This article was downloaded by: [The University of Manchester Library] On: 21 November 2014, At: 07:36 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lesb20
Formation and toxicity of brominated disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination of water: A review a
b
Virender K. Sharma , Radek Zboril & Thomas J. McDonald
a
a
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health , School of Rural Public Health, Texas A&M University , College Station , Texas , USA b
Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Departments of Experimental Physics and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science , Palacky University , Olomouc , Czech Republic Published online: 31 Dec 2013.
To cite this article: Virender K. Sharma , Radek Zboril & Thomas J. McDonald (2014) Formation and toxicity of brominated disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination of water: A review, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 49:3, 212-228, DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2014.858576 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2014.858576
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B (2014) 49, 212–228 C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright ISSN: 0360-1234 (Print); 1532-4109 (Online) DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2014.858576
Formation and toxicity of brominated disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination of water: A review VIRENDER K. SHARMA1, RADEK ZBORIL2 and THOMAS J. MCDONALD1 Downloaded by [The University of Manchester Library] at 07:37 21 November 2014
1
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Rural Public Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA 2 Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Departments of Experimental Physics and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water exhibit considerable adverse health effects; recent focus is on the brominated disinfection byproducts (Br-DBPs). The chlorination and chloramination of bromide ion containing water produce reactive bromo species, which subsequently react with natural organic matter (NOM) to yield Br-DBPs. The possible reactions involved in generating DBPs are presented. Identified Br-DBPs include bromomethanes, bromoacetic acid, bromoacetamides, bromoacetonitriles, and bromophenols. Mixed chloro- and bromo-species have also been identified. Pathways of the formation of Br-DBPs have been described. The concentration of Br− ion, pH, reaction time, and the presence of Cu(II) influence the yield of DBPs. The effects of water conditions on the production of Br-DBPs are presented. The epidemiological studies to understand the potential toxic effects of DBPs including Br-DBPs are summarized. Brominated DBPs may have higher health risks than their corresponding chlorinated DBPs. A potential role of an emerging alternate disinfectant, ferrate (FeVIO2− 4 ), in minimizing DBPs is briefly discussed. Keywords: Chlorine, bromide, halomethane, haloacetic acid, wastewater, nitrosamines, bromophenols, drinking water, natural organic matter, ferrate.
Introduction Since the identification of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in 1970s,[1,2] there has been growing concern of DBPs worldwide because of their potential carcinogenic effects.[3,4] The stage 2 of Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule (D/DBPR), established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), states that the utilities are required to comply with the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) of THMs and HAAs at 80 and 60 µg L−1, respectively, for the running annual avaerage at indivdual locations in a distribution system.[5] Besides THMs and HAAs, there has been many other DBPs such as dihaloacetic acids (DHAAs), dihaloacetonitriles (DHANs), acethaloacetamides, dihalosalicylic acids, and trihalophenols.[6–15] Currently, more than 600 DBPs have been identi-
Address correspondence to Virender K. Sharma, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Rural Public Health, Texas A&M University, 1266 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-1266, USA; E-mail: [email protected] Received July 24, 2013.
fied in drinking water.[3,5] However, in the United States and other countries, only 20 DBPs are currently regulated.[3,16] Chlorine, the commonly applied disinfectant in the treatment of waters, is the one of main causes of DBPs generation. Natural organic matter (NOM) is a heterogeneous mixture of several organic compounds such as carboxyland hydroxyl-aromatic units, methoxy-substituted aromatic units, amino acids, and proteins.[17,18] Dissolved organic matter (DOM) are molecules of NOM having less than 0.45 µm in diameter and have different compounds such as hydrophilic acids, hydrophobic humic substances, and hydrocarbons.[19] The composition of lyophilized aquatic NOM is divided into 40–60% carbon, ∼40% oxygen, ∼5% hydrogen, 1–5% nitrogen,
Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lesb20
Formation and toxicity of brominated disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination of water: A review a
b
Virender K. Sharma , Radek Zboril & Thomas J. McDonald
a
a
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health , School of Rural Public Health, Texas A&M University , College Station , Texas , USA b
Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Departments of Experimental Physics and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science , Palacky University , Olomouc , Czech Republic Published online: 31 Dec 2013.
To cite this article: Virender K. Sharma , Radek Zboril & Thomas J. McDonald (2014) Formation and toxicity of brominated disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination of water: A review, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 49:3, 212-228, DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2014.858576 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2014.858576
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B (2014) 49, 212–228 C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright ISSN: 0360-1234 (Print); 1532-4109 (Online) DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2014.858576
Formation and toxicity of brominated disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination of water: A review VIRENDER K. SHARMA1, RADEK ZBORIL2 and THOMAS J. MCDONALD1 Downloaded by [The University of Manchester Library] at 07:37 21 November 2014
1
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Rural Public Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA 2 Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Departments of Experimental Physics and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water exhibit considerable adverse health effects; recent focus is on the brominated disinfection byproducts (Br-DBPs). The chlorination and chloramination of bromide ion containing water produce reactive bromo species, which subsequently react with natural organic matter (NOM) to yield Br-DBPs. The possible reactions involved in generating DBPs are presented. Identified Br-DBPs include bromomethanes, bromoacetic acid, bromoacetamides, bromoacetonitriles, and bromophenols. Mixed chloro- and bromo-species have also been identified. Pathways of the formation of Br-DBPs have been described. The concentration of Br− ion, pH, reaction time, and the presence of Cu(II) influence the yield of DBPs. The effects of water conditions on the production of Br-DBPs are presented. The epidemiological studies to understand the potential toxic effects of DBPs including Br-DBPs are summarized. Brominated DBPs may have higher health risks than their corresponding chlorinated DBPs. A potential role of an emerging alternate disinfectant, ferrate (FeVIO2− 4 ), in minimizing DBPs is briefly discussed. Keywords: Chlorine, bromide, halomethane, haloacetic acid, wastewater, nitrosamines, bromophenols, drinking water, natural organic matter, ferrate.
Introduction Since the identification of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in 1970s,[1,2] there has been growing concern of DBPs worldwide because of their potential carcinogenic effects.[3,4] The stage 2 of Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule (D/DBPR), established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), states that the utilities are required to comply with the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) of THMs and HAAs at 80 and 60 µg L−1, respectively, for the running annual avaerage at indivdual locations in a distribution system.[5] Besides THMs and HAAs, there has been many other DBPs such as dihaloacetic acids (DHAAs), dihaloacetonitriles (DHANs), acethaloacetamides, dihalosalicylic acids, and trihalophenols.[6–15] Currently, more than 600 DBPs have been identi-
Address correspondence to Virender K. Sharma, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Rural Public Health, Texas A&M University, 1266 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-1266, USA; E-mail: [email protected] Received July 24, 2013.
fied in drinking water.[3,5] However, in the United States and other countries, only 20 DBPs are currently regulated.[3,16] Chlorine, the commonly applied disinfectant in the treatment of waters, is the one of main causes of DBPs generation. Natural organic matter (NOM) is a heterogeneous mixture of several organic compounds such as carboxyland hydroxyl-aromatic units, methoxy-substituted aromatic units, amino acids, and proteins.[17,18] Dissolved organic matter (DOM) are molecules of NOM having less than 0.45 µm in diameter and have different compounds such as hydrophilic acids, hydrophobic humic substances, and hydrocarbons.[19] The composition of lyophilized aquatic NOM is divided into 40–60% carbon, ∼40% oxygen, ∼5% hydrogen, 1–5% nitrogen,
