Age and Ageing Advance Access published March 8, 2015 Age and Ageing 2015; 0: 1–4 doi: 10.1093/ageing/afv023
© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Geriatrics Society. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
SHORT REPORT
Greater progression of athletic performance in older Masters athletes AMANDA AKKARI, DANIEL MACHIN, HIROFUMI TANAKA Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA Address correspondence to: H. Tanaka. Tel: (+1) 512 232 4801; Fax: (+1) 512 471 0946. Email: [email protected]
Background: The number of new world records has decreased substantially in most athletic events in recent years. There has been enormous growth in participation at Masters events, and older athletes have been competing at the highest levels with much younger athletes. However, the progression of athletic performance over time has not been well investigated in Masters athletes. Objective and Methods: To determine whether older Masters athletes improved athletic performance over time, running and swimming times from 1975 to 2013 were collected biennially. The running event of 100 m was chosen specifically, as it is one of the most popular track and field events that would have attracted a large number of competitors. The middle distance of 400 m as well as 100 m freestyle swimming were also examined to determine whether the results in 100 m sprint event can be confirmed in other events. Results: The improvements in fastest 100 m running times over time were not significant. However, all the Masters age-group records improved significantly over time. The slopes of improvements over the years were progressively greater at older age groups with the greatest progression observed at oldest age groups of 75–79 years examined. The general trends were similar for 400 m middle-distance running and 100 m freestyle swimming. Conclusions: While younger athletes’ performance has stagnated, Masters athletes improved their athletic performance significantly and progressively over the years. The magnitude of improvements was greater in older age groups gradually closing the gap in athletic performance between younger and older participants. Keywords: masters athletes, aging athletes, functional capacity, successful aging, sports, older people
Introduction With advancing age, risk for developing chronic diseases increases, and the capacity to perform physical tasks decreases. However, the prevalence of age-related chronic diseases and physical dysfunction is substantially reduced or even absent in older adults who continue to train and compete in athletic competitions (i.e. Masters athletes) [1, 2]. Although there is an active debate as to if and when athletic performance at the highest levels of competition reaches its natural limit [3, 4], there has been enormous growth in participation at Master athletic events in recent years [5, 6]. Currently, it is not known whether athletic performance of Masters athletes continue to progress and whether older athletes experience greater improvements over time. The available information in this area is limited to a restricted examination period (up to 1999) [5] or endurance performance [6]. This is unfortunate given the recent surge in Masters athletic competition and the fact that one of the most popular athletic events in Masters athletics are sprint running events. Additionally, because
the rates of age-related decline in athletic performance differ between sprint and endurance events [5], one cannot extrapolate the findings from endurance (aerobic) events to sprint (anaerobic) events. Accordingly, the primary aim of this study was to characterize progression of athletic performance in Masters athletes in sprint events from 1975 to 2013.
Methods Running and swimming times were collected from the publicly available Masters Track and Field and Swimming databases (www.world-masters-athletics.org, www.fina.org). The time span ranged from 1975 to 2013. The running event of 100 m was chosen specifically as it is one of the most popular track and field events that would have attracted a large number of competitors over the years. The middle distance of 400 m was also examined to determine whether the results in 100 m sprint event can be confirmed in a longer
1
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
Abstract
A. Akkari et al. Accordingly, linear regressions were used to describe the progression of athletic performance. Statistical significance was set a priori at P < 0.05 for all analyses.
Results There were significant interactions (age × year × sex) in all athletic events examined. As shown in Figure 1, the improvements in fastest (i.e. young reference) running times for 100 m running were not significant. Relative improvements in the 45+ age groups were significantly different from the fastest running times. The progression of running times was significantly greater as the ages of participants increased. The general trends were similar for 400 m middle-distance running. The progressions of 100 m swimming times were significant (P < 0.05) for all age groups and for both sexes. Older age groups demonstrated greater improvements in swimming times over the years examined. In general, older
Figure 1. Progression of 100 m sprint running times (men [A]; women [B]), 400 m running times (men [C]; women [D]) and 100 m freestyle swimming times (men [E]; women [F]) from 1975 to 2013.
