic

Soft laxative, emmenagogue

–

0.05

0.4

Showek elgamel

Fruits, leaves, seeds

Infusion of the leaves as laxative. Tincture from the seeds for liver disorders and poisoning with mushrooms (mainly Amanita)

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antitumoral, diabetes preventive

0.11

0.36 Fournier (1947–1948), Schauenberg and Paris (1977), Basaga et al. (1997), Abenavoli et al. (2010), Deep and Agarwal (2010), Chien et al. (2011), Loguercio and Festi (2011), Rambaldi et al. (2005)

Fruits for depression, migraine, general analgesic. Infusion of the leaves as stimulant



Table 1 (continued )

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 CRUCIFERAE Anastatica hierochuntica L. Lepidium draba L. Lepidium sativum L.

Shubbeit

Kaff Mariam Whole plant, fruits Hhurf mashriqi Rashad, Hhabb er rashad

CUCURBITACEAE Handal Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

CUPRESSACEAE Juniperus phoenicea L.

Aerial parts as sedative, diaphoretic Aerial part, fruits, root

Arar

Seeds, leaves Seeds, leaves

Hepatoprotective, melanogenesis inhibitor

0.11

0.27 Batanouny et al. (1999), Yoshikawa et al. (2003), Nakashima et al. (2010)

Antibacterial, antifungal

0.11

Analgesic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, diuretic, hypoglycaemic, anti-hypertensive, anti-diarrheic, spasmolytic

0.11

0.27 Fréchard et al. (2002), Radonic et al. (2011) 0.18 Boulos (1983), Al-Yahya et al. (1994), Eddouks et al. (2005), Maghrani et al. (2005), Raval and Ravishankar (2010), Rehman et al. (2012a, 2012b)

Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antibacterial, antifungal, antitumoral, hypoglycaemic

0.21

0.14 Boulos (1983), Batanouny et al. (1999), Yoshikawa et al. (2007), Kumar et al. (2008), Huseini et al. (2009), Marzouk et al. (2009), Rahbar and Nabipour (2010), Ayyad et al. (2012)

Antioxidant, antitumoral hepatoprotective, antibacterial, antimicrobial

–

–

Doreau (1961), Lemordant et al. (1977), Mohamed (2000), El-Sawi et al. (2007), Ennajar et al. (2009), Ali et al. (2010), Fouad et al. (2011), Medini et al. (2011), Tumen et al. (2012)

Infusion as sedative, immunostimulant, for abdominal pain

Anti-diarrhoeic in children, intestinal disinfectant, emmenagogue, to facilitate parturition. External use for skin inflammation in children and rheumatic pain

Infusion as sedative, analgesic, stimulant, tonic, aphrodisiac

For gastrointestinal disorders (dyspepsia, Antimalarial diarrhoea), to eliminate kidney stones. External use for scorpion bites

–

–

Thebtaranonth et al. (1995), Batanouny et al. (1999)

Respiratory disorders (asthma, cold, throat ache, nasal congestion)

0.05

0.4

Fourment and Roques (1941), Bellakhdar (1978), Ayensu (1979), Shabana et al. (1990), Soltan and Zaki (2009), Al-Qarawi et al. (2011, 2012)

Alenda, Ephedra

GLOBULARIACEAE Handaqoo, Globularia Zorreiqa arabica Jaub. & Spach.

For common cold. Fruits to decrease libido. Dried plant with sugar and taken with milk for jaundice. Infusion to facilitate parturition Seeds as tonic, aphrodisiac, for Seeds as diuretic. Leaves to preserve headache health and strength the immune system Respiratory problems (cough, Seeds as aphrodisiac; mixed with honey, as tonic, for headache, sterility. tuberculosis), syphilis, carminative, galactogogue. External use for bronchitis, Leaves to improve health, immune to heal wounds system

Leaves

EPHEDRACEAE Ephedra alata Decne

Hashishet as-sebyan, Shatreg Slikh, Djehira

Decoction for fits of epilepsy, headache, other aches

Batanouny et al. (1999), Nariman et al. (2004), Eftekhar et al. (2007), Koko et al. (2008), Nour et al. (2009), Dahab et al. (2011)

Fruits for headache, ear ache, general Purgative, diuretic, expectorant, analgesic, for fits of epilepsy carminative, for leprosy. Dried fruits as insecticide. External use for skin diseases. Not to be used during pregnancy and in children because of strong purgative effect

Sa´d, Sa´d el- Rhizome homaar

FUMARIACEAE Fumaria parviflora Lam. Hypecoum pendulum L.

