Exploring the interplay between the motivational climate and goal orientation in predicting maximal oxygen uptake.

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Exploring the interplay between the motivational climate and goal orientation in predicting maximal oxygen uptake a

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Robert Buch , Christina G. L. Nerstad , Anders Aandstad & Reidar Säfvenbom

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Department of Physical Education, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway

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BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway

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The Norwegian Defense University College, Oslo, Norway Published online: 21 May 2015.

Click for updates To cite this article: Robert Buch, Christina G. L. Nerstad, Anders Aandstad & Reidar Säfvenbom (2015): Exploring the interplay between the motivational climate and goal orientation in predicting maximal oxygen uptake, Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1048522 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1048522

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Journal of Sports Sciences, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1048522

Exploring the interplay between the motivational climate and goal orientation in predicting maximal oxygen uptake

ROBERT BUCH1, CHRISTINA G. L. NERSTAD2, ANDERS AANDSTAD3 & REIDAR SÄFVENBOM1 Department of Physical Education, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway, 2BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway and 3The Norwegian Defense University College, Oslo, Norway

Downloaded by [Texas A & M International University] at 11:01 14 August 2015

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(Accepted 3 May 2015)

Abstract Drawing upon achievement goal theory, this study explored the interplay between the perceived motivational climate, achievement goals and objective measurements of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). The results of a study of 123 individuals from three Norwegian military academies revealed that under the condition of a high-performance orientation there is a stronger positive relationship between performance climate and VO2max for individuals reporting a low (rather than high)-mastery orientation. Furthermore, we found that for individuals with a high-mastery orientation there is a stronger positive relationship between mastery climate and VO2max for individuals reporting a low (rather than high)-performance orientation. These findings contribute to achievement goal theory by providing support for an interactionist person– environment fit perspective. Implications for future research and practice are discussed. Keywords: achievement goal orientation, motivational climate, performance climate, VO2max, physical performance

Achievement goal theory (AGT) (Nicholls, 1984, 1989) emphasises that individuals have different goals (or purposes) for engaging in achievement behaviour (Nerstad, Roberts, & Richardsen, 2013b). The demonstration and/or development of competence in order to meet the criteria of success inherent in that goal is what is crucial (Nicholls, 1984, 1989). AGT distinguishes between a mastery and a performance goal orientation. When driven by mastery goals, individuals feel successful when they advance their own ability through task mastery and skill development (Roberts, 2012). In contrast, more performance goal-oriented individuals feel successful when they demonstrate their own competence relative to others. This stream of research has shown that masteryoriented individuals are more likely to exhibit adaptive motivational patterns, whereas performanceoriented individuals are more likely to exhibit maladaptive motivational patterns (e.g. Roberts, 2012). AGT assumes that goal orientations are a function of the context, where achievement behaviour is influenced by the interplay of goal orientation and the perceived motivational climate (i.e. Ames, 1992b; Maehr & Zusho, 2009; Treasure & Roberts, 1998). The perceived motivational climate

refers to an individual’s perceptions of the extant criteria of success or failure in the environment (cf. Nerstad et al., 2013b) and can be characterised as involving more or less mastery and performance criteria. A mastery climate emphasises task mastery, skill development and cooperation, whereas a performance climate emphasises social comparison and interpersonal competition (Ames, 1992b). Prior research has shown that a mastery climate typically relates to greater effort (Lau & Nie, 2008; Van De Pol, Kavussanu, & Ring, 2012), enjoyment (e.g. Seifriz, Duda, & Chi, 1992; Van De Pol et al., 2012), team satisfaction (Walling, Duda, & Chi, 1993), perceived competence (Boyce, GanoOverway, & Campbell, 2009), positive attitudes towards the coach/leader (Cumming, Smoll, Smith, & Grossbard, 2007) and better performance (e.g. Nerstad, Roberts, & Richardsen, 2013a). Whereas a performance climate typically relates to tension, reduced positive attitudes towards the coach/leader, poorer performance and effort withdrawal (e.g. Cumming et al., 2007; Lau & Nie, 2008; Nerstad et al., 2013a; Van De Pol et al., 2012). While most research to date has dealt with the perceived motivational climate and dispositional

Correspondence: Robert Buch, Department of Physical Education, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien 220, 0863 Oslo, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] © 2015 Taylor & Francis