2
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
distance event. Moreover, to see whether the trends of progression can be observed in other athletic events, 100 m freestyle swimming was evaluated. Age groups were separated into eight 5-year segments spanning from age 40 to 79 years. The top three times of each age group for each year were selected biennially. Additionally, the fastest three running and swimming times of any age were collected for the same years to represent a reference (i.e. young) standard from which to compare Masters age-group records. Data were analysed by multiple linear regression analyses using SPSS software (Chicago, IL, USA). If a significant interaction was found, the simple slope of linear trends of athletic performance (i.e. the yearly improvement in running or swimming time from 1975 to 2013) was compared between age groups and sexes, as previously described by Preacher et al. [7]. A variety of trends (linear, curvilinear, etc.) were fit to describe the relations between athletic performance and age. None of the lines was statistically better fit than the linear regression.
Masters athletic performance athletes and women had greater slopes of improvement in performance during that time (Table 1).
Discussion
Table 1. Improvements in athletic performance from 1975 to 2013 Age groups
100 m running
400 m running
100 m swimming
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
−8 10.05 9.75
−6 11.13 10.79
−19 44.45 43.74
−5 50.50 49.33
−88 51.25 47.53
−147 56.50 52.33
−3 11.10 11.04
−3 12.30 12.45
−12 50.70 51.76
−122†,‡ 58.90 57.00
−193† 61.60 53.50
−393†,‡ 73.36 58.04
−1 11.60 11.67
−16*,† 13.101977 12.82
−25*,† 52.90 52.40
−102†,‡ 62.801977 62.18
−242*,† 64.64 55.20
−457*,†,‡ 76.98 61.89
−6* 11.70 11.79
−57*,† 14.90 13.24
−39*,† 55.10 53.96
−361*,†,‡ 65.30 62.36
−281*,† 65.66 57.45
−522*,†,‡ 77.57 65.40
−12*,† 12.60 11.9
−61*,†,‡ 17.301977 13.37
−92*,† 57.40 55.88
−513*,†,‡ 88.001977 60.56
−305*,† 68.26 57.94
−545*,†,‡ 81.28 66.94
−14*,† 12.90 12.03
−61†,‡ 16.401977 13.92
−136*,† 60.20 57.13
−496†,‡ 85.001977 66.24
−333*,† 74.00 59.66
−650*,†,‡ 94.91 64.04
−19*,† 13.60 12.55
−57†,‡ 16.621979 15.06
−192*,† 65.80 56.60
−477†,‡ 79.661981 75.48
−354*,† 72.50 62.33
−779*,†,‡ 115.80 73.42
−27*,† 14.60 13.16
−132*,†,‡ 19.581981 16.14
−230*,† 64.601977 64.70
−729*,†,‡ 96.651981 75.81
−521*,† 82.00 64.85
−1,183*,†,‡ 140.40 85.45
−41*,† 14.801977 13.75
−136*,†,‡ 19.251981 15.94
−230† 69.901977 66.31
−1,253*,†,‡ 152.451985 80.97
−769*,† 83.94 73.37
−1,677*,†,‡ 148.7 92.48
.................................................................................... Fastest time (young reference) Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 40–44 years Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 45–49 years Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 50–54 years Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 55–59 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 60–64 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 65–69 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 70–74 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 75–79 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s
Data presented are the slope of yearly improvements in athletic performance time from 1975 to 2013. To convey the magnitude of change, the best time in 1975 and 2013 are presented, as well. If no data were available in 1975, the best time used was from the oldest year available, indicated in italics. *P < 0.05 versus Masters athlete age group one or more categories younger. † P < 0.05 versus fastest time group. ‡ P < 0.05 versus men.
