RESEARCH ARTICLE

Functional Pathways of Social Support for Mental Health in Work and Family Domains Among Chinese Scientific and Technological Professionals Yiqun Gan1, Tingting Gan1, Zhiyan Chen2, Miao Miao1 & Kan Zhang2*† 1

Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing, China Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China

2

Abstract This study investigated the role of social support in the complex pattern of associations among stressors, work–family interferences and depression in the domains of work and family. A questionnaire was administered to a nationwide sample of 11,419 Chinese science and technology professionals. Several structural equation models were specified to determine whether social support functioned as a predictor or a mediator. Using MPLUS 5.0, we compared the moderation model, the independence model, the antecedent model and the mediation model. The results revealed that the relationship between work–family interference and social support was domain specific. The independence model fit the data best in the work domain. Both the moderation model and the antecedent model fit the family domain data equally well. The current study was conducted to answer the need for comprehensive investigations of cultural uniqueness in the antecedents of work–family interference. The domain specificity, i.e. the multiple channels of the functions of support in the family domain and not in the work domain, ensures that this study is unique and culturally specific. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 7 October 2013; Revised 29 January 2014; Accepted 24 February 2014 Keywords social support; work–family interference; model comparison *Correspondence Kan Zhang, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100101, China. † E-mail: [email protected] Published online 30 April 2014 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/smi.2572

Introduction Because of the rapid development of science and technology in China in recent years, the competition and challenges faced by Chinese science and technology professionals have increased in intensity (Siu, Spector, Cooper, & Lu, 2005). The mental health problems caused by the high levels of mental stress faced by these intellectual workers have aroused widespread concern. In addition to their heavy workloads, these professionals struggle to balance work and family demands. Because these Chinese professionals perform a major role in the development of the science and technology sectors, their mental health is directly related to their output. Therefore, there is an urgent need to attend to the mental health needs of Chinese science and technology professionals. The 2009 Report of the National Psychological Survey of Chinese Scientific and Technological Professionals revealed that science and technology professionals between the ages of 35 and 45 years were observed to suffer lapses in their overall mental health. Their reported levels of social support, which were the lowest among the groups studied, constituted 336

one of the primary factors related to these lapses (Chinese Academy of Science, 2010). The correlation between social support and work–family interference among middle-aged Chinese science and technology professionals is of particular concern. The intrusion of work into family life and vice versa, or ‘work–family interference’, has a detrimental effect on both men and women. Work–family researchers have paid increasing attention to the role of social support in both work and family domains (Michel, Kotrba, Mitchelson, Clark, & Baltes, 2011). However, research on the relationship between social support and work– family interference has resulted in findings that are theoretically and practically unclear (Ford, Heinen, & Langkamer, 2007). Because work–family interference has been correlated with a variety of negative outcomes and social support has been shown to reduce such interference, the primary objective of this study was to compare competing models for the role of social support along the pathway of stressors → work–family interference → depression, specifically focusing on the identification of models that best fit work and family Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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domains, respectively, among Chinese samples. In addition, we aimed to determine if there were gender and age differences with regard to the models. The definition of work–family interference and social support Researchers have suggested that work–family interference should be conceptualized bi-directionally (Adams, King, & King, 1996). This perspective implies that participation in the work (family) domain may render it more difficult to involve oneself in the family (work) domain because the former domain monopolizes one’s time and energy. According to this perspective, work can interfere with family [work-to-family interference (WFI)], and family can interfere with work [family-to-work interference (FWI)]. Social support has been broadly defined as ‘the availability of helping relations and the quality of those relationships’ (Leavy, 1983). Social support is manifested in a variety of forms, including emotional support (e.g. empathy, love, trust and care), instrumental support (e.g. money, energy and time) and informational support (e.g. advice, suggestions and information). Social support also includes ‘supportive communication’, which can be defined as ‘verbal and nonverbal behavior produced with the intention of providing assistance to others perceived as needing that aid’ (Burleson & MacGeorge, 2002, p. 374). Social support consists of interpersonal transactions that are intended to enhance an individual’s wellbeing (Matsui, Ohsawa, & Onglatco, 1995). Many studies have theoretically and empirically corroborated the theory that social support increases an individual’s psychological resources (e.g. Chay, 1993). When identifying the sources from which employees receive social support, Adams et al. (1996) differentiated work-related social support from non-work-related social support. Specifically, social support in the work domain includes organizational support, supervisor support and colleague support. Family support refers to the support one receives from family members, especially one’s spouse (Reevy & Maslach, 2001). Sources of family support vary and may include spouses, other family members and friends. However, support from one’s spouse has been consistently viewed in a positive manner in evaluations of various job and life outcomes (Kim & Ling, 2001; Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996). Therefore, in this study, only the type of support provided by one’s spouse is considered indicative of family support, as was performed in studies by Md-Sidin, Sambasivan, and Ismail (2010), and Westman and Etzion (2005). Domain-specific effects of social support Many researchers have demonstrated the domainspecific effects of social support. Domain specificity refers to the fact that relationships among psychological variables only exist in particular domains and therefore are less well suited to relationships in other domains. Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Domain specificity is an important property of psychological adaptations. For example, support from supervisors or colleagues is most effective in decreasing WFI, whereas FWI is more likely to be decreased by social support from one’s spouse. Most studies on social support in the work domain have focused on supervisor support and have investigated its effect on the correlation between stressors and WFI (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999; Ford et al., 2007). Van Daalen, Willemsen, and Sanders (2006) demonstrated that social support from spouse was related to time and strain-based FWI. Chi et al. (2011), when investigating social support in the family domain, observed that social support buffers the negative effects of life crises on marital satisfaction. Competing models of the functioning pathways of social support The function of social support in the stressors to WFI/ FWI and outcome variables is complex. As Ford et al. (2007) indicated, the relations among these variables are a multivariate phenomenon, and simple bivariate analyses may therefore not provide the best description of them. However, previous studies that have treated these relations as multivariate have produced inconsistent results. We reviewed several possible models, each of which proposed a different pathway by which social support may affect WFI/FWI. We evaluated the results in terms of our study hypotheses. The moderation model: stressors + social support + stressors * social support → WFI/ FWI → depression In the moderation model, social support primarily acts as a moderating variable that reduces the association between stressors and WFI/FWI. The buffering effect of social support may manifest itself in one of two ways. Firstly, social support may intervene between the stressor and a stress reaction by reducing a stress appraisal response. Secondly, social support may alleviate the effect of stress appraisal by reducing the perceived importance of the problem or by facilitating healthy behaviours (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Although this model represents a dominant hypothesis for describing the effects of social support (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999), the findings on the moderating role of social support have been inconsistent. In the work domain, Sakurai and Jex (2012) observed that supervisor social support moderated the associations among negative emotions, work effort and counter-productive work behaviours. In addition, Schreurs, Hetty van Emmerik, Günter, and Germeys (2012) demonstrated that time-varying work-based support (i.e. supervisor and colleague support) buffered the correlation between job insecurity and employee in-role and extra-role performance. A finding by Chi et al., (2011) supported this model’s relevance in the family domain by indicating that social support buffers the negative effects of life crises on marital satisfaction. However, numerous studies have 337