–

Fruits, seeds, leaves

CYPERACEAE Cyperus rotundus L.

EUPHORBIACEAE Ricinus Kherwa communis L.

–

Fruits for smallpox. Decoction of the root Immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antibacterial for gastrointestinal disorders, several tumours

Aerial part Infusion for CNS disorders; it causes insomnia

Hypoglycaemic, antiviral, inhibitor of aflatoxine production in Aspergillus flavus

Seeds, leaves, root

Decoction of the root as analgesic, several CNS disorders, for rheumatic pain, inflammation, teeth ache

Kidney dysfunction, jaundice. Powdered Antioxidant, strong purgative, diuretic, – seeds are highly toxic, used as cathartic, hepatoprotective, anticonvulsivant, emollient. Decoction of the root bark and antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory leaves as purgative; the latter also used to stop milk secretion in women. External use for rheumatic and sciathic pain, wound healing

–

Boulos (1983), Bruneton (2001), Iavarasan et al. (2006), Shoekeen et al. (2008), Tripathi et al. (2011), Worbs et al. (2011)

Whole plant

Infusion as sedative, to keep vitality

Laxative, purgative, diuretic, antiAntipyretic, hepatoprotective helminthic; for syphilis, jaundice, leprosy

–

–

Flowering tops, leaves

Infusion of the leaves or flowers as sedative, narcotic

Antirheumatic, diuretic

–

0.05

0.4

Nauroy (1954), Bellakhdar (1978), Khatta et al. (1985), Gilani et al. (1996), Tajik et al. (2011) Trabut (1935)

Whole plant

Infusion as tonic, for insomnia, fits of Diuretic, gastrointestinal disorders. epilepsy, fever External use as wound healing

Antimicrobial, antitumoral

0.05

0.8

Elbetieha et al. (2000), Es-Safi et al. (2007), Soltan and Zaki (2009)

–

0.05

0.6

–

Diuretic. External use for skin diseases

5

GRAMINEAE Shufan barri, Aerial part Infusion as sedative, tonic, for Avena barbata insomnia Pott ex Link in Hafour Schrad.



Xanthium brasilicum Vellozo

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 6


Common name

Part used

Ethnopharmacological use CNS

Avena fatua L. Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. JUNCACEAE Juncus rigidus Desf. LABIATAE Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb. Ballota kaiseri Tackh. Ballota undulata (Sieb. ex Fres.) Benth. Lavandula pubescens Decne Lavandula stricta Del. Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Micromeria sinaica Benth. Origanum syriacum L. Rosmarinus officinalis L.

Use UV frequency

References

Others

Aerial part Infusion as sedative, for insomnia

Diuretic

–

0.11

0.18 –

Whole plant

Dried plant is burnt and smoke is inhaled to relieve CNS disorders. Decoction as sedative, for fever

Diuretic, astringent, emmenagogue, carminative, anti-rheumatic, for hypertension

Diuretic, insecticide, larvicidal, antihelminthic

0.05

0.4

Boulos (1983), Ketoh et al. (2006), AlGhamdi et al. (2007), Katiki et al. (2011)

Samar el hhussr, Smaar

Rhizome

Infusion for insomnia and other CNS disorders

–

–

0.05

0.4

–

Ga’ada, Shandgoura

Aerial part Infusion as relaxant, analgesic

Ghasa

Aerial part Infusion as sedative, febrifuge, for abdominal and head aches Aerial part Infusion as sedative, febrifuge, for abdominal and head aches

Khafur, Zummayr Halfa barr, Tibn

Ghassa, Zefra

Anti-helminthic, vermifuge, for diabetes, Antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, relaxant of blood vessels sinusitis, diarrhoea. External use as wound healer – –

0.05

0.2

El-Hilaly et al. (2004, 2007), TalebSenouci et al. (2009)

0.05

0.6

–

–

Antioxidant, antimicrobial, hypolipidemic

0.05

0.6

Al-Bakri and Afifi (2007), Qazan (2008)

Attan, Attani Flowering tops

Infusion for depression, fits of epilepsy, migraine, as sedative

Anti-inflammatory, for common cold

Antifungal

0.05

0.8

Bakkali et al. (2008)

Zeita, Zeiti

Infusion as tonic, analgesic, for nervousness Infusion as a general analgesic, antipyretic, to keep calm

Common cold, diarrhoea and vomiting. External use as antiseptic Digestive, common cold. External use for eyes diseases, inflamed glands, skin wounds, insect repellent

Antioxidant

0.05

0.6

Messaoud et al. (2011)

CNS depressant, analgesic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihelminthic, spasmolytic, antipyretic –

