Behavioural Processes, 9 (1984) 255-260 Elsevier
KXPEBIHENTAL
NOPELTY
MD
255
TONIC
IMMOBILITY
IN CEICKENS
(CALLUS DCWISTICIJS)
R. BRYAN JONES Agricultural Midlothian
and
Food
Research
Council's
Poultry
Research
Centre,
Roslin,
in chickens
(Gallus
EH25 9PS, U.K.
(Accepted
12 September
1983)
ABSTRACT Jones, R.B. Experimental novelty and tonic domesticus). Behav. Processes 9: 255-260.
immobility
The tonic immobility reactions of individually-caged adult hens were observed in familiar or novel environments when the experimenter wore either a familiar or unfamiliar coat. Birds tested in isolation in an unfamiliar environment showed longer tonic immobility than did those tested in their familiar environment where they could still see and hear their neighbours. Tonic immobility was significantly prolonged in both test environments if the experimenter wore an unfamiliar coat. The potentiation of tonic immobility by novel aspects of the experimenter's appearance may thus be superimposed upon that elicited by social isolation and novelty of the physical environment. Key
domestic
words:
fowl, experimenter,
fear, novelty,
tonic immobility.
INTRODUCTION Tonic
immobility
restraint
external
reaction
et
important
with
It
is
isolation
the
primary However,
1973).
equivocal. differing
cause the
degrees
of
familiar
(Rovee
0376-6357/84/$03.00
et
of
the
effects
al.,
seven-day-old,
environmental
Q 1984 Elsevier
(Salzen,
environmental
novelty,
shapes
chicks
showing
varying
Publishers
B.V.
fear
to novelty
and was
are from
thought
to
Rovee
and
Luciano,
on TI
are
somewhat
selectively
attenuated reactions
the
as an
Separation
responded
and prolonged
However,
Science
1963; novelty
1977;
of TI.
b).
chicks
terminal
positive
its
views
and exposure 1983a,
in domestic
reaction of
geometric 1973).
Jones,
responsivethe
for
who
the duration
environment
immobility
but not
Three-,
of
tonic
(1977)
physical
1967; Gallup,
evidence
by Gallup
1968;
by
as
regarded
(Ratner,
for manipulating
(Bronson,
induced
state of reduced
commonly
substantial
The
from the social
prolonged
response
responses
is reviewed
condition
fear-elicitors
companions
ones
1981). fear
antecedent
Sudden
presence
unlearned
by a catatonic-like
stimulation.
al.,
relationship
be
an
in a chain of anti-predator
Thompson
potent
is
and characterised
to
ness
(TI)
degree
TI
to
in the
to unfamiliar of
similarity
256
between
test
(Rovee
and
and
rearing
Luciano,
1973).
An essential restraint
condition
by
elicits
fear
Duncan,
1978;
could
the
the
differences
Duncan,
1977).
exposing
the
them
’
from
anecdotal
a
person
to
responses
novelty
value
The
present
familiar
when
the
or
unfamiliar
al.,
of
chickens reported
an unfamiliar
experimenter
experimenter
known
on
examined situations
and
when it
they
may
be
stimulus-specific beings
and
1976;
they
did
to
Murphy
laying not
coat.
effects
hens
by
record
Indeed,
of
a and
the apart
manipulating
the
chickens.
reactions
when
TI
grouped
familiar
the
in
TI
in
often
environmental
human
but
a
of
fear
the
longer
(Murphy,
coat
wore
se Murphy
However,
fear
physical
per
1976;
a frightening
to
elicited
chicks
is
being
(Sefton,
seemingly
been
is
human
as
because
3-day-old
immobility
1972).
simply
(1978)
in
showed
have
little
unfamiliar
a
fowl
chickens
et
TL
tonic
responses
in
the
study
and
other,
Hunt
evidence, of
to
domestic
(Gallup
stimuli and
on
of
experimenter
overt
effect
induction
the
any
Hill
no
Exposure
1981)
the
inanimate
birds
in
al.,
like
in of
et
regard
much
variety
the
experimenter
to
stimulus,
avoidance
Jones
presumptuous
for
had
experimenter.
and
see
boxes
the
of
adult
experimenter
hens
tested
in
a
familiar
or
wore
coat.