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failed to find a buffering effect of social support on the stressor–distress correlation (e.g. Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1997). The independence model: stressors + social support → WFI/FWI → depression In the independence model, there is no interaction between stress and social support; stressors and social support influence WFI without interacting. The independence model was developed to account for the absence of this interaction, a result obtained in numerous studies (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999). Frese (1999) also noted that such interaction effects were weak. The pathways from social support to work–family interference have been described in many recent publications. On the basis of a meta-analysis of 1080 correlations from 178 samples, Michel et al. (2011) concluded that in the work domain, work role stressors (i.e. job stressors, role conflict and role overload) and work social support (i.e. organizational support, supervisor support and coworker support) were independent predictors of WFI. In the family domain, empirical support for the independence model was rare. The antecedent model: social support → stressors → WFI/FWI → depression According to Byron’s (2005) meta-analysis, social support was a strong predictor of perceived work– family stress. In addition, Booth and Matthews (2012) observed that in the work domain, the effects of social support on WFI and FWI were fully mediated by work and family overload; social support negatively influences work and family overload, which in turn positively influences WFI and FWI. In the family domain, the association between spousal/family support and FWI was shown to be mediated by family stressors (Baltes & Heydens-Gahir, 2003). The mediation model: stressors → social support → WFI/FWI → depression In addition to the three competing models described earlier, a final model proposes that the influence of stressors on WFI/FWI is mediated by social support. Although some research in the work domain rarely supports this model, other research shows that it describes phenomena in the family domain well. For instance, Quittner, Glueckauf, and Jackson (1990) study demonstrated that social support mediated the relationship between stressors and outcomes. Their results showed that chronic parenting stress was associated with lowered perceptions of emotional support and greater symptoms of depression and anxiety among 96 mothers of deaf children. This mediation model, in which stressors elicit less social support and in turn increase family–work interference, has been named the social-support-deterioration-deterrence model by Norris and Kaniasty (1996). 338

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In each of the models discussed, direct paths from stressors or social support to WFI/FWI or depression were included; these models are presented in Figure 1. The majority of the studies mentioned earlier did not consider the domain specificity of the models or directly compare them. The current study differentiated among these four models and attempted to identify which models best fit the respective domains of work and family. The culturally unique aspects in stressors, social support and WFI/FWI Most studies have previously been conducted in a Western, rather than Eastern, context. In this regard, Chinese individuals may possess characteristics (e.g. family structure, economic development and cultural values) that differ from those of their Western counterparts (Spector, Cooper, Poelmans, et al., 2004). Of the limited number of WFI/FWI studies conducted on participants from collectivistic countries (primarily in Asia), the majority incorporated fewer variables and used small, potentially biased samples (Spector et al., 2004). Therefore, there is a need for comprehensive studies on the role played by cultural uniqueness in work–family interference. As mentioned in the literature, filial piety is the most important virtue among those who are traditional Chinese (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003). Therefore, regardless of whether the participants lived with their parents or not, their parents’ health constituted a significant long-term stressor to them. Thus, we used participants’ health as an objective indicator of family stressors. Social support is especially important among the Chinese. Many studies have found that social support plays complex and various roles in both work and family domains (e.g. Kim, Sherman, Ko, & Taylor, 2006). With reference to the family domain, the Chinese are generally regarded as family oriented (Hsu, 1985). Markus and Kitayama (1991) indicated that an examination of individualism and collectivism could assist in understanding individuals’ self-boundaries. In a collectivistic culture, individuals are distinguished according to their membership to either the ‘ingroup’ or ‘outgroup’. The ingroup typically refers to one’s family members, who often permeate one’s self-boundary. Objectives and hypotheses A comprehensive examination of previous findings indicated that the existing research on social support and WFI/FWI has several limitations. Firstly, the few studies that have included a direct comparison of the position of social support relative to the association between stressors and conflict have considered the independence and moderation models but have neglected the remaining two models (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999; Baltes & Heydens-Gahir, 2003; Boyar, Maertz, Mosley, & Carr, 2008). We believe that more comprehensive model comparisons could help researchers develop theories about Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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(1) The Moderation Model Stressors WFI/FWI