0.49

0.04 Mímica-Dukic et al. (1996), Trabut (1935), Amzazi et al. (2003), Daferera et al. (2003), Gulluce et al. (2007), Eissa (2008), Amabeoku et al. (2009) 0.8 –

Habag, Habek

Khassah, Erfaija Bardaqoash, Mardaqoash

Flowering tops Aerial part, leaves Leaves

Infusion for stress, headache, feelings of fear, exhaustion Aerial part Decoction as tonic, analgesic, sedative, stimulant, antidepressant, antispasmodic Hasa-leban, Leaves Infusion for general pain, insomnia, Iklil el-gabal migraine, feelings of fear, loss of memory, Alzheimer’s disease

–

Liver diseases, anaemia. External use for dandruff, baldness. Essential oil alone or mixed with olive oil for rheumatic areas, ulcers, wounds, eczema

Raálah, Ghobbeisha

Flowering tops

Infusion and maceration as sedative, analgesic

Anti-diarrhoeic, for haemorrhoids, syphilis. External use for eye diseases

Salvia multicaulis Vahl.

Mardaqous, Bardaqoash


Diuretic, antiseptic, for fever, common cold

Salvia lanigera Poir.

Maryamyah Shagaret elgamal Zaater alhr

Leaves, flowers

Infusion of the leaves as stimulant, tonic, for Alzheimer’s disease. Infusion of the flowers for insomnia, convulsions, as analgesic Infusion and decoction as sedative, analgesic

Leaves

Infusion for fits of epilepsy, convulsions, other CNS disorders

0.05

Respiratory and liver disorders; essential Antioxidant, antifungal, antimicrobial, oil externally applied for rheumatic pain antitumoral

Salvia aegyptiaca L.

Teucrium leucocladum Boiss.


Diuretic, for digestion, renal colics. External use for throat ache and oral inflammation Inhaled for common cold, fever, chicken pox

0.21 Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, choleretic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antifungal, stimulant, quimiopreventive, hypertensive 0.11 CNS depressant, sedative, antiinflammatory, antipyretic, antioxidant hypoglycaemic, analgesic antimicrobial Antioxidant, antimicrobial 0.21

Abou-Jawdah et al. (2002), Alma et al. (2003), Soylu et al. (2007), Al-Kalaldeh et al. (2010) 0.28 Al-Sereiti et al. (1999), Luqman et al. (2007), Ngo et al. (2011)

0.27 Shabana et al. (1990), Al-Yousuf et al. (2002)

0.33 Yousefzadi et al. (2007), Elmann et al. (2009), Firuzi et al. (2010)

Antioxidant, antitumoral, antimicrobial

0.49

0.04 Trabut (1935), Fiore et al. (2006), Tenore et al. (2011)

Antibacterial, antifungal, larvicidal

0.05

0.4

El-Shazly and Hussein (2004)




1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 Whole plant, leaves

Decoction of whole plant as stimulant, for fits of epilepsy, as analgesic, sedative. Infusion of the leaves as sedative

Gastrointestinal disorders; inhaled for common cold, fever

Antioxidant, antispasmodic, hypoglycaemic, anti-inflammatory

0.49

Digestive diseases, spasms, vomiting, flatulence. Liver diseases (jaundice)

Antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal

0.49

Antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antitumoral

0.49

0.10 Boulos (1983, Gharuibeh et al. (1988), Tariq et al. (1989), Batanouny et al. (1999), Esmaelii and Yazdanparast (2004), Ljubuncic et al. (2006), Hasani et al. (2007) 0.04 Trabut (1935), Batanouny et al. (1999), Salgueiro et al. (2004), Faleiro et al. (2005), Mkaddem et al. (2010), Palmeira de Oliveira et al. (2012) 0.06 El-Hela (2007), Abd El-Mohsen et al. (2009), Abdel-Hady et al. (2011)

Thymus capitatus (L.) Link

Zaatar, Hasha


Infusion as analgesic, sedative

Thymus decussatus Benth.

Zaatar Gably, Za’atraan

Aerial parts, leaves

Digestive and liver diseases, teeth ache, Infusion and decoction as analgesic respiratory diseases such as asthma and sedative. Infusion of the leaves alone or mixed with olive oil as tonic

LEGUMINOSAE Acacia nilotica (L.) Del.