3
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
The primary findings of the present study are as follows. Unlike the fastest (young reference) running time, 100 m running performance improved over time in most age groups examined in the present study. These progressive improvements were observed in both men and women. The rates of yearly improvements in athletic performance were progressively greater in women and in older age groups. The findings on 100 m sprint was confirmed in 400 m running as well as in 100 m swimming events. We observed significant improvements in performance of Masters athletes from 1975 to present day in most age groups. The slopes of sprint performance increase were
greater than those of young elite athletes. We hypothesized that with ever increasing participation of older athletes, the level of competition would rise, acting as additional catalyst for improvements in athletic performance that might not be present in that of elite competition where participation has already been extremely high. It is indisputable that the popularity of and participation in Masters athletic events have increased steadily. Evidence of increased participation of older athletes is well documented in endurance events. For example, in marathon, almost half of current marathon runners in the USA are master athletes over the age of 40 years [8]. Although the per cent of marathon finishers younger than 40 years decreased significantly over the past three decades, the per cent of Masters finishers increased significantly for both men and women [9]. Additionally, one-quarter of marathon runners in their 60s will outperform more than half of the younger competitors between the ages of 20 and 54 years
A. Akkari et al.
Key points • Athletic performance is a good index of functional capacity with advancing age. • More older athletes have been competing at the highest levels of competition. • The magnitude of improvements in athletic performance is greater in older age groups.
4
Acknowledgements We thank Erika Hale for her time and expertise in helping us with the statistical analysis of the data.
Conflicts of interest None declared.
References 1. Tanaka H, Seals DR. Invited review: dynamic exercise performance in Masters athletes: insight into the effects of primary human aging on physiological functional capacity. J Appl Phys 2003; 95: 2152–62. 2. Seals DR, Desouza CA, Donato AJ, Tanaka H. Habitual exercise and arterial aging. J Appl Phys 2008; 105: 1323–32. 3. Joyner MJ, Ruiz JR, Lucia A. The two-hour marathon: who and when? J Appl Phys 2011; 110: 275–7. 4. Marc A, Sedeaud A, Guillaume M et al. Marathon progress: demography, morphology and environment. J Sport Sci 2014; 32: 524–32. 5. Jokl P, Sethi PM, Cooper AJ. Master’s performance in the New York City Marathon 1983–1999. Brit J Sport Med 2004; 38: 408–12. 6. Stiefel M, Knechtle B, Lepers R. Master triathletes have not reached limits in their Ironman triathlon performance. Scand J Med Sci Sport 2014; 24: 89–97. 7. Preacher KJ, Curran PJ, Bauer DJ. Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. J Educ Behav Stat 2006; 31: 437–48. 8. Vopat BG, Klinge SA, McClure PK, Fadale PD. The effects of fitness on the aging process. J Am Acad Orthop Sur 2014; 22: 576–85. 9. Lepers R, Cattagni T. Do older athletes reach limits in their performance during marathon running? Age 2012; 34: 773–81. 10. Leyk D, Ruther T, Wunderlich M et al. Physical performance in middle age and old age: good news for our sedentary and aging society. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107: 809–16. 11. Tanaka H, Seals DR. Endurance exercise performance in Masters athletes: age-associated changes and underlying physiological mechanisms. J Phys 2008; 586: 55–63. Received 9 December 2014; accepted in revised form 24 December 2014
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
[10]. Furthermore, 61-year old sprinter can generate a 100 m running time that can surpass the Olympic winning time achieved in the first modern Olympics [11]. Thus, greater improvements in performance of Masters athletes can be attributed to increased participation and/or a substantial rise in the level of Masters competition. Our present results are consistent with previous research in Masters athletes engaged in endurance sports [5, 6]. As the participation of older athletes’ has increased in endurance events since 1975, there appear to be relatively larger increases in female participation compared with male participation. In the New York City marathon, increases in the number of participants were substantially greater in women than in men over the last 30 years [9]. In the current study, when comparing the slope of improvement, we found that the greater improvements in running times were seen in women than in men. Thus, the larger number of female participants in recent years may be a possible explanation for the larger magnitude of improvement observed in athletic performance of female Masters athletes. There are a number of limitations that should be noted. First, data concerning Masters athletic performance have only been certain since the mid-1970s, around the time when the World Masters Athletics, the governing body for the sport of Masters athletics, was founded. Second, we have used linear plots to represent the progression of performance over years. This was because other fits (e.g. curvilinear fits) were not significantly different from or superior to linear fits. In this context, the progression of Ironman Masters triathlon performance is also fairly linear in the past 15 years [6]. In conclusion, we demonstrated that athletic performance in Masters athletes aged 45 and older continued to improve to this day. Undoubtedly, a larger number of faster, stronger and better participants in Masters athletic events may have contributed to these improvements.
© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Geriatrics Society. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
SHORT REPORT
Greater progression of athletic performance in older Masters athletes AMANDA AKKARI, DANIEL MACHIN, HIROFUMI TANAKA Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA Address correspondence to: H. Tanaka. Tel: (+1) 512 232 4801; Fax: (+1) 512 471 0946. Email: [email protected]
Background: The number of new world records has decreased substantially in most athletic events in recent years. There has been enormous growth in participation at Masters events, and older athletes have been competing at the highest levels with much younger athletes. However, the progression of athletic performance over time has not been well investigated in Masters athletes. Objective and Methods: To determine whether older Masters athletes improved athletic performance over time, running and swimming times from 1975 to 2013 were collected biennially. The running event of 100 m was chosen specifically, as it is one of the most popular track and field events that would have attracted a large number of competitors. The middle distance of 400 m as well as 100 m freestyle swimming were also examined to determine whether the results in 100 m sprint event can be confirmed in other events. Results: The improvements in fastest 100 m running times over time were not significant. However, all the Masters age-group records improved significantly over time. The slopes of improvements over the years were progressively greater at older age groups with the greatest progression observed at oldest age groups of 75–79 years examined. The general trends were similar for 400 m middle-distance running and 100 m freestyle swimming. Conclusions: While younger athletes’ performance has stagnated, Masters athletes improved their athletic performance significantly and progressively over the years. The magnitude of improvements was greater in older age groups gradually closing the gap in athletic performance between younger and older participants. Keywords: masters athletes, aging athletes, functional capacity, successful aging, sports, older people
Introduction With advancing age, risk for developing chronic diseases increases, and the capacity to perform physical tasks decreases. However, the prevalence of age-related chronic diseases and physical dysfunction is substantially reduced or even absent in older adults who continue to train and compete in athletic competitions (i.e. Masters athletes) [1, 2]. Although there is an active debate as to if and when athletic performance at the highest levels of competition reaches its natural limit [3, 4], there has been enormous growth in participation at Master athletic events in recent years [5, 6]. Currently, it is not known whether athletic performance of Masters athletes continue to progress and whether older athletes experience greater improvements over time. The available information in this area is limited to a restricted examination period (up to 1999) [5] or endurance performance [6]. This is unfortunate given the recent surge in Masters athletic competition and the fact that one of the most popular athletic events in Masters athletics are sprint running events. Additionally, because
the rates of age-related decline in athletic performance differ between sprint and endurance events [5], one cannot extrapolate the findings from endurance (aerobic) events to sprint (anaerobic) events. Accordingly, the primary aim of this study was to characterize progression of athletic performance in Masters athletes in sprint events from 1975 to 2013.
Methods Running and swimming times were collected from the publicly available Masters Track and Field and Swimming databases (www.world-masters-athletics.org, www.fina.org). The time span ranged from 1975 to 2013. The running event of 100 m was chosen specifically as it is one of the most popular track and field events that would have attracted a large number of competitors over the years. The middle distance of 400 m was also examined to determine whether the results in 100 m sprint event can be confirmed in a longer
1
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
Abstract
A. Akkari et al. Accordingly, linear regressions were used to describe the progression of athletic performance. Statistical significance was set a priori at P < 0.05 for all analyses.
Results There were significant interactions (age × year × sex) in all athletic events examined. As shown in Figure 1, the improvements in fastest (i.e. young reference) running times for 100 m running were not significant. Relative improvements in the 45+ age groups were significantly different from the fastest running times. The progression of running times was significantly greater as the ages of participants increased. The general trends were similar for 400 m middle-distance running. The progressions of 100 m swimming times were significant (P < 0.05) for all age groups and for both sexes. Older age groups demonstrated greater improvements in swimming times over the years examined. In general, older
Figure 1. Progression of 100 m sprint running times (men [A]; women [B]), 400 m running times (men [C]; women [D]) and 100 m freestyle swimming times (men [E]; women [F]) from 1975 to 2013.