METHODS Golden cross) to
Comet were
laying
reared
individual
cages
The
age. supplied At
and
several
described
were
measured
age
deemed first remained maximum Four
the
:
head
could not
and not
to
in scores
be
be
05:OO
Rhode from
of
a
to
Island
hatch
3-tier
White
until
19:00
h
and
commercial
their
battery
and of
900
situations
s
number
at
food
transfer
16
and
reflexive duration
s were were
and the no
5
weeks
water
of were
of
given used:
of
for
latency The
cradle
given
over
the
and
duration was
placed
of of
rights
itself.
the
for
15
induction
number
bird
if
was
to the
test
a
such
bird
latency
min
is
restraint),
generally
Conversely,
TI.
with and
from
the
its
parameters
of
induction
0 were
movements
(1)
following
changes),
at
on
covered
latency
the
bird
immobility
movements
attempts
scores
cradle
periods
until
i.e.
duration head
the
postural TI,
after
s
s;
scanning
or of
The
(15 10
the
induces
1981).
least
placing
wooden
reliably
(alert,
the
by
U-shaped
Faure,
at
than
showed
a
inductions,
of
movement,
and
in
and
lasting
attained
induced
was
apparatus
(Jones
susceptible
movement TI
15
This
TI
rather
head
for
cloth.
obtain
first
test
tier
from
x
pens
immobility
elsewhere
movements/s TI
floor
middle
tonic it
of
nature
head If
of
to the
gross
the lasted
restraining
fully
until
in
Hampshire
in
libitum.
layers
necessary
(New
groups
photoperiod ad
30 weeks
back
hens in
the bird
period,
respectively. on
a table
level
257
with
and 40 cm away
hear
its neighbours.
normally
worn
(2) The
cradle
green was
coat,
The
was
placed
bird was in visual, the familiar
coat.
the
four
were
using
to logarithms
similar
situated
in an attempt
see and
similar
familiar
to that
to the birds.
coat but
in a separate
wore
a
the colour
room so that the
isolation.
The experimenter
tested in the separate
room
green coat.
amounts
were
a two-way
coat
could
but the experimenter
auditory,
of handling
and once only
Tests
situations.
compared
a white
and, hence,
(4) The bird was
individually
the bird
to that of the white
wore an unfamiliar
All the birds received tested
similar
though not complete
and the experimenter
bird was
wore
attendants
cradl e was
white
cage where
in the same position
the style was (3) The
home
experimenter
by the poultry
unfamiliar.
wore
from the bird's
performed
analysis
prior to testing.
and 20 birds each were in random
of variance
order.
following
Each
tested
The
in
results
transformation
to achieve normality.
RESULTS There were no significant number
of
either
the environment
number
of alert head
movement
inductions
and
differences
(Table
and/or
between
of
in susceptibility
However,
increasing
the experimenter
movements
the duration
interactions
1).
and
increased
tonic
treatments,
as measured
the novelty
significantly the
latency
immobility.
There
by the
value
decreased
of the
to the first head
were
no significant
all effects were additive.
DISCUSSION Separation (Bronson,
1968; Jones,
prolongs
1973)
considered
but
somewhat
laying
hens
longer durations environment yet known
seems
whether
alert high as
tested
et
of
(see
likely. al.,
novelty
Jones,
observed
levels of extraneous fearfulness.
in
in an unfamiliar
of TI was or
TI
their are
1982)
in the familiar
absence
as measured
by
provided of
susceptibility
to TI
generally
low, may simply represent
very
the
on
tested
to
external
of
latter
frequency may
of
reflect
birds as well
treatment inductions,
a floor effect.
social
the
stimulation
high
by neighbouring
the number
showed
It is not
to either
test environment
significant
were study
in their familiar
although
relatively
TI
present
environment
due primarily
receptive
and
the
their neighbours.
interaction
isolation
1963; Rovee and
novelty In
than did those
stimulation The
that social
(Salzen,
Introduction).
still see and hear
Birds
1980;
chicks
environmental
in isolation
the potentiation
head movements
lower
effects
they could
are both fear-elicitors
It is well established
equivocal
environmental
more
(Gallup
the
to novelty
at least in young
of tonic immobility
where
isolation,
and exposure
1983a).
tonic immobility,
Luciano,
adult
from companions
effects which
on were
258
259
The presence et
present
and
findings
experimenter, increased Thus,
of human
1981)
al.,
with
appearance
effects
coat,
upon
the
prolonged
those
(Sefton, et
al.,
novelty
1976; Jones 1972).
value
TI and, hence,
and unfamiliar
on TI of novel
environment,
(Gallup
increasing
in both the familiar
be superimposed
of the physical
fear in chickens
immobility
that
an unfamiliar
fearfulness
may
elicits
tonic
demonstrate
the potentiating
novelty
beings
enhances
aspects
elicited
of
The the
presumably
test environments.
of the experimenter's
by social
isolation
and
at least in chickens.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful
to Mr A.J. Black for his technical
assistance.