Sant, Siyal

Bark, pods, leaves, flowers, stems, root, gum

Infusion of the bark for CNS disorders. Liver diseases, cough, gastrointestinal Infusion of the pods as sedative disorders (antispasmodic, antidiarrhoeic in children), antiinflammatory, hypotensive. External use with henna (Lawsonia inermis) for skin irritations. Young stems for teeth hygiene

0.05

0.4

Talh, Talha, Seyal, Saganeib. Senna mekki, Sena hhigazi Handaqouq Nafal

Bark, seeds, gum Leaves, fruits

Infusion of the bark as sedative, analgesic

0.05

0.2

Aerial part, seeds, leaves

Infusion as narcotic, for insomnia, fits Night-time enuresis. External use for of epilepsy. Seeds as analgesic wound healing, repellent of insects

–

0.21

Boulos (1983), Hagos et al. (1987), Batanouny et al. (1999), Kigondu et al. (2009) 0.4 Trabut (1935), Schauenberg and Paris (1977), Boulos (1983), Bruneton (2001), Keskin and Toroglu (2011) 0.19 Trabut (1935), Boulos (1983)

Raqaf, Asleg

Leaves, flowers, root

Infusion of the powdered roots for fits Leprosy. External use for burnt areas of the skin of epilepsy; maceration of leaves as general tonic; powdered roots for opium poisoning

Smooth muscle relaxant

0.21

0.09 Abdalla et al. (1989)

LILIACEAE Asparagus stipularis L.

Aqool berry, Halaioon

Roots, young shoots, seeds

Diuretic, appetite stimulant, liver Fume inhaled from burnt roots to induce euphoria; infusion of the roots diseases (jaundice), haemorrhoids as analgesic

Anti-schistosomiasis

0.05

0.4

Boulos (1983), El-Seedi et al. (2012)

MALVACEAE Malva parviflora L.

Raqma, Khobbeiza

Leaves

Infusion as tonic, stimulant, to decrease fever

Anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial

0.05

0.6

Boulos (1983), Shale et al. (1999), Wang et al. (2001), Bouriche et al. (2011)

Moringa, Habb El Yasar, Habb El Ban

Seeds, leaves, flowers, root

Seeds and leaves as stimulant, general Laxative. External use for burnt areas or analgesic, to decrease fever after snake bites

Antiviral, hypoglycaemic, cytotoxic

0.05

0.8

Soltan and Zaki (2009), El-Alfy et al. (2011)

NYMPHAEACEAE Kurunb el Nymphaea ma, Bashnin caerulea arabi Savigny

Leaves, flowers, root

Maceration of leaves and flowers as stimulant. Roots for fever, headache or as narcotic

–

0.05

0.8

–

Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne Cassia senna L.

Melilotus indica (L.) All.

LEONTICACEAE Leontice leontopetalum L. subsp. leontopetalum

MORINGACEAE Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori

Maceration of the leaves for chronic headache, migraine

Antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, antitrypanosomal, antiplasmodial, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, antispasmodic, antihypertensive, hypoglycaemic, platelet antiaggregant Pulmonary diseases, jaundice, diarrhoea. Antiviral, anti-parasitic, relaxant External use as disinfectant, for wound healing Laxative, purgative Antifungal, antibacterial, laxative, purgative

–

Liver diseases

0.05

Boulos (1983), Gilani et al. (1999), Fatima et al. (2005), Kirira et al. (2006), Meena et al. (2006), Aderbauer et al. (2008), Kalaivani and Mathew (2010), Asad et al. (2011), Kariuki and Njoroge (2011), Mann et al. (2011)



Teucrium polium Ga’da, L. Goutiba

7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 8


Common name

PAPAVERACEAE Papaver Abou ensomniferum L. noum, Khashkhash aswad

Papaver decaisnei Hochst et Steud. Papaver rhoeas L.

Part used

Unripe capsule, latex, seeds

Qerei’iya

Capsules, latex

Zaghleel, Khashkhash manthur, Deydahaan

Capsules, leaves

PLANTAGINACEAE Plantago afra L. Biz qotoona, Hashishet elbaraghit Plantago Wideina, coronopus L. Rjel elghorab POLYGONACEAE Rumex vesicarius Hammoui, L. Henbiet, Hammaad el’eshb PORTULACACEAE Portulaca Rigla, Hurfa oleracea L. PRIMULACEAE Primula boveana Hiqqaab elqoola, Decne ex Duby in A. DC. Labbakh RANUNCULACEAE Na’ab ElAdonis dentata Gamal, Delile subsp. Zaghlîl dentata Nigella deserti Zorbeih Boiss. Nigella sativa L. Habbet elbarakah, Kammun aswad