2
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
distance event. Moreover, to see whether the trends of progression can be observed in other athletic events, 100 m freestyle swimming was evaluated. Age groups were separated into eight 5-year segments spanning from age 40 to 79 years. The top three times of each age group for each year were selected biennially. Additionally, the fastest three running and swimming times of any age were collected for the same years to represent a reference (i.e. young) standard from which to compare Masters age-group records. Data were analysed by multiple linear regression analyses using SPSS software (Chicago, IL, USA). If a significant interaction was found, the simple slope of linear trends of athletic performance (i.e. the yearly improvement in running or swimming time from 1975 to 2013) was compared between age groups and sexes, as previously described by Preacher et al. [7]. A variety of trends (linear, curvilinear, etc.) were fit to describe the relations between athletic performance and age. None of the lines was statistically better fit than the linear regression.
Masters athletic performance athletes and women had greater slopes of improvement in performance during that time (Table 1).
Discussion
Table 1. Improvements in athletic performance from 1975 to 2013 Age groups
100 m running
400 m running
100 m swimming
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
−8 10.05 9.75
−6 11.13 10.79
−19 44.45 43.74
−5 50.50 49.33
−88 51.25 47.53
−147 56.50 52.33
−3 11.10 11.04
−3 12.30 12.45
−12 50.70 51.76
−122†,‡ 58.90 57.00
−193† 61.60 53.50
−393†,‡ 73.36 58.04
−1 11.60 11.67
−16*,† 13.101977 12.82
−25*,† 52.90 52.40
−102†,‡ 62.801977 62.18
−242*,† 64.64 55.20
−457*,†,‡ 76.98 61.89
−6* 11.70 11.79
−57*,† 14.90 13.24
−39*,† 55.10 53.96
−361*,†,‡ 65.30 62.36
−281*,† 65.66 57.45
−522*,†,‡ 77.57 65.40
−12*,† 12.60 11.9
−61*,†,‡ 17.301977 13.37
−92*,† 57.40 55.88
−513*,†,‡ 88.001977 60.56
−305*,† 68.26 57.94
−545*,†,‡ 81.28 66.94
−14*,† 12.90 12.03
−61†,‡ 16.401977 13.92
−136*,† 60.20 57.13
−496†,‡ 85.001977 66.24
−333*,† 74.00 59.66
−650*,†,‡ 94.91 64.04
−19*,† 13.60 12.55
−57†,‡ 16.621979 15.06
−192*,† 65.80 56.60
−477†,‡ 79.661981 75.48
−354*,† 72.50 62.33
−779*,†,‡ 115.80 73.42
−27*,† 14.60 13.16
−132*,†,‡ 19.581981 16.14
−230*,† 64.601977 64.70
−729*,†,‡ 96.651981 75.81
−521*,† 82.00 64.85
−1,183*,†,‡ 140.40 85.45
−41*,† 14.801977 13.75
−136*,†,‡ 19.251981 15.94
−230† 69.901977 66.31
−1,253*,†,‡ 152.451985 80.97
−769*,† 83.94 73.37
−1,677*,†,‡ 148.7 92.48
.................................................................................... Fastest time (young reference) Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 40–44 years Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 45–49 years Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 50–54 years Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 55–59 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 60–64 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 65–69 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 70–74 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s 75–79 years, ms/year Improvement, ms/year 1975 best time, s 2013 best time, s
Data presented are the slope of yearly improvements in athletic performance time from 1975 to 2013. To convey the magnitude of change, the best time in 1975 and 2013 are presented, as well. If no data were available in 1975, the best time used was from the oldest year available, indicated in italics. *P < 0.05 versus Masters athlete age group one or more categories younger. † P < 0.05 versus fastest time group. ‡ P < 0.05 versus men.
3
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
The primary findings of the present study are as follows. Unlike the fastest (young reference) running time, 100 m running performance improved over time in most age groups examined in the present study. These progressive improvements were observed in both men and women. The rates of yearly improvements in athletic performance were progressively greater in women and in older age groups. The findings on 100 m sprint was confirmed in 400 m running as well as in 100 m swimming events. We observed significant improvements in performance of Masters athletes from 1975 to present day in most age groups. The slopes of sprint performance increase were
greater than those of young elite athletes. We hypothesized that with ever increasing participation of older athletes, the level of competition would rise, acting as additional catalyst for improvements in athletic performance that might not be present in that of elite competition where participation has already been extremely high. It is indisputable that the popularity of and participation in Masters athletic events have increased steadily. Evidence of increased participation of older athletes is well documented in endurance events. For example, in marathon, almost half of current marathon runners in the USA are master athletes over the age of 40 years [8]. Although the per cent of marathon finishers younger than 40 years decreased significantly over the past three decades, the per cent of Masters finishers increased significantly for both men and women [9]. Additionally, one-quarter of marathon runners in their 60s will outperform more than half of the younger competitors between the ages of 20 and 54 years