Work/Family-domain outcomes

Supports Stress*Support

(2) The Independence Model Stressors WFI/FWI

Work/Family-domain outcomes

Supports

(3) The Antecedent Model

Support

Stressors

WFI/FWI

Work/Family-domain

WFI/FWI

Work/Family-domain

(4) The Mediation Model

Stressors

Support

Figure 1 Four hypothetical models: the independence model, the antecedent model, the mediation model and the outcome model

the influence of social support on WFI/FWI. Secondly, the majority of existing studies that have performed model comparisons have not incorporated outcome variables such as life/work satisfaction, depression and job burnout (Boyar et al., 2008). This study was conducted using a nationwide sample of 11,419 Chinese science and technology professionals from various organizations. The data were representative of Chinese science and technology professionals with regard to age, education and social status, and the quality of the data was well controlled. We hypothesized that work-domain support plays a different role in the work domain than family-domain support plays in the family domain. The first aim of this study was to compare different theoretical models using data from a large and representative sample of science and technology professionals in China. According to the job demand-resource model, the combination of high demands and resources in the work domain produces different levels of burnout or engagement. Specifically, when predicting strain (e.g. burnout), job demands play the role of predictor, and resources the role of moderator. When predicting Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

motivation (e.g. engagement), the roles are reversed (Bakker et al., 2005). We hypothesized that in the work domain, job resources would moderate the relation between job demands and depression. This inference led us to propose Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 1: The moderation model will provide the best fit in the work domain among Chinese science and technology professionals. In the family domain, the Chinese are regarded as family oriented (Hsu, 1985). So support from family members is of particular importance, and therefore, social support may play multiple roles in the relationship between family stressors and FWI/depression (Ding & Huang, 2005). Firstly, social support could cushion family stressors and reduces the association between stressors and FWI/depression, as stated in the moderation model. Secondly, social support could exert influence on FWI/depression via the mediator of perceived family stress, as described in the antecedent model. Finally, the least understandable pathway is the mediation model, in which stressors elicit less social support and in turn increase family–work interference, 339

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namely the social-support-deterioration-deterrence model (Norris & Kaniasty, 1996). Because of the mutual exclusiveness of the moderation model and the independence model, we did not include the independence model in our hypothesis. We therefore proposed the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: The moderation, antecedent and mediation models will all fit the data well in relation to the family domain among Chinese science and technology professionals. Whether the domain-specific role of social support will be consistent across different gender and age groups remains unknown. Research on the gender and age differences of social support is rare. In the few studies identified, Matsui et al. (1995) observed that women benefitted more from spousal support and that the relation between parental demands and FWI was weakened in the presence of such support. Westman and Etzion (2005) also found that spouse’s support buffered the relationship between job stressors and perceived work–family conflict among women but strengthened this relationship among men. Investigating this issue may help rule out sample bias as a cause of domain specificity. Therefore, the second aim of this study was to determine gender and age differences with regard to the models. Thus, we performed structural equation modelling (SEM) separately on the different subgroups.

Methods Participants and procedures Participants were selected from the 2009 Database of the National Psychological Survey of Chinese Scientific and Technological Professionals, which is maintained by the Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Science. A total of 16,540 sets of questionnaires were distributed through 115 research stations. Participants volunteered to complete the questionnaire anonymously. A total of 14,165 sets were returned, yielding a response rate of 85.6%. Although the participants were strongly encouraged to by local administrators, information regarding the professionals’ participation in the study was not revealed to their employers. We did not have any details relating to the non-respondents (14.4%); we assumed that their characteristics were similar to those of the respondents. This survey implemented rigorous quality control procedures, including random stratified sampling and standardized administration, data input and verification processes. To ensure the quality of the data collected, the survey was administered by 219 working stations across the country organized by the Chinese Scientific Association. In the survey, the Chinese science and technology professionals were classified into one of the following five categories: (1) medical personnel, (2) agricultural professionals, (3) scientific researchers, (4) university faculty and (5) engineering and technical personnel. 340