REFERENCES Bronson, G.W. 1968. The fear of novelty. Psychol. Bull., 69: 350-358. Gallup, G.G. Jr. 1977. Tonic immobility: The role of fear and predation. Psychol. Rec., 27: 41-61. Gallup, G.G. Jr., Cummings, W.H. and Nash, R.F. 1972. The experimenter as an independent variable in studies of animal hypnosis in chickens (Gallus gallus). Anim. Behav., 20: 166-169. Gallup, G.G. Jr., Boren, J.L., Suarez, S.D., Wallnau, L.B. and Gagliardi, G..J. 1980. Evidence for the integrity of central processing during tonic immobility. Physiol. Behav., 25: 189-194. Hill, A.T. and Hunt, J.R. 1978. Layer cage depth effects on nervousness, feathering, shell breakage, performance, and net egg returns. Poult. Sci., 57: 1204-1216. Jones, R.B. 1982. Tonic immobility in the domestic fowl: effects of social rank and the presence of other birds. IRCS Med. Sci., 10: 558-559. Jones, R.B. 1983a. Social and environmental aspects of fear in the domestic fowl. In R. Zayan and I.J.H. Duncan (Eds), Cognitive Aspects of Social Behaviour in the Domestic Fowl. Amsterdam, Elsevier, in press. Jones, R.B. 1983b. Fear responses in domestic chicks as a function of the social environment. Behav. Processes, 8: 309-325. Jones, R.B., Duncan, I.J.H. and Hughes, B.O. 1981. The assessment of fear in domestic hens exposed to a looming human stimulus. Behav. Processes, 6: 121-133. Jones, R.B. and Faure, J.M. 1981. Sex and strain comparisons of tonic immobility ("righting time") in the domestic fowl and the effects of various methods of induction. Behav. Processes, 6: 47-55. Murphy, L.B. 1976. A Study of the Behavioural Expression of Fear and Exploration in Two Stocks of Domestic Fowl. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 343 pp. Murphy, L.B. and Duncan, I.J.H. 1977. Attempts to modify the responses of domestic fowl towards human beings. 1. The association of human contact with a food reward. Appl. Anim. Ethol., 3: 321-334. Murphy, L.B. and Duncan, I.J.H. 1978. Attempts to modify the responses of domestic fowl towards human beings. II. The effect of early experience. Appl. Anim. Ethol., 4: 5-12. Ratner, S.C. 1967. Comparative aspects of hypnosis. In J.E. Gordon (Ed.), Handbook in Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. New York: Macmillan, pp.550-587. influences on Rovee, C.K., Agnello, A.M. and Smith, B. 1973. Environmental tonic immobility in three- and seven-day-old chicks (Gallus gallus). Psychol. Rec., 23: 539-546.
Rowe, C.K. and Luciano, D.P. 1973. Rearing influences on tonic immobility in three-day-old chicks (Gallus gallus). J. Camp. Physiol. Psychol., 83: 351-354. Salzen, E.A. 1963. Imprinting and the immobility reactions of domestic fowl. Anim. Behav., 11: 66-71. Sefton, A.E. 1976. The interactions of cage size, cage level, social density, fearfulness and production of Single Comb White Leghorns. Poult. Sci., 55: 1922-1926. Thompson, R.K.R., Foltin, R.W., Boylan, R.J., Sweet, A., Graves, C.A. and Lowitz, C.E. 1981. Tonic immobility in Japanese quail can reduce the probability of sustained attack by cats. Anim. Learn. Behav., 9: 145-149.
KXPEBIHENTAL
NOPELTY
MD
255
TONIC
IMMOBILITY
IN CEICKENS
(CALLUS DCWISTICIJS)
R. BRYAN JONES Agricultural Midlothian
and
Food
Research
Council's
Poultry
Research
Centre,
Roslin,
in chickens
(Gallus
EH25 9PS, U.K.