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goal orientations in isolation (Roberts, 2012; Treasure & Roberts, 1998), researchers have started arguing the importance of examining interactions between the two (e.g. Ames, 1992b; Lau & Nie, 2008; Newton & Duda, 1999; Roberts, 2012; Treasure & Roberts, 1998). Due to the relational complexity between performance orientation and mastery orientation (high–high/high–low/low–high/ low–low) within and between persons and the distinction between performance-oriented and masteryoriented climate, the person–environment fit perspective (e.g. Newton & Duda, 1999; Pervin, 1968) may be hard to comprehend. Although few studies have tested this interplay empirically (Roberts, 2012), existing research is generally supportive of such an interactionist approach (Maehr & Zusho, 2009; Newton & Duda, 1999; Roberts, 2012; Treasure & Roberts, 1998). Newton and Duda (1999), for instance, found an interaction between a mastery climate and a mastery orientation, suggesting a stronger positive relationship between mastery climate and the belief that effort is the cause of success for individuals with low, rather than high, mastery orientation. Similarly, Treasure and Roberts (1998) found an interaction between a performance climate and performance orientation, suggesting that performance orientation accentuates the relationship between performance climate and the belief that ability is the cause of success. Still, the moderating roles of mastery and performance orientations are not always consistent (e.g. Harwood & Swain, 1998). This may suggest that the moderating roles of mastery and performance orientations are themselves contingent. One of the assumptions of traditional AGT (Nicholls, 1984, 1989) is that mastery and performance goals are orthogonal. An individual can thus be low in both performance and mastery orientation, or high in both, or high in one and low in the other (Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002; Van De Pol et al., 2012). Therefore, it is likely that the moderating role of one goal orientation (e.g. performance orientation) is contingent upon the level of the other goal orientation (e.g. mastery orientation) (cf. Darnon, Dompnier, Gilliéron, & Butera, 2010). It may be that a performance orientation only moderates the relationship between a performance climate and an individual outcome when accompanied by low levels of a mastery orientation because the value orientation of the performance climate matches the (performance-oriented) values of the person (cf. Pervin, 1968). A mastery orientation may therefore for the same reason only moderate a mastery climate– outcome relationship when accompanied by low levels of performance orientation. However, when individuals are highly mastery and performance oriented at the same time (e.g. elite athletes) (e.g. Pensgaard & Roberts, 2000) and are at high mastery

or performance climates, there is both a fit and misfit between the person and the situation. More specifically, under high mastery climate conditions, high individual performance and mastery orientation, individuals may simultaneously aim at mastering a task/ activity more than others master, and mastering the task on a self-referenced basis (cf. Darnon et al., 2010). Because the reward structure of a mastery climate values growth and mastery, individuals may focus even more on those values as important to be able to perform. On the contrary, under conditions of high-performance climate, individual performance and mastery orientation, individual mastery orientation may rather “serve” the performance orientation by enhancing the likelihood for the person to perform the task better than others manage (cf. Darnon et al., 2010). For example, individuals may choose to work with difficult and challenging tasks to develop their skills and thereby gain competitive advantage. Further, when at a high-performance climate, it seems reasonable to suggest that individuals focus even more on other-referenced (social comparison) criteria of success. Accordingly, in answering calls for further research examining the complex relationship of goal orientations and the perceived motivational climate (e.g. Roberts, 2012; Treasure & Roberts, 1998), the purpose of the present study was to explore how a performance and a mastery climate interacts with performance orientation and mastery orientation to affect achievement behaviour in an achievement context. Specifically, we relied on a person–environment fit perspective (e.g. Newton & Duda, 1999; Pervin, 1968) and developed a more fine-grained interaction model, one which predicts that when performance orientation is high a performance climate should have a stronger positive relationship with maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) for individuals with low, rather than high, levels of a mastery orientation. Furthermore, we predicted that when mastery orientation is high a mastery climate should have a stronger positive relationship with VO2max for individuals with a low, rather than high, performance orientation. The intended contribution of our study is twofold. First, we intend to contribute to the AGT literature by answering calls for more research on the salience of the goal orientation–motivational climate interplay in relation to outcomes (e.g. Roberts, 2012). This is important because we need to understand the dynamic interplay of the individual as (s)he comes across situations over time to understand, influence or predict behaviour (DeShon & Gillespie, 2005; Hirst, Van Knippenberg, & Zhou, 2009; Lewin, 1935). Thus, we intend to extend previous studies which typically have dealt with these situational and personal variables primarily in isolation (cf. DeShon