Use UV frequency

CNS

Others

Seeds are chewed to induce sleep; powdered fruits externally applied on the forehead for headache. Opium as analgesic, narcotic. Capsules for every kind of pain, as a soft sedative, sleep inductor in children Dried latex as analgesic, narcotic. Capsules to relieve every kind of pain, as soft sedative, antispasmodic

0.21 Analgesic, respiratory depressor, Mixed with Lavandula angustifolia, Cuminum cyminum and Mentha pulegium vasodilatory, hypotensive, antitussive. Decreases FSH, LH and ACTH secretion for children’s cough

Capsules to promote sleep in children; infusion of the flowers as sedative, soft narcotic

Leaves, Decoction of the roots for fever, seeds, root malaria

References

0.09 Boulos (1983), Bruneton (2001)

Intestinal diseases such as diarrhoea, respiratory problems, cough

–

0.05

0.8

–

Expectorant

Sedative, antitussive

–

–

Boulos (1983), Bruneton (2001)

Soft laxative, hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolemic

0.05

0.2

Koedam (1977), Boulos (1983)

Antioxidant, antipyretic, antimalarial, hemostatic

–

–

Boulos (1983), Gálvez et al. (2005), Heimler et al. (2007)

Leaves, root

Powdered leaves as analgesic. Roots for fever, malaria

Laxative. External use in haemorrhoids, burnt or wounded skin areas, as emollient External use in haemorrhoids, irritated skin

Whole plant

Eaten as tonic, analgesic, to improve general health

Common cold, liver diseases, constipation

–

–

–

Batanouny et al. (1999)

Whole plant, seeds

Sedative, aphrodisiac

Diuretic, for scurvy. Eaten for thirst

Anti-hypoxic, muscle relaxant

0.05

0.4

Boulos (1983), Habtemariam et al. (1993), Chen et al. (2009)

Flowers, root

Decoction and infusion for headache, Expectorant, for common cold aches from nervous origin

–

0.05

0.4

Batanouny et al. (1999)

Common cold

–

0.11

0.18 Batanouny et al. (1999)

Sinusitis, respiratory diseases (i.e. asthma) For abortion, intestinal worms, leprosy, respiratory diseases, haemorrhoids, as diuretic, carminative, galactogogue, to improve appetite. General antidote after poisoning bites

–

0.05

0.4

–

–

Boulos (1983), Al-Hader et al. (1993), Abdel-Fattah et al. (2000), Kumara and Huat (2001), Zaoui et al. (2000), Mahmoud et al. (2002), Badary et al. (2003), Khan et al. (2003), El-Abhar et al. (2003), El-Naggar et al. (2010)

Aerial part Maceration as analgesic, to induce euphoria, to preserve health and strength Seeds Mixed with honey for migraine, headache Seeds Analgesic

– Sedative, CNS depressant, analgesic, neuroprotective, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antitumoral, antifungal, antiparasytic, diuretic, hypotensive, hypoglycaemic, hepatoprotective, gastric protective, antibacterial




1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 ROSACEAE Rosa arabica Crép. RUTACEAE Haplophyllum tuberculatum (Forssk.) A. Juss. Ruta graveolens L.

SALICACEAE Salix subserrata Willd.

Fruits for pain. Infusion of the fruits to Laxative. External use for irritated or decrease fever burnt skin, or inflamed eyes

Hypoglycaemic, antifungal, hepatoprotective, anti-diarrheic

0.05

0.2

Birr el-ward, Buds Ward barri

Infusion of buds as analgesic for headache, anxiety

–

0.21

0.09 –

Mjenenah, Dwara

Leaves

Gastrointestinal disorders: vomiting, Infusion or decoction for mental disorders, fits of epilepsy, as sedative, constipation, for intestinal worms analgesic, aphrodisiac, febrifuge

Antifungal, antibacterial, antiplasmodial

0.21

0.24 Boulos (1983), El-Tahir et al. (1999), AlBurtamani et al. (2005)

Saseb, Faygan

Leaves

Infusion for fits of epilepsy, hysteria, headache

Cough

Anti-inflammatory, antifungal, algaecide, antitumoral, antifertility

0.21

0.09 Ducros (1930), Schauenberg and Paris (1977), Bellakhdar (1978), Gandhi et al. (1991), Meepagala et al. (2005), Ratheesh et al. (2009), Fadlalla et al. (2011)

Safsaf, Safsaaf baladi

Bark, leaves

Decoction of the bark or infusion of the leaves as a general analgesic, tonic, febrifuge, to relieve reumathic pain. External use as analgesic

–

Antibacterial, antifungal, algaecide

0.05

0.6

Hussain et al. (2011)