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Because of differences in the support experienced by single and married individuals, we resolved to focus on married individuals only. Therefore, the measurement of family support in the present study was restricted to spousal support; only married individuals or those living with a partner were selected for participation in the study. The final sample consisted of 11,419 professionals. The participants ranged in age from 22 to 69 years [M = 38.73, standard deviation (SD) = 8.22], and men comprised 55.5% of the sample. After being divided into age groups, 42.7% of the participants were under 35 years of age, 40.3% were between 35 and 45 years of age and 15.9% were over 45 years of age (with 1.1% of the data missing). The participants came from 31 provinces in China. Universities and research institutes were the leading sources of employment for the participants (37.88%), 48.98% of whom held a master’s degree or higher. Of the respondents, 17.85% were hospital medical staff. This sample was representative of Chinese science and technology professionals with respect to age, gender and education level. The participants were informed that their data would be kept confidential and that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Measures The items measuring work-domain stressors, supervisory support, colleague support, spousal support, WFI and FWI were derived from the scales used in the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS). The MIDUS scales were designed to serve as a basic reference for psychosocial scales, and comprehensive information regarding their construction was documented. Work stressors Workload Workload, a work-domain stressor, was measured using two items from the Work Demands Scale (Karasek, Baker, Marxer, Ahlbom, & Theorell, 1981). The items were rated on a five-point scale, with 1 representing ‘almost never’ and 5 representing ‘almost always’. The respondents were requested to rate the degree to which they agreed with statements such as ‘You have too many demands made on you’. Higher scores indicated higher workload levels. The Cronbach’s alpha for the two items was 0.64. Work time Work time was measured using a single open-ended item: ‘On average, how many hours per day do you usually spend working?’ Role conflict Role conflict, a work-domain stressor, was measured using two items from the Work Demands Scale (Karasek et al., 1981). These two items were rated on Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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a five-point scale, with 1 representing ‘almost never’ and 5 representing ‘almost always’. The respondents were requested to rate the degree to which they agreed with statements such as ‘How often do different people or groups at work demand things from you that you think are hard to reconcile?’ Higher scores indicated higher workload levels of role conflict. The Cronbach’s alpha for the two items was 0.59.

Family support

Work support

Outcome measures

Supervisory support The supervisory support measure was taken from the Supervisor Support Scale (Karasek et al., 1981). The three items for this construct were designed to measure the level of emotional or instrumental support offered by supervisors, including expressing concern regarding the employee’s family, being sensitive to work–family interference, providing direct help to reduce the employee’s workload, or be flexible when emergencies arose for the employee. Items such as ‘You get the information you need from your supervisor or superiors’ were rated on a five-point scale, with 1 representing ‘almost never’ and 5 representing ‘almost always’. The Cronbach’s alpha for the three items was 0.81.

Work–family interference The WFI and FWI measures (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000) represent the level of work–family interference, reflecting work-to-family and family-to-work spillover effects. Four scales, each containing four items, were used to evaluate the dimensions of positive work-to-family spillover, negative work-to-family spillover, positive family-to-work spillover and negative family-to-work spillover. The WFI items included statements such as ‘The things you do at work help you address personal and practical issues at home’ and ‘Your job reduces the energy you can give to activities at home’. The FWI items included statements such as ‘Talking with someone at home helps you address problems at work’ and ‘Responsibilities at home reduce the energy you can devote to your job’. Participants rated the truth of these statements from 1 (almost never true) to 5 (almost always true), with higher scores indicating higher levels of work–family conflict. The Cronbach’s alpha values for the four scales were 0.71, 0.81, 0.70 and 0.74.

Colleague support The colleague support measure was taken from the Coworker Support Scale (Karasek et al., 1981). Two items were designed to measure the emotional or instrumental support, such as showing sympathy, showing understanding, and providing direct instrumental assistance, offered by colleagues. The items were rated on a five-point scale, with 1 representing ‘almost never’ and 5 representing ‘almost always’. One sample item asked, ‘How often are your coworkers willing to listen to your work-related problems?’ The Cronbach’s alpha for the two items was 0.69. Family stressors The questionnaire did not include an item on family type; therefore, the participants could be from either a nuclear family or an extended family. As mentioned earlier, filial piety is regarded as the most important of all virtues by the Chinese. Therefore, regardless of whether the participants live with their parents or not, their parents’ health is a significant long-term stressor to them. Thus, we used parents’ health as an objective indicator of family stressors, also assuming that there were no differences between nuclear and extended families with regard to parents’ health. Two items were designed to measure the health conditions of each participant’s mother and father. Participants responded using a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (i.e. in good health) to 4 (i.e. disabled). Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Spousal support Spousal support was measured by a single item: ‘How much does your spouse really support you?’ This item was rated on a five-point scale, with 1 representing ‘almost never’ and 5 representing ‘almost always’. Higher scores indicated that one’s spouse provided more effective support.

Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale The English version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale was developed by Radloff (1977). The scale is a 14-item self-administered questionnaire. Each of the items measures the participant’s experience of depressive symptoms during the previous week. The items assess the cognitive, affective, behavioural and somatic symptoms of depression and positive affect. The respondents were requested to rate the frequency with which they experienced these symptoms on a scale from 0 (rarely or none of the time, less than 1 day per week) to 3 (most or all of the time, 5–7 days per week). The final score was calculated by totalling the response scores after reversing the scores of the positive affect items. Higher scores reflect greater levels of depressive symptomatology. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this measure was 0.79. Overview of the analysis To obtain robust results, we used SEM to compare the alternative models across different gender and age subgroups. To ensure that the group difference could be attributed to the structural model rather than the measurement model measurement invariance (MI) across groups was established as a statistical precondition for 341

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represented by the single indicator of spousal support. Maximum likelihood estimation methods were used, and the input for each analysis was the covariance matrix of the items. The goodness of fit of these models was then evaluated.

conducting further group comparisons. We examined the factor loading invariance and found that the path coefficients (i.e. slopes) among the latent variables and unstandardized factor loadings were equal. After confirming the invariance of the measurement model, we performed the model comparisons.