Motivational climate, goal orientation and VO2max & Gillespie, 2005; Roberts, 2012; Treasure, 2001). Second, VO2max represents one of the best ways to measure exercise capacity and aerobic fitness (Vanhees et al., 2005), which is important for individuals’ everyday work capacity, health and wellbeing (e.g. Crews & Landers, 1987; Garber et al., 2011; Keller & Seraganian, 1984; Toker & Biron, 2012). Thus, advancing our knowledge of the conditions under which individuals achieve a high VO2max is important.


Theory and hypotheses Achievement contexts characterised by learning, skill development and mastery, or trying hard to do one’s best are typically referred to as a mastery climate (Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002). In contrast, achievement contexts that emphasise interpersonal competition, social comparison, public demonstration of ability and “winning” are typically referred to as performance climate (Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002). The two types of climates have the potential to affect the salience of specific goals, and they can result in different patterns of behaviour, affect, cognition and performance (Ames & Archer, 1988). The extant research demonstrates that a mastery climate is likely to be important for facilitating outcomes such as well-being, enjoyment, task perseverance, persistence and adaptive achievement strategies (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999; Roberts, 2012; Van De Pol et al., 2012). In addition, studies suggest positive relationships between a mastery climate and intrinsic motivation and physical activity behaviour (Parish & Treasure, 2003). In turn, higher levels of intrinsic motivation and physical training volume are likely to result in higher levels of maximal level of oxygen uptake (Dyrstad, Miller, & Hallén, 2007). In contrast, when social comparison, or “winning” (i.e. performance climate), is emphasised, individuals are more likely to focus on their ability (Ames, 1992b; Ames & Archer, 1988). Furthermore, a performance climate is likely to facilitate lower enjoyment, intrinsic motivation and involve concerns about normative performance and about the adequacy of one’s performance compared to noteworthy others (Cumming et al., 2007; Treasure & Roberts, 1998; Walling et al., 1993). Such a climate is shaped when the criteria of failure and success are other-referenced (Ames, 1992a; Roberts, 2012) and should promote an egoistic motivation (Nicholls, 1979) in which information relevant to social comparisons is particularly salient. While such a climate could increase VO2max by increasing more extrinsic or controlled types of motivation (Parish & Treasure, 2003), Vallerand, Gauvin, and Halliwell (1986) argued that a

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performance climate should initiate a decrease in intrinsic motivation because individuals in a performance climate participate for some form of external reward or entity rather than for the sake of the activity itself. Hence, a performance climate could also decrease VO2max by undermining intrinsic motivation, or the motivation to carry out an activity for its own sake, so as to experience the satisfaction and pleasure inherent in the activity (Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989; Vallerand, 1997). Indeed, prior research suggests a negative relationship between a performance climate and intrinsic motivation (e.g. Cumming et al., 2007; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999). The combined moderating roles of performance and mastery goal orientations As recently emphasised by Roberts (2012, p. 16), “we must not forget that some people function well in a performance climate”. AGT assumes that these individuals are those who are performance-oriented and who wish to demonstrate their superiority and competence to others (Roberts, 2012). However, an individual with a high-performance orientation can also be low or high in a mastery goal orientation, and vice versa (e.g. Van De Pol et al., 2012). In an integration of AGT and the person–environment fit or matching hypothesis (Pervin, 1968), we predict that a “match” between the situation (i.e. the nature of the motivational climate) and individual predispositions (i.e. goal orientation) is beneficial for the relationship between the motivational climate and aerobic performance in the form of VO2max. According to the person–environment fit perspective, performanceoriented individuals should respond more positively in a climate that “matches” their disposition, i.e. a performance climate (Newton & Duda, 1999). Similarly, mastery-oriented individuals should respond more positively in a mastery climate (Roberts, 2012). Drawing on the matching hypothesis, we therefore expect that a performance climate should relate positively and more strongly to VO2max among individuals with a high-performance orientation when combined with a low, rather than high, mastery orientation. More specifically, the situational emphasis on goal attainment, social comparison and interpersonal competition is likely to be more welcomed by the individual with a high-performance orientation and a low-mastery orientation. In this scenario, the other-referenced performance climate (Ames, 1992a; Roberts, 2012) may facilitate an egoistic motivation (Nicholls, 1979) that promotes VO2max. After all, individuals in a performance climate are continually having to demonstrate their superior ability vis-à-vis others (Cumming et al.,