Leaves, fruits, branches

Diuretic, for syphilis Infusion of the leaves and fruits as analgesic. Young branches chewed for teeth ache

Analgesic, anticonvulsivant, antiulcerogenic, hypolipidemic, antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, decreases fertility

0.05

0.4

Trabut (1935), Bellakhdar (1978), Ayensu (1979); Khatak et al. (2010)

Aerial parts

Infusion as tonic, for dementia, fits of – epilepsy, hysteria

Antioxidant, neuroprotective, antifungal

0.05

0.8

Chaudhuri et al. (2004),Shinomol et al. (2011), Howes and Houghton (2012),

Aerial parts

Infusion as muscular analgesic, sedative, for fits of epilepsy and other convulsions Leaves are boiled with vinegar and given as analgesic, for Parkinson’s symptoms, insomnia, hallucination Cigarettes made with the leaves are smoked as analgesic, sedative, antipyretic, for Parkinson’s symptoms Infusion is given as analgesic; fruits are eaten to stimulate libido Infusion of leaves and fruits as analgesic, sedative, narcotic

Asthma, cough, rheumathism

Analgesic, parasympathetic antagonist, cytotoxic

0.21

Cigarettes made with the leaves are smoked for asthma or cough

Parasympathetic antagonist

0.21

0.19 Boulos (1983), Khalili and Atyabi (2004), Ahmad et al. (2009), Bruneton (2001) 0.19 Nauroy (1954), Boulos (1983), Bruneton (2001)

Cigarettes made with the leaves are smoked for asthma or cough

Parasympathetic antagonist

–

For cough, allergic symptoms, as blood purifier Liver diseases, inflammation

Hypoglycaemic, antimalarial, cytotoxic 0.21

Shagar en nabq, Sidr

SALVADORACEAE Salvadora Arak, persica L. Meswak

SCROPHULARIACEAE Bacopa monnieri Wedwad (L.) Pennell SOLANACEAE Datura Taturah, stramonium L. Nefir

Aerial part, fruits, bark

Hyoscyamus albus L.

Bing, Houbbail

Leaves

Hyoscyamus muticus L.

Sakaran, Semm elfaar Awsag, Awsaag Enab eldeeb, Enab el thalab

Aerial parts

Lycium shawii Roem. Solanum nigrum L.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal UMBELLIFERAE Apium graveolens L. Coriandrum sativum L.

Aerial parts Leaves, fruits

Nausea, diarrhoea. External use for skin cleanliness

CNS depressant, analgesic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, antipyretic, antitumoral

0.21

–

Boulos (1983), Adzu et al. (2003), Abdel-Zaher et al. (2005), Amin and Mahmoud-Ghoneim (2009), Hadizadeh et al. (2009)

Boulos (1983), Bruneton (2001)

0.09 Shabana et al. (1990), Abdel-Sattar et al. (2009), Mothana et al. (2011) 0.05 Trabut (1935), Bellakhdar (1978), Boulos (1983), Perez et al. (1998), Batanouny et al. (1999), Bruneton (2001), An et al. (2006), Jainu and Devi (2006), Ravi and Saleem (2009) 0.2 Trabut (1935), Bellakhdar (1978), Boulos (1983), Bhattacharya et al. (2000)

Sem elfiraakh, Aneb ed-dib

Seeds

External use as analgesic on painful areas (inflamed skin, boils, scabies)

–

Adaptogenic, ansiolytic, antidepressant, hepatoprotective

0.05

Karafs, Kerfes el ma Kuzbarah, Debsha

Leaves, fruits Seeds, fruits

Leaves and fruits as analgesic, sedative, relaxant, antidepressant Seeds and ripe fruits as stimulant, aphrodisiac, for migraine, fits of hysteria

Rheumatism, arthritis, gout

Antispasmodic, diuretic

0.21


Diuretic, antihelminthic, digestive, antiinflammatory. External use for ear ache, burnt areas, bites, boils

Antispasmodic, carminative, aperitive, 0.21 eupeptic


Smooth muscle relaxant

0.6

0.05



RHAMNACEAE Ziziphus spinachristi (L.) Willd.

Aqel et al. (1991a, 1991b) 9

0.14 Trabut (1935), Bellakhdar (1978); Batanouny et al. (1999), Kim et al. (2011), Singh et al. (2012) 0.21 Emenagogue, galactogogue, for abortion, Aphrodisiac, antitumoral for impotence in men, gonorrhoea, overflow incontinence, leprosy. External use for skin irritation

0.09 Boulos (1983), Batanouny et al. (1999), Shahverdi et al. (2005), Berrougui et al. (2006), Farouk et al. (2008)

Tribulus terrestris L.