Measurement invariance across groups We performed a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for each gender * age subgroup to confirm the invariance of the measurement model. The fit indices of the CFA (work time, workload, role conflict, colleague support, supervisor support, WFI and depression) for all groups are presented in Table II. The chi-square difference (Δχ 2) test allows a statistical comparison to be made among the nested models. The test is sensitive to large samples (Marsh & Hocevar, 1985). In this study, the majority of the Δχ 2 statistics reached statistical significance. The results were interpreted by applying the real fit index of the restricted model. The results confirmed the hypothesis of MI across the groups. Following the MI test, we examined the structural invariance across age * gender subgroups (Table III). As previously stated, the Δχ 2/Δdf (less than 3 in the work domain and less than 4 in the family domain) was not sufficient to reject the hypothesis of structural equivalence across the subgroups.

Results Descriptive statistics Table I presents the means, standard deviations (SDs) and correlations for the measures of work time, role conflict, workload, supervisory support, colleague support, work–family interference, parents’ health, family– work interference, spousal support and depression. In the work domain, work time, role conflict and workload were positively correlated with WFI. Supervisory support and colleague support were negatively associated with WFI and were negatively associated with depression. In the family domain, the health of the participants’ parents was not significantly correlated with either FWI or depression. To better understand the relations among social support, stressors, work–family interference and depression, we compared the four proposed models using the MPLUS 5.0 software (Muthén & Muthén Los Angeles, CA). Model comparisons Using MPLUS 5.0, SEM was performed to compare the proposed competing models. Before performing SEM, the frequency distributions of the scales were tested for normality and multivariate outliers. In the work domain, work time, workload and role conflict were represented by the latent variable of stressors. Supervisory support and colleague support were represented by the latent variable of social support. In the family domain, father health and mother health were represented by the latent variable of stressors. Social support was

Social support in the work domain The four possible models describing the function of social support in the work domain were compared. Social support comprised supervisory support and colleague support in the work domain. The model fit index comparisons in the work domain for men and women across three age groups are presented in Table IV. Among the six subsamples, the moderation model and the independence model were

Table I. The mean, SD and correlation coefficients among variables involved in the present study

1. WT 2. RC 3. WL1 4. WL2 5. SUS 6. CS 7. WFI 8. HOF 9. HOM 10. FWI 11. SPS 12. DEP

M

SD

8.34 2.37 6.37 15.63 10.06 7.34 10.11 2.47 2.22 7.87 3.25 11.20

1.75 0.94 1.70 4.02 2.61 1.59 3.42 1.61 1.36 2.62 0.74 4.79

1 1 0.243** 0.265** 0.307** 0.226** 0.262** 0.348** 0.003 0.006 0.181** 0.101** 0.104**

2

1 0.402** 0.057 0.084** 0.120** 0.334** 0.004 0.01 0.218** 0.086** 0.183**

3

1 0.093** 0.040 0.052 0.522** 0.019* 0.042 0.143** 0.029 0.117**

4

1 0.354** 0.322** 0.068** 0.058** 0.047 0.073** 0.129** 0.094**

5

1 0.581** 0.098** 0.025 0.031 0.132** 0.201** 0.116**

6

1 0.099** 0.004 0.01 0.166** 0.195** 0.103**

7

1 0.024* 0.043 0.362** 0.153** 0.235**

8

1 0.415** 0.01 0.108** 0.026

9

1 0.004 0.110** 0.004

10

1 0.194** 0.285**

11

12

1 0.093** 1

Note: SD: standard deviation; WT: work time; RC: role conflict; WL1: work load; WL2: work control; SUS: supervisory support; CS: colleague support; WFI: work–family conflict; HOF: health of father; HOM: health of mother; FWI: family work conflict; SPS: spousal support; DEP: depression. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.001.

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Table II. The goodness-of-fit indices of measurement invariance test for different gender and age subgroups χ

Group

2

df

2

χ /df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

90% of CI

Δχ

2

df

Work domain Men, age < 35 years Men, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years Men, age > 45 years Women, age < 35 years Women, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years Women, age > 45 years Restricted

892.771 1068.200 318.505 694.749 636.554 205.223 4424.274

112 112 112 112 112 112 792

0.933 0.931 0.934 0.944 0.954 0.962 0.930

0.918 0.916 0.920 0.932 0.944 0.953 0.928

0.064 0.065 0.066 0.057 0.055 0.049 0.060

0.060–0.068 0.062–0.069 0.057–0.075 0.053–0.061 0.051–0.059 0.038–0.060 0.058–0.062

608.27

120

Family domain Men, age < 35 years Men, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years Men, age > 45 years Women, age < 35 years Women, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years Women, age > 45 years Restricted

245.075 302.179 79.934 229.739 180.052 111.276 245.075

33 33 33 33 33 33 33

0.956 0.956 0.968 0.954 0.966 0.925 0.956

0.940 0.940 0.956 0.938 0.954 0.897 0.940

0.062 0.064 0.058 0.061 0.054 0.083 0.062

0.055–0.069 0.058–0.071 0.042–0.074 0.054–0.068 0.046–0.062 0.066–0.100 0.055–0.069

328.69

60

Note: Restricted indicated measurement invariance of gender * age. df: degrees of freedom; CFI: comparative fit index; TLI: Tucker–Lewis coefficient; RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation; CI: confidence interval.