A. Akkari et al.
Key points • Athletic performance is a good index of functional capacity with advancing age. • More older athletes have been competing at the highest levels of competition. • The magnitude of improvements in athletic performance is greater in older age groups.
4
Acknowledgements We thank Erika Hale for her time and expertise in helping us with the statistical analysis of the data.
Conflicts of interest None declared.
References 1. Tanaka H, Seals DR. Invited review: dynamic exercise performance in Masters athletes: insight into the effects of primary human aging on physiological functional capacity. J Appl Phys 2003; 95: 2152–62. 2. Seals DR, Desouza CA, Donato AJ, Tanaka H. Habitual exercise and arterial aging. J Appl Phys 2008; 105: 1323–32. 3. Joyner MJ, Ruiz JR, Lucia A. The two-hour marathon: who and when? J Appl Phys 2011; 110: 275–7. 4. Marc A, Sedeaud A, Guillaume M et al. Marathon progress: demography, morphology and environment. J Sport Sci 2014; 32: 524–32. 5. Jokl P, Sethi PM, Cooper AJ. Master’s performance in the New York City Marathon 1983–1999. Brit J Sport Med 2004; 38: 408–12. 6. Stiefel M, Knechtle B, Lepers R. Master triathletes have not reached limits in their Ironman triathlon performance. Scand J Med Sci Sport 2014; 24: 89–97. 7. Preacher KJ, Curran PJ, Bauer DJ. Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. J Educ Behav Stat 2006; 31: 437–48. 8. Vopat BG, Klinge SA, McClure PK, Fadale PD. The effects of fitness on the aging process. J Am Acad Orthop Sur 2014; 22: 576–85. 9. Lepers R, Cattagni T. Do older athletes reach limits in their performance during marathon running? Age 2012; 34: 773–81. 10. Leyk D, Ruther T, Wunderlich M et al. Physical performance in middle age and old age: good news for our sedentary and aging society. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010; 107: 809–16. 11. Tanaka H, Seals DR. Endurance exercise performance in Masters athletes: age-associated changes and underlying physiological mechanisms. J Phys 2008; 586: 55–63. Received 9 December 2014; accepted in revised form 24 December 2014
Downloaded from http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/ at Fudan University on May 4, 2015
[10]. Furthermore, 61-year old sprinter can generate a 100 m running time that can surpass the Olympic winning time achieved in the first modern Olympics [11]. Thus, greater improvements in performance of Masters athletes can be attributed to increased participation and/or a substantial rise in the level of Masters competition. Our present results are consistent with previous research in Masters athletes engaged in endurance sports [5, 6]. As the participation of older athletes’ has increased in endurance events since 1975, there appear to be relatively larger increases in female participation compared with male participation. In the New York City marathon, increases in the number of participants were substantially greater in women than in men over the last 30 years [9]. In the current study, when comparing the slope of improvement, we found that the greater improvements in running times were seen in women than in men. Thus, the larger number of female participants in recent years may be a possible explanation for the larger magnitude of improvement observed in athletic performance of female Masters athletes. There are a number of limitations that should be noted. First, data concerning Masters athletic performance have only been certain since the mid-1970s, around the time when the World Masters Athletics, the governing body for the sport of Masters athletics, was founded. Second, we have used linear plots to represent the progression of performance over years. This was because other fits (e.g. curvilinear fits) were not significantly different from or superior to linear fits. In this context, the progression of Ironman Masters triathlon performance is also fairly linear in the past 15 years [6]. In conclusion, we demonstrated that athletic performance in Masters athletes aged 45 and older continued to improve to this day. Undoubtedly, a larger number of faster, stronger and better participants in Masters athletic events may have contributed to these improvements.