(Accepted
12 September
1983)
ABSTRACT Jones, R.B. Experimental novelty and tonic domesticus). Behav. Processes 9: 255-260.
immobility
The tonic immobility reactions of individually-caged adult hens were observed in familiar or novel environments when the experimenter wore either a familiar or unfamiliar coat. Birds tested in isolation in an unfamiliar environment showed longer tonic immobility than did those tested in their familiar environment where they could still see and hear their neighbours. Tonic immobility was significantly prolonged in both test environments if the experimenter wore an unfamiliar coat. The potentiation of tonic immobility by novel aspects of the experimenter's appearance may thus be superimposed upon that elicited by social isolation and novelty of the physical environment. Key
domestic
words:
fowl, experimenter,
fear, novelty,
tonic immobility.
INTRODUCTION Tonic
immobility
restraint
external
reaction
et
important
with
It
is
isolation
the
primary However,
1973).
equivocal. differing
cause the
degrees
of
familiar
(Rovee
0376-6357/84/$03.00
et
of
the
effects
al.,
seven-day-old,
environmental
Q 1984 Elsevier
(Salzen,
environmental
novelty,
shapes
chicks
showing
varying
Publishers
B.V.
fear
to novelty
and was
are from
thought
to
Rovee
and
Luciano,
on TI
are
somewhat
selectively
attenuated reactions
the
as an
Separation
responded
and prolonged
However,
Science
1963; novelty
1977;
of TI.
b).
chicks
terminal
positive
its
views
and exposure 1983a,
in domestic
reaction of
geometric 1973).
Jones,
responsivethe
for
who
the duration
environment
immobility
but not
Three-,
of
tonic
(1977)
physical
1967; Gallup,
evidence
by Gallup
1968;
by
as
regarded
(Ratner,
for manipulating
(Bronson,
induced
state of reduced
commonly
substantial
The
from the social
prolonged
response
responses
is reviewed
condition
fear-elicitors
companions
ones
1981). fear
antecedent
Sudden
presence
unlearned
by a catatonic-like
stimulation.
al.,
relationship
be
an
in a chain of anti-predator
Thompson
potent
is
and characterised
to
ness
(TI)
degree
TI
to
in the
to unfamiliar of
similarity
256
between
test
(Rovee
and
and
rearing
Luciano,
1973).
An essential restraint
condition
by
elicits
fear
Duncan,
1978;
could
the
the
differences
Duncan,
1977).
exposing
the
them
’
from
anecdotal
a
person
to
responses
novelty
value
The
present
familiar
when
the
or
unfamiliar
al.,
of
chickens reported
an unfamiliar
experimenter
experimenter
known
on
examined situations
and
when it
they
may
be
stimulus-specific beings
and
1976;
they
did
to
Murphy
laying not
coat.
effects
hens
by
record
Indeed,
of
a and
the apart
manipulating
the
chickens.
reactions
when
TI
grouped
familiar
the
in
TI
in
often
environmental
human
but
a
of
fear
the
longer
(Murphy,
coat
wore
se Murphy
However,
fear
physical
per
1976;
a frightening
to
elicited
chicks
is
being
(Sefton,
seemingly
been
is
human
as
because
3-day-old
immobility
1972).
simply
(1978)
in
showed
have
little
unfamiliar
a
fowl
chickens
et
TL
tonic
responses
in
the
study
and
other,
Hunt
evidence, of
to
domestic
(Gallup
stimuli and
on
of
experimenter
overt
effect
induction
the
any
Hill
no
Exposure
1981)
the
inanimate
birds
in
al.,
like
in of
et
regard
much
variety
the
experimenter
to
stimulus,
avoidance
Jones
presumptuous
for
had
experimenter.
and
see
boxes
the
of
adult
experimenter
hens
tested
in
a
familiar
or
wore
coat.