Dakn Alshikh, Hasak

Fruits, seeds, flowers, stem

Seeds as analgesic; infusion of the leaves for fits of epilepsy. Leaves are burnt and fume inhaled for headache and CNS diseases Dried fruits and seeds as analgesic, aphrodisiac, tonic, to improve memory, alleviate several CNS disorders. It may cause insomnia ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Peganum Harmal, harmala L. Haramlaan

Leaves, seeds

CNS stimulant, analgesic, vasodilatory, 0.21 antimicrobial, antiviral, antitumoral

Boulos (1983), Lai et al. (2006), Casanova et al. (2008), De Martino et al. (2009) 0.05 Infusion or decoction is obtained and – kept for one night before being taken as sedative, relaxant, for insomnia Rigl elhamaam, Ben nout VERBENACEAE Verbena officinalis L.

Shamar, Besbasa Foeniculum vulgare (L.) Mill.

Whole plant

Antioxidant, neuroprotective, proapoptotic, antifungal

0.6 0.05 Digestive, diuretic Respiratory diseases (asthma, common cold), diuretic

Antispasmodic, carminative, for cough, diuretic Shama elgabal, Kalakh Ferula sinaica Boiss.

The plant is given as tonic. Gum from Whole plant, gum the rhizome directly used or macerated in water as sedative, for fits of epilepsy and hysteria Fruits, Infusion of the fruits and root as root analgesic, stimulant, to improve memory

Others CNS

0.6

Bruneton (2001)

References Use UV frequency Pharmacological activity Ethnopharmacological use Part used Common name Family, scientific name


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66


10

deposited in the Herbarium at the University of Cairo (CAI), Department of Botany; several of them were also deposited in the MAF Herbarium at the Faculty of Pharmacy, UCM, Madrid (Spain). 2.2. Data analysis I/P index (number of interview/inhabitant, in percentage) has been calculated in order to know whether the number of informants is suitable to the scientific validity of the obtained results (Muntané, 2005). Quantitative analysis is performed to allow comparison with other ethnobotanical studies. The calculated indices are: Use value (UV) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF). Use value is the ratio between the number of citations per specie and the number of informants (Phillips and Gentry, 1993). The degree of reliability of the uses claimed is determined by the informant consensus factor (Trotter and Logan, 1986) which was calculated for the different CNS ailment categories included in the study: analgesic, sedative, stimulant and anticonvulsivant. ICF value resulted as the quotient between the number of use reports minus the number of used taxa and the number of use reports minus one: ICF values will be close to 0 value when plants are chosen randomly or when informants do not exchange information about their use; values will be higher (close to 1) when there is a well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or when information is given between the informants (Akerele, 1988; Kloutusos et al., 2001; Abu-Irmaileh and Afifi, 2003). In other words, the medicinal plants that are presumed to be effective in treating a certain disease have higher ICF values (Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007). All the information is compiled and included in a database in Microsoft Accesss to relate the information concerning taxa and medicinal uses to bibliographic references.

3. Results and discussion Information obtained from Bedouins was compared between areas and tribes for accuracy. Data were considered as reliable when at least two independent people gave the same information for the same specie. If the medicinal use was mentioned only once, this information was kept for posterior validation. It is remarkable the difficulty of obtaining information on the most adequate dosage for one concrete disease. The informants usually ignore interactions with other remedies and the period of validity for the herbal preparation. Most of the recorded remedies are contraindicated during pregnancy. In our study, the value for I/P index is 0.18% which is higher than the one considered as minimal for a territory in Southern Europe (0.10%) (Muntané, 2005). For this reason, the interviewed population can be considered as satisfactory. 3.1. Medicinal plants, plant parts and methods of preparation Data on the traditional medicinal use of more than 491 vegetal species in the Sinai Peninsula are obtained; 101 of these species are applied for the treatment of CNS disorders as sedative, antiepileptogenic, anticonvulsivant, analgesic or narcotic. They belong to 39 botanical families, mainly Compositae and Labiatae (19.8% and 15.8%, respectively). Five of the reported species are endemic to Sinai (Ballota kaiseri Tackh., Ferula sinaica Boiss., Primula boveana Decne ex Duby in A. DC., Rosa arabica Crép., and Thymus decussatus Benth.) (Table 1). Haplophyllum tuberculatum, Mentha longifolia and Teucrium polium are the most cited species (more than five different informants) and considered of great value because of their variety