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2007; Newton & Duda, 1999), and aerobic performance in the form of higher VO2max can represent a means to that end. In addition, because individuals with a low-mastery orientation are less likely to be intrinsically motivated (e.g. Ryan & Deci, 1989), participating in a performance climate for some form of external reward or entity, rather than for the sake of the activity itself, should be less likely to reduce VO2max by undermining intrinsic motivation under the condition of low-mastery orientation. Accordingly, perceiving a performance climate may not be motivationally maladaptive when accompanied by a high-performance orientation and a low-mastery orientation, hence the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 1: The relationship between performance climate and VO2max is moderated by performance orientation and mastery orientation. Specifically, when performance orientation is high, performance climate relates positively and more strongly to VO2max for individuals with low-mastery orientation than for those with highmastery orientation. Similarly, when the level of mastery orientation is high, a mastery climate is likely to be less welcomed by individuals with higher, rather than lower, levels of a performance orientation. In particular, with higher levels of a performance orientation, individuals feel increasingly competent when demonstrating their own competence relative to others, and the characteristics of a mastery climate (i.e. emphasis on participation, learning and trying hard to do one’s best) should to a lesser extent satisfy their need to outperform others. In addition, performance-oriented individuals are likely to have concerns regarding whether their ability is adequate (Treasure & Roberts, 1998; Walling et al., 1993), and a mastery climate may not provide relevant information (e.g. social comparisons) for these individuals in this respect. After all, the criteria of failure and success in a mastery climate are self-referenced and task-involving, rather than other-referenced and ego-involving (Ames, 1992b; Boyce et al., 2009). Accordingly, for individuals high in a mastery orientation, perceiving a mastery climate may not be as motivationally adaptive when accompanied by a highperformance orientation. Conversely, for predominately mastery-oriented individuals with a low-performance orientation, a mastery climate may be more welcomed and result in higher levels of VO2max because the criteria of success match the desire and intrinsic interest the highly masteryoriented individual has to improve and thereby feel successful (Nicholls, 1989; Van De Pol et al., 2012). Therefore, we hypothesise:

Hypothesis 2: The relationship between mastery climate and VO2max is moderated by mastery orientation and performance orientation. Specifically, when mastery orientation is high, mastery climate relates positively and more strongly to VO2max for individuals with low-performance orientation than for those with high-performance orientation.

Methods Participants and procedure Self-reported questionnaire data and physical test data for this study were collected from Norwegian cadets in three military academies at two points in time. Time 1 data were questionnaire data collected at the end of the cadets’ first year at the academy. Time 2 data were physical test data collected at the end of the second year. The participants were informed that the survey had been approved by the Norwegian Social Science Data Services and strict confidentiality was assured. At time 1, 248 individuals (84% response rate) returned the questionnaire. Of these, 123 (50% response rate) participated in the physical fitness test at time 2. The sample comprised 89.5% men and 10.5% women with a mean age of 23.6 years (SD = 2.63). Measures Perceived motivational climate. Performance climate (α = .79) and mastery climate (α = .76) was measured by means of the Norwegian version (Roberts & Ommundsen, 1996) of the Perception of Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (Seifriz et al., 1992). Responses were scored on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Goal orientation. To assess participants’ achievement goal orientations, we employed the Norwegian version (Roberts & Ommundsen, 1996) of the Perception of Success Questionnaire (Roberts, Treasure, & Balague, 1998). Respondents recorded their responses on a 5-point scale (1 = totally disagree; 5 = totally agree). Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). We measured VO2max at time 2 in line with the procedures by Dyrstad, Soltvedt, and Hallén (2006) using a mobile test laboratory placed at the Academy. Preceding the test, participants completed an ~20 min warm-up procedure. The test was performed on a treadmill using an automatic predefined stepwise protocol with a constant incline of 5.2%. The treadmill was calibrated on elevation and speed before the test. We set the initial speed individually (8–13 km ∙ h–1) so that fatigue would be expected to take place within 4–7 min of running. This duration should be