Table III. The goodness-of-fit indices of structural invariance test for different gender * age subgroup Model Work domain Moderation-free Moderation-restricted Independence-free Independence-restricted Antecedent-free Antecedent-restricted Mediation-free Mediation-restricted Family domain Moderation-free Moderation-restricted Independence-free Independence-restricted Antecedent-free Antecedent-restricted Mediation-free Mediation-restricted

χ

2

2

df

χ /df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

90% CI

Δχ

798 818 804 819 714 729 714 729

6.100 5.984 6.060 5.979 6.824 6.767 10.086 9.955

0.922 0.922 0.922 0.922 0.920 0.919 0.875 0.875

0.920 0.922 0.921 0.922 0.919 0.920 0.874 0.876

0.063 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.068 0.068 0.085 0.084

0.062–0.065 0.061–0.064 0.062–0.065 0.061–0.064 0.066–0.070 0.066–0.069 0.083–0.087 0.082–0.086

1398.713 306 1443.931 326 1441.482 312 1478.424 327 1399.616 258 1439.624 273 Assumption violated Assumption violated

4.571 4.429 4.620 4.521 5.425 5.273

0.951 0.950 0.949 0.948 0.948 0.947

0.948 0.950 0.947 0.948 0.946 0.948

0.053 0.052 0.053 0.053 0.059 0.058

0.050–0.056 0.049–0.055 0.051–0.056 0.050–0.055 0.056–0.062 0.055–0.061

4867.955 4894.813 4872.359 4896.904 4872.586 4933.450 7201.642 7257.472

2

2

Δdf

Δχ /Δdf

26.86

20

1.34

24.55

15

1.64

60.86

15

4.06

55.83

15

3.72

45.22

20

2.26

36.94

15

2.46

40.01

15

2.67

Note: X-free indicates that the path parameters are free to be estimated after MI. X-restricted indicates all the path parameters are restricted to be equal for six gender * age subgroups. Use of bold emphasis in the table indicates the best fit models. df: degrees of freedom; CFI: comparative fit index; TLI: Tucker–Lewis coefficient; RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation; CI: confidence interval.

the only models with comparative fit indices (CFIs) of approximately 0.95 and root mean square error of approximations (RMSEAs) of approximately 0.05, thereby meeting the model fit criteria recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999). The interaction of job stressors and support failed to reach significance, and the interaction term (job stressors * support) did not Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

predict WFI. The independence model was a nested model of moderation that restricted the pathway from the product item for WFI to zero, and the Δχ 2 was not significant relative to the Δdf. The independence model showed the best fit to the work domain data. Hypothesis 1 was not supported, and job stressors and support were found to contribute independently 343

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Table IV. The goodness-of-fit indices of competing models in the work domain in different gender and age groups Group Men, age < 35 years

Men, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years

Men, age > 45 years

Women, age < 35 years

Women, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years

Women, age > 45 years

2

Model

χ

Moderation Independence Antecedent Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent Mediation

981.731 981.772 983.260 1577.715 1169.663 1172.010 1171.179 1732.219 371.996 372.980 344.671 440.629 789.849 790.014 805.232 1353.544 732.531 733.027 745.284 1218.409 218.291 218.362 214.919 313.070

2

df

χ /df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

90% CI

113 114 99 99 113 114 99 99 113 114 99 99 113 114 99 99 113 114 99 99 113 114 99 99

8.688 8.612 9.932 15.937 10.351 10.281 11.830 17.497 3.292 3.272 3.482 4.451 6.990 6.930 8.134 13.672 6.483 6.430 7.528 12.307 1.932 1.915 2.171 3.162

0.925 0.925 0.924 0.872 0.923 0.923 0.922 0.881 0.917 0.917 0.921 0.890 0.935 0.935 0.932 0.879 0.945 0.945 0.943 0.901 0.957 0.957 0.952 0.912

0.910 0.911 0.907 0.845 0.908 0.909 0.906 0.856 0.900 0.901 0.904 0.867 0.921 0.922 0.917 0.853 0.934 0.935 0.931 0.808 0.948 0.949 0.942 0.893

0.067 0.067 0.073 0.094 0.069 0.068 0.074 0.091 0.074 0.073 0.077 0.090 0.061 0.061 0.067 0.089 0.060 0.060 0.065 0.086 0.052 0.051 0.058 0.079

0.064–0.071 0.063–0.071 0.069–0.077 0.090–0.098 0.065–0.072 0.065–0.072 0.070–0.078 0.087–0.095 0.065–0.082 0.065–0.082 0.068–0.085 0.082–0.099 0.057–0.065 0.057–0.065 0.062–0.071 0.085–0.093 0.056–0.064 0.055–0.064 0.061–0.070 0.082–0.090 0.041–0.062 0.041–0.062 0.048–0.069 0.069–0.089

Note: Use of bold emphasis in the table indicates the best fit models. df: degrees of freedom; CFI: comparative fit index; TLI: Tucker–Lewis coefficient; RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation; CI: confidence interval.

to WFI. Besides, the goodness-of-fit indices of the competing models showed no significant differences between gender and age subgroups. We determined that the independence model was preferable to the other three models; Figure 2 presents the preferred model for the entire sample in the work domain. Social support in the family domain The four possible models describing the function of social support in the family domain were compared. Social support was represented by spousal support in the family domain, and the hypothesized models were

represented by the same method used in the work domain (Figure 3). The model fit index comparisons in the family domain for men and women across the three age groups are presented in Table V. Among the six subsamples, all the three models demonstrated equally acceptable fit in the family domain, as indicated by their goodness-of-fit indices and parsimony. Because both indicators of family stressors (the effects of father and mother’s health) were not significantly related with FWI (r = 0.01 and 0.004, respectively), we could reject the mediation model. Because the interaction term

Figure 2 The final model of social support and in the work domain

344

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Figure 3 The final models of spousal support in the family domain

was highly significant in the moderation model, we could reject the independence model. The other two models fit the data well, with CFIs greater than 0.95 and RMSEAs less than 0.05, thereby meeting the model fit criteria recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999). Thus, Hypothesis 2 was partially supported. Both the moderation and antecedent models showed equally good fit for the data relating to the family domain; however, our prediction of fit for the mediation model was not supported. In addition, the goodness-of-fit indices showed no significant differences between gender and age subgroups.