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

11

4. Conclusions

Table 2 Informant consensus factor values of CNS ailment categories. Category

Use citation

(%) of all species

ICF

Analgesic Sedative Stimulant Anticonvulsivant

48 45 28 22

47.5 44.5 27.7 21.8

0.53 0.56 0.73 0.79

of beneficial effects. Achillea fragrantissima, Achillea santolina, Artemisia inculta, Artemisia judaica, Thymus capitatus and Thymus decussatus were cited by all informants. Bedouins collect different parts of the plants to obtain the medicinal preparation; spontaneous plants are more frequently harvested than cultivated ones. The most frequent parts used are leaves and aerial parts in general, although roots are also widely cited. In many occasions, vegetal material is mixed with other ingredients such as sugar, honey or milk to easy its consumption or application. According to the method of preparation, Bedouins follow several rules to preserve the remedy efficacy. The oldest healers have more restrictive instructions such as the time of the day to collect the plant. Methods of preparation are usually simple: infusion, decoction or maceration from comminuted herbal substance for oral administration, water being the most used solvent. Intranasal administration is also employed, while topical application is used to treat skin or articular disorders.

3.2. Ethnopharmacological uses All the listed species are used to treat CNS disorders such as nervousness, sleep disorders, convulsions or epilepsy, between others. Apart from these uses, gastrointestinal disorders (68 species, 67.3%) and respiratory diseases (43 species, 42.57%) are also frequently mentioned by informants. The traditional use of these species is supported by pharmacological studies only in a few cases such as Artemisia judaica, Salvia aegyptiaca or Mentha longifolia. There are no pharmacological studies that support the traditional use for 22 species (21.78%), while several studies demonstrate other pharmacological activities different from the traditional use of the plant. The obtained use values (UV) shown in Table 1 indicate that seven species present a use value up to 0.8. Among them, Bacopa monnieri, Globularia arabica, Lavandula pubescens and Pluchea dioscoridis were used by Bedouins to relieve fits of epilepsy; Moringa peregrina and Papaver decaisnei are mainly used as analgesic. In the present study, ICF values range between 0.79 and 0.53 (Table 2). These values can be considered as medium-high when compared with those obtained for similar studies; in the study by Akerreta et al. (2007) the ICF value was 0.65, considering it as a high value although it was lower than others (0.85 and 0.91 for a Portuguese and a Catalan region, respectively (Bonet and Vallès, 2003; Camejo-Rodrigues et al., 2003). In the study by Tetik et al. (2013) in a Turkey region, values range between 0.72 and 0.27; values are lower in the study conducted by Upadhyay et al. (2011) on the ethno-veterinary uses of some plants in Rajasthan (India), between 0.61 and 0.10. In our work, anticonvulsivant category has the highest ICF value (0.79), followed by stimulant, sedative and analgesic ones. As ICF values indicate the degree of knowledge shared on the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of one specific disease, it could be deducted from the obtained values that this degree of knowledge between Bedouins is high.

Medicinal use of herbal preparations in the Egyptian culture is documented since 1900 b.C. in the papyrus medical manuscripts. “Egyptian pharmacopoeia” included remedies from vegetal, mineral and animal origin, with more than 700 drugs in order to treat or to relieve more than 200 different diseases. The same remedy may be used for different purposes or in different ways when cited in different locations; moreover, the evolution of traditional medicine in a specific area is conditioned by its geographical characteristics that influence the vegetation in the natural environment. Bedouins are the main inhabitants in Sinai desert. Because of the severe environmental conditions, they usually migrate from one place to another in search of water and food and depend on traditional ways of living, and so they use the plants around them as food, for medicinal purposes, and even as energy source. In this work, traditional medicinal use for CNS disorders is documented for 101 species growing in Sinai Peninsula. Methods of preparation and administration are alike many other traditional cultures even from different continents (De Feo, 1992; Camejo- Q4 Rodrigues et al., 2003; Guarrera, 2006; Al-Qura’n, 2009; Akerreta et al., 2010; Rehecho et al., 2011; Packer et al., 2012). The calculated values for the relative importance value of plant species and informant consensus factor in this study indicate that the obtained data are reliable. The high number of documented species demonstrates that traditional medicine with herbal remedies is currently in use and focus attention on the need to preserve this source of knowledge as the transmission of this information to young Bedouins tends to disappear. Our results allow the identification of those plants that are most likely to be effective and the approach to identify which plants within a folk pharmacopoeia deserve a special attention as possible sources of new medicinally interesting compounds. Finally, several of the species uses are supported by pharmacological studies that endorse their traditional use and once more demonstrate the importance of traditional medicine in the search of new biologically active compounds.

Uncited reference Kaur and Kapoor (2002).

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