Motivational climate, goal orientation and VO2max sufficient to generate true VO2max values (Midgley, Bentley, Luttikholt, McNaughton, & Millet, 2008). Treadmill speed was increased by 1 km ∙ h–1 every minute until volitional exhaustion, and exercise tolerance time to the nearest second was registered. Oxygen uptake (VO2) was measured continuously with a calibrated online system (Oxycon Pro; Erich Jaeger, Hoechberg, Germany) using the mixing chamber mode set at 30 s sampling intervals. This metabolic system is verified as an accurate system for measuring VO2 (Foss & Hallén, 2005). The average of the two highest consecutive measurements was defined as VO2max. Body weight was measured with a calibrated digital scale to the nearest 0.1 kg. VO2max was expressed in mL oxygen per kg body weight per minute (mL ∙ kg–1 ∙ min–1). Control variables. We controlled for eagerness to exercise (α = .94) using a nine-item scale (Säfvenbom, Haugen, & Bulie, 2014) because of its potential relationship with VO2max. Furthermore, we controlled for gender and age, as VO2max has been shown to decline with age (e.g. Hawkins & Wiswell, 2003) and because women are likely to have lower VO2max than men (e.g. Wilmore & Costill, 2005). Finally, we controlled for academic affiliation (represented by three dummy variables) since this could affect the relationships under investigation.

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To test the hypothesised three-way interactions, we used hierarchical moderated regression (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). Before computing the interaction terms, we centred the predictors, as interaction terms often create multicollinearity problems as a result of their correlations with main effects (Aiken & West, 1991). We present the results of these analyses in Table II. We entered the control variables, performance climate and mastery climate in step 1. Results indicated that when controlling for demographics and eagerness to exercise the relationship between mastery climate and VO2max (β = .08, n.s.), and between performance climate and VO2max (β = −.14, n.s.) was not statistically significant. Next, in step 2 we entered mastery orientation and performance orientation. Results indicated that performance climate now related significantly and negatively to VO2max (β = −.17, P < .05). In step 3, we entered all two-way interaction terms. In step 4, we entered the three-way interactions. Results indicated that both three-way interaction terms were statistically significant (see Table II). The ΔR2 produced by our three-way interaction terms was within the usual range (i.e. ΔR2 = .01 to .03) for interaction effects in non-experimental studies (Champoux & Peters, 1987; Chaplin, 1991; Kacmar, Witt, Zivnuska, & Gully, 2003) and demonstrated that the three-way interactions added significantly to the explained variance in VO2max. In Hypothesis 1, we predicted that when performance orientation is high, performance climate relates positively and more strongly to VO2max for individuals with a low-mastery orientation than for those with a high-mastery orientation. To investigate whether the significant three-way interaction of performance climate, mastery orientation and performance orientation in relation to VO2max provided support for Hypothesis 1, we created four combinations of performance climate and VO2max (at one

Results The results of a confirmatory factor analysis performed on the multi-item measures (performance climate, mastery climate, performance orientation, mastery orientation and eagerness to exercise) fit the data well (χ2 [769] = 1552.78, P < .01; RMSEA = 0.06; CFI = 0.91; TLI = 0.91). Means, standard deviations, reliability estimates and bivariate correlations among the study variables are reported in Table I.

Table I. Descriptive statistics, scale reliabilities and correlations.

1. Age 2. Gendera 3. Academy A 4. Academy B 5. Academy C 6. Eagerness to exercise 7. Mastery climate 8. Performance climate 9. Mastery orientation 10. Performance orientation 11. VO2max

Mean

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

23.61 1.10 .40 .36 .24 5.57 3.75 3.03 4.17 3.09 53.81

2.63 .30 .49 .48 .43 .96 .62 .96 .87 .61 5.52

−.06 .11 .00 −.13* −.13* .01 .02 −.01 −.16* −.13*

−.16** .09 .08 .02 −.19** .08 .02 −.08 −.44**

−.61** −.46** −.11 .28** .14* .21** .07 .09

−.42** −.11 −.18** −.12 −.10 −.08 −.02

−.01 −.12 −.04 −.13* .01 −.08

(.92) .21** −.03 .12 .21** .28**

(.76) −.09 .45** .09 .28**

(.79) −.15* .32** −.12

(.94) .15* .01

(.92) .06

Notes: n = 248 (time 1), n = 123 (time 2). Male = 1; female = 2. *P < .05; **P < .01. a

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R. Buch et al. Table II. Results of hierarchical moderated regression analyses.