Discussion This study sought to investigate the functional pathways of social support in the relations among stressors, work–family interference and depression in the work and family domains of married and cohabitating Chinese science and technology professionals. On the basis Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

of previous theories and research, four competing models (i.e. the moderation model, the independence model, the antecedent model and the mediation model) were examined and compared to improve our insight into the functional pathways by which social support affects WFI and FWI. Social support from different sources Consistent with previous findings, stressors and social support were more likely to relate to interference in the same domain, as indicated by the bivariate correlations. This finding confirms the argument of Beehr, Farmer, Glazer, Gudanowski, and Nair (2003), who proposed that when the sources of support and the stressors are similar, support produces the best possible results. Even within the same domain, social support from several sources in the work domain yielded differential effects on participants’ psychological resources and 345

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Table V. The goodness-of-fit indices of competing models in the family domain in different gender and age groups Group Men, age < 35 years

Men, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years

Men, age > 45 years

Women, age < 35 years

Women, 35 ≤ age ≤ 45 years

Women, age > 45 years

2

2

df

χ /df

CFI

TLI

RMSEA

90% CI

41 42 33

6.477 6.662 7.170

0.954 0.952 0.958

0.940 0.938 0.943

0.057 0.058 0.060

0.050–0.064 0.052–0.064 0.053–0.068

Assumption violated 251.317 41 253.421 42 279.479 33

6.130 6.034 8.469

0.965 0.965 0.959

0.954 0.955 0.945

0.051 0.050 0.061

0.045–0.057 0.044–0.056 0.055–0.068

Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent

Assumption violated 79.109 41 79.110 42 80.371 33

1.929 1.884 2.435

0.974 0.974 0.967

0.965 0.967 0.955

0.047 0.046 0.058

0.031–0.062 0.030–0.061 0.042–0.074

Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent

Assumption violated 246.085 41 272.459 42 211.028 33

6.002 6.487 6.395

0.953 0.947 0.959

0.938 0.932 0.944

0.056 0.058 0.058

0.049–0.063 0.052–0.065 0.051–0.065

Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent

Assumption violated 155.737 41 159.847 42 165.653 33

3.798 3.806 5.020

0.973 0.973 0.969

0.965 0.965 0.958

0.043 0.043 0.051

0.036–0.050 0.036–0.050 0.044–0.059

Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent Mediation

Assumption violated 101.125 41 104.039 42 110.153 33 Assumption violated

2.466 2.477 3.338

0.942 0.940 0.926

0.924 0.923 0.899

0.065 0.065 0.082

0.049–0.081 0.050–0.081 0.066–0.099

Model

χ

Moderation Independence Antecedent

265.540 279.798 236.595

Mediation Moderation Independence Antecedent

Note: Use of bold emphasis in the table indicates the best fit models. df: degrees of freedom; CFI: comparative fit index; TLI: Tucker–Lewis coefficient; RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation; CI: confidence interval.

WFI. Although colleague support has received comparatively less attention than supervisory support in the literature, this study showed that colleague support effectively alleviated work–family interference. This finding is consistent with the findings of Carlson and Perrewé (1999). In this study, colleague support accounted for a larger proportion of WFI than did supervisory support, which may be caused in part by the unique demands of conducting scientific research. Researchers tend to more effectively develop team-based organizational structures, which require cooperation. Moreover, the supportive atmosphere of the entire organization is facilitated by these colleagues’ helping behaviours (Ray & Miller, 1994). The functional pathway of social support in the work domain: the independence model The hypothesis that the moderation model would show the best fit to the work domain data was not supported. Instead, the independence model fit the data best across all subgroups, a finding that did not meet our expectations. The independence model demonstrated that stressors and supervisory/colleague support had similar and independent effects on WFI, which was associated with depression. A combination of work stressors and a lack of social support may destabilize 346

the work–family balance and lead to WFI, thus resulting in increased depressive symptoms. We anticipated that job stressors would be the main predictor of WFI and that support would be the moderator. However, the moderated effect failed to reach significance. This finding may confirm the proposition that the moderation effect depends largely on the specific combination of resources and demands (Bakker, van Veldhoven, & Xanthopoulou, 2010). Bakker et al. (2010) tested multiple combinations of demands and resources to predict task enjoyment and organizational commitment and observed that specific types of resources may interact with specific types of demands. Our findings, however, were consistent with those of Van der Doef and Maes (1999), who reviewed 64 studies and found that 81 of 90 tests failed to support the demands * resources interaction effect. Another possible explanation for better fit of the independence model rather than the moderation model is that social support sometimes occurs when stressors are already having a negative effect, which just means that those conditions may bring about social support. There was also some laboratory research suggesting that social support sometimes creates additional anxiety by signifying social evaluation (e.g. Bolger & Amarel, 2007). Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Y. Gan et al.