METHODS Golden cross) to
Comet were
laying
reared
individual
cages
The
age. supplied At
and
several
described
were
measured
age
deemed first remained maximum Four
the
:
head
could not
and not
to
in scores
be
be
05:OO
Rhode from
of
a
to
Island
hatch
3-tier
White
until
19:00
h
and
commercial
their
battery
and of
900
situations
s
number
at
food
transfer
16
and
reflexive duration
s were were
and the no
5
weeks
water
of were
of
given used:
of
for
latency The
cradle
given
over
the
and
duration was
placed
of of
rights
itself.
the
for
15
induction
number
bird
if
was
to the
test
a
such
bird
latency
min
is
restraint),
generally
Conversely,
TI.
with and
from
the
its
parameters
of
induction
0 were
movements
(1)
following
changes),
at
on
covered
latency
the
bird
immobility
movements
attempts
scores
cradle
periods
until
i.e.
duration head
the
postural TI,
after
s
s;
scanning
or of
The
(15 10
the
induces
1981).
least
placing
wooden
reliably
(alert,
the
by
U-shaped
Faure,
at
than
showed
a
inductions,
of
movement,
and
in
and
lasting
attained
induced
was
apparatus
(Jones
susceptible
movement TI
15
This
TI
rather
head
for
cloth.
obtain
first
test
tier
from
x
pens
immobility
elsewhere
movements/s TI
floor
middle
tonic it
of
nature
head If
of
to the
gross
the lasted
restraining
fully
until
in
Hampshire
in
libitum.
layers
necessary
(New
groups
photoperiod ad
30 weeks
back
hens in
the bird
period,
respectively. on
a table
level
257
with
and 40 cm away
hear
its neighbours.
normally
worn
(2) The
cradle
green was
coat,
The
was
placed
bird was in visual, the familiar
coat.
the
four
were
using
to logarithms
similar
situated
in an attempt
see and
similar
familiar
to that
to the birds.
coat but
in a separate
wore
a
the colour
room so that the
isolation.
The experimenter
tested in the separate
room
green coat.
amounts
were
a two-way
coat
could
but the experimenter
auditory,
of handling
and once only
Tests
situations.
compared
a white
and, hence,
(4) The bird was
individually
the bird
to that of the white
wore an unfamiliar
All the birds received tested
similar
though not complete
and the experimenter
bird was
wore
attendants
cradl e was
white
cage where
in the same position
the style was (3) The
home
experimenter
by the poultry
unfamiliar.
wore
from the bird's
performed
analysis
prior to testing.
and 20 birds each were in random
of variance
order.
following
Each
tested
The
in
results
transformation
to achieve normality.
RESULTS There were no significant number
of
either
the environment
number
of alert head
movement
inductions
and
differences
(Table
and/or
between
of
in susceptibility
However,
increasing
the experimenter
movements
the duration
interactions
1).
and
increased
tonic
treatments,
as measured
the novelty
significantly the
latency
immobility.
There
by the
value
decreased
of the
to the first head
were
no significant
all effects were additive.
DISCUSSION Separation (Bronson,
1968; Jones,
prolongs
1973)
considered
but
somewhat
laying
hens
longer durations environment yet known
seems
whether
alert high as
tested
et
of
(see
likely. al.,
novelty
Jones,
observed
levels of extraneous fearfulness.
in
in an unfamiliar
of TI was or
TI
their are
1982)
in the familiar
absence
as measured
by
provided of
susceptibility
to TI
generally
low, may simply represent
very
the
on
tested
to
external
of
latter
frequency may
of
reflect
birds as well
treatment inductions,
a floor effect.
social
the
stimulation
high
by neighbouring
the number
showed
It is not
to either
test environment
significant
were study
in their familiar
although
relatively
TI
present
environment
due primarily
receptive
and
the
their neighbours.
interaction
isolation
1963; Rovee and
novelty In
than did those
stimulation The
that social
(Salzen,
Introduction).
still see and hear
Birds
1980;
chicks
environmental
in isolation
the potentiation
head movements
lower
effects
they could
are both fear-elicitors
It is well established
equivocal
environmental
more
(Gallup
the
to novelty
at least in young
of tonic immobility
where
isolation,
and exposure
1983a).
tonic immobility,
Luciano,
adult
from companions
effects which
on were
258
259
The presence et
present
and
findings
experimenter, increased Thus,
of human
1981)
al.,
with
appearance
effects
coat,
upon
the
prolonged
those
(Sefton, et
al.,
novelty
1976; Jones 1972).
value
TI and, hence,
and unfamiliar
on TI of novel
environment,
(Gallup
increasing
in both the familiar
be superimposed
of the physical
fear in chickens
immobility
that
an unfamiliar
fearfulness
may
elicits
tonic
demonstrate
the potentiating
novelty
beings
enhances
aspects
elicited
of
The the
presumably
test environments.
of the experimenter's
by social
isolation
and
at least in chickens.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful
to Mr A.J. Black for his technical
assistance.
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