Variables

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Age Gendera Academy A Academy B Eagerness to exercise Mastery climate Performance climate Mastery orientation Performance orientation Two-way interactions Performance climate × mastery orientation Performance climate × performance orientation Mastery climate × mastery orientation Mastery climate × performance orientation Mastery orientation × performance orientation Three-way interactions Performance climate × mastery orientation × performance orientation Mastery climate × mastery orientation × performance orientation R2 ΔR2

–.13 –.50*** .05 .10 .26** .08 –.14

–.14 –.48*** .04 .09 .25** .14 –.17* –.14 .04

–.16 –.47*** .02 .07 .23* .14 –.18 –.16 .06

–.17* –.45*** .03 .09 .25** .13 –.18 –.10 .09

–.07 .10 –.07 .03 .15

–.05 .28* .03 .10 .09

.39 .03

–.39* –.42* .43 .03*

.35

.36 .01

Notes: N = 123. a Male = 1; female = 2. *P < .05; **P < .01; ***P < .001.

standard deviation above and below the mean) and plotted one performance climate–VO2max slope for each group. In support of Hypothesis 1, the relationship between performance climate and VO2max was moderated by performance orientation and mastery orientation; the lower the mastery orientation and higher the performance orientation, the more positive the relationship is. Indeed, as illustrated in Figure 1, all the regression slopes were negative except for slope

3 (low-mastery orientation, high-performance orientation), suggesting that a low-mastery orientation in combination with a high-performance orientation is crucial for a positive relationship between a performance climate and VO2max. In Hypothesis 2, we predicted that when mastery orientation is high mastery climate relates positively and more strongly to VO2max for individuals with a low-performance goal orientation than for those with

68 66 64 Maximal oxygen uptake


VO2max

(1) High Mastery orientation, High Performance orientation

62 (2) High Mastery orientation, Low Performance orientation 60 (3) Low Mastery orientation, High Performance orientation

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(4) Low Mastery orientation, Low Performance orientation

56 54 52 Low performance climate

High performance climate

Figure 1. The moderating roles of mastery and performance goal orientation on the relationship between performance climate and VO2max.

Motivational climate, goal orientation and VO2max

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65 64 63

Maximal oxygen uptake

62

(1) High Mastery orientation, High Performance orientation

61

(2) High Mastery orientation, Low Performance orientation

60 59

(3) Low Mastery orientation, High Performance orientation

58 (4) Low Mastery orientation, Low Performance orientation

57


56 55 54 Low mastery climate

High mastery climate

Figure 2. The moderating roles of mastery and performance goal orientation on the relationship between mastery climate and VO2max.

a high-performance orientation. To investigate whether the significant interaction of mastery climate, performance orientation and mastery orientation in relation to VO2max supported Hypothesis 2, we created four combinations of mastery climate and VO2max (at one standard deviation above and below the mean) and plotted one mastery climate–VO2max slope for each group, as illustrated in Figure 2. In support of Hypothesis 2, Figure 2 shows that for individuals reporting a high-mastery orientation, there is a stronger positive relationship between mastery climate and VO2max for individuals with a lowperformance orientation (slope 2) than for individuals with a high-performance orientation (slope 1). Finally, we note that the results also suggest a strong positive relationship between mastery climate and VO2max for individuals with a low-mastery and highperformance orientation (slope 3). Discussion The main purpose of the present study was to explore the combined influence of mastery and performance orientation on the relationships between performance and mastery climate and VO2max. In the present study, we did not observe a significant direct relationship between performance climate and VO2max or between mastery climate and VO2max. However, the direct relationships are of little relevance when compared to the moderating relationships. With respect to the latter, we found support for both of the hypothesised three-way interactions. First, we obtained support for an interaction of performance climate, mastery orientation and performance orientation in relation to VO2max. The form of the interaction demonstrates that, under