The current study provides a more comprehensive understanding of the antecedents (demands and resources) of WFI. The role of support (colleague and supervisor) extended beyond the moderation of stressors because it served as an independent predictor of WFI. This result also provided evidence supporting the use of the iso-strain model in the work domain (Van der Doef & Maes, 1999). As Van der Doef and Maes (1999) suggested, the current research also addressed theoretical questions concerning the job demandcontrol (-support) model and identified which work characteristics were unique to the sample. The functional pathway of social support in the family domain: multiple channels The hypothesis that all the three models, namely the moderation model, the antecedent model and the mediation model, would have equally good fit to the family domain data was partially supported. Both the moderation model and the antecedent model met the assumptions for the models and exhibited fit statistics that suggested good model fits. Firstly, spousal support buffers the family stressors and prevents them from inducing FWI and depression, which is consistent with the moderation model. Secondly, spousal support reduces perceived family stress and in turn alleviates FWI, which results in fewer depressive symptoms. Both pathways involving social support act simultaneously and are interwoven to promote mental health by decreasing FWI. The mediation model, which was consistent with social-support-deterioration-deterrence model (Norris & Kaniasty, 1996), was not supported by the data. This was because perceived family stressors, i.e. parental health problems, were not directly associated with FWI and depression. Although previous literature has supported the moderating and the antecedent roles of social support separately in the family domain (Chi, et al, 2011; Byron, 2005), the role of social support from multiple channels has rarely been documented. We attribute this finding to the unique importance placed on social support and family in China. The contributions of the present study The present study provided a comprehensive assessment of the relations between stressors, work–home interference, social support and depression. Our results described the pathways of WFI and FWI and confirmed the domain specificity of social support. These findings were consistent across gender and age groups. The current study was conducted using a nationwide sample of Chinese science and technology professionals associated with various organizations. The data were representative with regard to age, education and social status, and our results therefore provide accurate insight into the relation between social support and work–family interference for all academic Chinese populations. A large sample size was necessary to detect Stress and Health 31: 336–349 (2015) © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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the moderating effects among the continuous variables (Aguinis & Stone-Romero, 1997). Furthermore, the present sample was sufficient in size to detect the buffering effects of social support and to compare the four models of the functional pathway of social support. The current findings may also be interpreted from a cross-cultural perspective. This study was conducted to answer the need for comprehensive investigations of cultural uniqueness in the antecedents of work–family interference (Poelmans, O’Driscoll, & Beham, 2005), especially in the family domain. In the family domain, social support buffers stress and reduces stressors. This domain specificity, which explains why the moderating and antecedent roles of support occur in the family domain and not in the work domain, demonstrates that this study is unique and culturally specific. Because of the representativeness of the nationwide sample of Chinese science and technology professionals, the results from the current study have numerous practical implications for the entire scientific community. It is important to keep in mind that the role of social support may vary across domains. Most organizations focus on work-related stressors (i.e. workload and role conflict) in relation to WFI (Van Daalen et al., 2006), although it seems worthwhile to also consider social support as provided by supervisors and colleagues. Notably, the current study found that, in the work domain, job stressors and support contribute independently to WFI, thus necessitating that equal attention be paid to the two and that sufficient social support be provided by their employer during the imposition of work demands. Contrary to previous findings (Matsui et al., 1995; Westman & Etzion, 2005), in the family domain, the present study showed no significant difference between gender subgroups. Therefore, both husbands and wives should be encouraged to provide emotional support to their spouses when they detect strain in the family domain. Furthermore, organizations could regularly provide skills training in the provision of spousal support. The limitations of the present study Despite these useful insights, the current study has several limitations. Firstly, the study relied only on self-reported questionnaire data, which may be subject to social desirability bias and common method variance. In adherence to recommendations by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003), Harman’s one-factor tests were conducted as a remedial statistical measure. The results showed that the first factor in our factor analysis accounted for only 18.2% of the total variance, suggesting that common method variance was not a significant problem in our study. Initially, we carefully differentiated among the terms measuring the effects of pregnancy, giving birth and breastfeeding on work functioning. However, the two sets of constructs were conceptually similar to the family–work interference measures in the study. Thus, 347

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we eventually had to delete this exceedingly useful indicator. Future studies should expand on the initial findings of this study by utilizing other assessments, such as real-time observations of participants in their work or home environments, structured interviews and multiple questionnaires that assess similar constructs. Secondly, the reliance on the MIDUS for the measurement items and the use of a single measure to assess mental health (i.e. depression) constitute additional limitations of this study. A derivation of culturally appropriate questions from the MIDUS would have been more desirable considering this study’s focus on Chinese culture. This suggestion was not implemented, however, because the questionnaires were designed as part of a large-scale survey that would allow direct comparison with the American data. Moreover, it would have been important and informative to present findings on different measures of mental and physical health outcomes (e.g. subjective wellbeing). In addition, to operationalize social support in the family domain, only spousal support was assessed; however, other family members, including parents, siblings and children, can be good sources of family support. Thirdly, because the sample of Chinese science and technology professionals contained only highly educated individuals, the generalizability of the current findings to Chinese culture and across cultures is questionable. Although efforts were made to explore the REFERENCES Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work–family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411–420. Aguinis, H., & Stone-Romero, E. F. (1997). Methodological artifacts in moderated multiple regression and their effects on statistical power. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(1), 192–206. Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M. C. (2005). Job resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout. Journal of occupational health psychology, 10(2), 170–180. Bakker, A. B., van Veldhoven, M., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2010). Beyond the demand-control model: Thriving on high job demands and resources. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 9(1), 3–16.

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Conflict of interest The authors have declared that they have no conflict of interest.

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