the condition of high-performance orientation, performance climate relates positively to VO2max for individuals with low (but not with high) levels of mastery orientation. In fact, the results suggest a negative relationship between performance climate and VO2max for all individuals except those with a high-performance orientation and a low-mastery orientation. Hence, our results indicate that high levels of a performance orientation must be accompanied by low levels of a mastery orientation for a performance climate to positively relate to individuals’ VO2max. This finding aligns well with the notion of value congruence, where person–environment fit occurs when situations (i.e. performance climate) provide individuals with certain features that they already value or possess (i.e. high levels of performance orientation and low levels of mastery orientation) (Cable & Edwards, 2004). As argued by Roberts (2012, p. 16), “an individual will adopt adaptive achievement strategies . . . in the climate in which he or she feels comfortable”. Thus, our results support the theoretical assumptions of AGT, where the high-performance/low-mastery-oriented individual feels most comfortable in a strong performance climate. Our findings also support Pervin’s (1968) proposition that a good match between environments and people typically results in high performance, which in our study concerns VO2max. That is, for individuals who base their success on otherreferenced criteria, participating in environments which emphasise normative ability and the demonstration of competence may foster positive reactions and behaviour (cf. Roberts, 2012). Second, we received support for an interaction of mastery climate, performance orientation and mastery orientation in relation to VO2max. The form of


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interaction demonstrates that under the condition of a high-mastery orientation the positive relationship between a mastery climate and VO2max is stronger for individuals with low (rather than high) levels of a performance orientation. Our results thus indicate that high levels of a mastery orientation should be accompanied by low levels of a performance orientation to facilitate a strong positive relationship between a mastery climate individual’s VO2max. Overall, this pattern of results further supports the person–environment fit perspective and the matching hypothesis (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987; Pervin, 1968). We also found that individuals who exhibited a low level of performance orientation and a high level of mastery orientation displayed lower VO2max the greater their perception of performance climate. One explanation for this may be that when performance orientation is low the emphasis on “winning” and extrinsic benefits implied by a performance climate may “crowd out” intrinsic motivation (Frey & OberholzerGee, 1997) for those high in mastery orientation. That is, providing individuals with incentives (performance climate) to do something they already enjoy (mastery orientation) can decrease their motivation to do it as they are likely to view the activity as externally driven rather than intrinsically appealing. The combination of a high-performance climate with a low-performance orientation may therefore render individuals with a high-mastery orientation less likely to respond with higher levels of VO2max. This is in line with the notion of value incongruence, meaning, for example, that there exists a great difference between the values of the high-mastery/low-performance-oriented person (focus on learning, skill development and approaching challenges) and the value system of a performance climate (focus on normative ability and intra-team competition) (cf. Cable & Edwards, 2004). Such value incongruence can facilitate dissatisfaction and cognitive dissonance (cf. Cable & Edwards, 2004), which might explain why these individuals are less likely to respond with higher levels of VO2max in our study. Interestingly, the results also indicated a negative relationship between mastery climate and VO2max for individuals low in both mastery and performance orientation. Such a finding might be explained by the fact that low-mastery/low-performance-oriented individuals are the least motivated and may consequently not even oblige to achievement tasks (Roberts, 2012). Thus, although a mastery climate typically is fronted as a climate which facilitates adaptive outcomes (e.g. Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999), this might not be the case for the least motivated, making them less likely to achieve higher levels of VO2max, as our results indicate.

Finally, it should be emphasised that our results also show a positive relationship between mastery climate and VO2max for individuals reporting a lowmastery and high-performance orientation. This finding demonstrates the value of having a highmastery climate as it is appears to be beneficial regardless of the dispositional goal orientation.1 Although tentative, this observation may reflect a tendency for the motivational climate to override dispositional goal orientations that are not firmly established (Vazou, 2010). Theoretical implications Our findings add primarily to the AGT literature in further clarifying the interactive (multiplicative) impact of situational criteria (i.e. mastery and performance climate) and individual differences (i.e. mastery and performance goal orientations) in predicting adaptive individual outcomes (Harwood, Spray, & Keegan, 2008; Roberts, 2012; Treasure & Roberts, 1998). This is an important theoretical contribution, as prior research has not consistently obtained support for such a multiplicative impact (Roberts, 2012). The present study might help to resolve these inconclusive findings by emphasising the orthogonality of mastery and performance orientations – that is, an individual can be low in both performance and mastery orientation, or high in both, or high in one and low in the other (Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002) – as well as how these interplay with the perceived motivational climate in predicting important behavioural outcomes such as VO2max. In a performance climate, individuals may continually perceive that their ability and/or effort is not high enough, which negatively impacts their cognitions and affective responses (e.g. Lemyre, Hall, & Roberts, 2008). In this regard, our results imply that this (i.e. a performance climate) may not be a problem for individuals who have a general dispositional tendency towards adopting performance goals (striving to outperform others) when accompanied by low-mastery goal orientation. Relatedly, our results are further relevant in showing that although previous research suggests that individuals rarely display adaptive or beneficial motivational patterns when they perceive a performance climate (Harwood et al., 2008; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999), a performance climate may actually promote beneficial outcomes, such as VO2max, when combined with a low-mastery and a high-performance goal orientation. This observation provides some support to Dweck and Leggetts’ (1988) contention that a pronounced motivational (performance) climate may override an individual’s weaker dispositional (mastery) goal orientation with respect to


Motivational climate, goal orientation and VO2max predicting an individual’s behaviour, affect and cognitions in an achievement context. Thus, our findings support the situated AGT perspective (Ames, 1992b; Nicholls, 1989), which assumes that the situation plays an important role in the motivational process in that achievement behaviour is influenced by the interplay of the motivational climate and goal orientation (Nerstad et al., 2013b). Finally, despite the fact that the matching hypothesis (Pervin, 1968) has received support, for instance, in studies of academic performance and academic satisfaction (Newton & Duda, 1999), it was not supported by Newton and Duda’s (1999) study on female volleyball players. However, in their study, Newton and Duda (1999) did not account for the orthogonality of goal orientations. In this respect, our findings may be informative by indicating that support for the predictive validity of the matching hypothesis may be obtained by accounting for the fact that an individual may be both high and low on each goal orientation. Limitations, strengths and research directions Certain limitations and strengths should be acknowledged when interpreting our results. First, as with all non-experimental research, we cannot conclusively demonstrate causal relations between the variables (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2001). In order for causal inferences to be drawn, experimental studies would be required. A second limitation is our reliance on self-report data with respect to the measurements of the motivational climate and goal orientations, which are susceptible to common method bias and inflated ratings owing, for example, to social desirability or the implicit theories of the respondents (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). However, a strength of the present study is the fact that we obtained objective measurements of aerobic fitness (directly measured VO2max), as opposed to simply relying on self-reported data. This should reduce concerns about possible measurement errors and common method bias among the independent and dependent variables (e.g. Crampton & Wagner, 1994). A final limitation of the present study is that the generalisability of our findings may be constrained by the nature of our sample, which is characterised by mostly young male respondents who were presently enrolled in military academies in Norway. Accordingly, an interesting avenue for future research might involve investigating the generalisability of our findings across ages, occupations, countries and cultures. Beyond conducting similar studies in other countries and cultures by means of experimental designs, an interesting avenue for future research would be to

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investigate whether similar results would be obtained using other outcomes than VO2max – using measurements of intrinsic motivation, for instance.

Practical implications On a practical level, our study points to the essential role of dispositional goal orientations. Managers and sports coaches, for instance, need to be aware that participating in a highly performance-oriented climate can lead to lower levels of VO2max among individuals, unless these individuals simultaneously have a high level of a performance goal orientation and a low level of a mastery goal orientation. Furthermore, our study suggests that a mastery climate is associated with higher VO2max for most individuals, except for those who have a general dispositional tendency towards adopting neither performance goals (striving to outperform others) nor mastery goals (striving to improve their own performance). These individuals, however, may represent only a minority, as evident by the relatively high mean value of mastery goal orientation (M = 4.17, SD = 0.87) and performance goal orientation (M = 3.09, SD = 0.96) observed in the present study. Accordingly, teams and organisations may wish to draw on this finding and cultivate less performance-oriented and more mastery-oriented achievement contexts. In this respect, coaches or leaders play a crucial role as the main architects of the motivational climate (e.g. Ames, 1992a; Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002).

Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Note 1.

We thank one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing this out.

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insulin response ratio in normal young men.

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Mean myoglobin oxygen tension during exercise at maximal oxygen uptake.

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Acute reduction in maximal oxygen uptake after long-distance running.

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Maximal oxygen uptake relative to plasma volume expansion.

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Reference values of maximal oxygen uptake for polish rowers.

Relationships between the coach-created motivational climate and athlete engagement in youth sport.

Motivational goal objects in later life.

Machine learning and statistical methods for the prediction of maximal oxygen uptake: recent advances.

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