Accepted Manuscript Helmet Use and Head Injury in Homer’s Iliad Christian Swinney, BA PII:
S1878-8750(16)00213-8
DOI:
10.1016/j.wneu.2016.02.002
Reference:
WNEU 3695
To appear in:
World Neurosurgery
Received Date: 3 January 2016 Revised Date:
31 January 2016
Accepted Date: 1 February 2016
Please cite this article as: Swinney C, Helmet Use and Head Injury in Homer’s Iliad, World Neurosurgery (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2016.02.002. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Title: Helmet Use and Head Injury in Homer’s Iliad Abbreviated Title: Helmet Use in Homer’s Iliad Authors: Christian Swinney BA1 1
Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery
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Interests: None of the authors have any proprietary or commercial interests applicable to this paper. Funding: No funding was received/used for the research presented in this paper. Presentations: None
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Christian Swinney Stanford University School of Medicine Department of Neurosurgery 300 Pasteur Dr. Stanford, CA 94305 Phone: (317) 753-9026 Fax: (650) 723-4000 E-mail: [email protected]
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Correspondence and Reprints to:
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 2 Abstract: Homer’s detailed descriptions of head injuries inflicted during the Trojan War are of particular interest to those in the medical community. While studies have examined the prevalence of such injuries, none have
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examined the preventative measures taken to avoid them. An in depth review of helmet use in Homer’s Iliad was conducted to address this previously unexplored facet of the epic. An English translation of Homer’s text was reviewed for all references to helmet use. The number of helmet references in each
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book was recorded, along with other pertinent details for each reference. A total of 87 helmet references were recorded (40 combat, 47 noncombat). The helmet(s) belonged to a Greek warrior in 41 cases
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(47.1%), a Trojan warrior in 38 cases (43.6%), a divinity in 5 cases (5.7%), and a general group of warriors in 3 cases (3.4%). Helmet use provided protective benefit to Greek warriors at a rate of 30.0% (3/10) and Trojan warriors at a rate of 11.1% (2/18). This difference was not statistically significant (p=0.23). The overall combined protective benefit of helmet use in the text was 17.9% (5/28). Helmets belonging to 15 specific Greek warriors and 18 specific Trojan warriors were referenced in the text.
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Helmets belonging to Hector (n=12) and Achilles (n=8) were most frequently mentioned. Helmet use and head injury both play a prominent role in Homer’s Iliad. Helmets are frequently utilized in combat
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Key Words:
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settings, but with relatively little success. Helmets are also used in various noncombat settings.
Iliad, Homer, Head Injury, Helmet, Hector, Achilles
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 3 Introduction: Homer’s epic poem The Iliad is an invaluable resource in our understanding of Bronze Age culture. His vivid retelling of the final days of the Trojan War, a 10 year conflict between Greek and Trojan forces in
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12th century BC, provides the modern reader with insight into the military strategy, customs, and culture of ancient Mediterranean civilizations.1 Of particular interest to those in the medical community are Homer’s detailed descriptions of injuries inflicted during the siege of Troy. Notable anatomic detail is
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often provided, suggesting a relatively significant degree of medical knowledge.2 In fact, some have gone as far as to suggest that Homer may have actually been trained as a physician or surgeon.3,4 Multiple
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studies have examined the breadth of injuries described by Homer.5-12 These studies have examined injuries specific to multiple anatomic regions, including the thorax, upper extremity, lower extremity, brachial plexus, and face, among others. They have shown that the poet not only provided detailed anatomic descriptions of these injuries, but also provided insight into the mechanisms of injury and subsequent medical complications.
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Traumatic head injury is one of the most substantial causes of morbidity and mortality in Homer’s epic poem. A recent study showed 54 total references to head and neck injury in The Iliad, typically resulting in death.1 Of note, it has been suggested that Homer’s detailed descriptions of head injury provided some
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of the earliest written reports of neurotrauma in recorded history.13-15 Essential to one’s understanding of head injury in The Iliad is an understanding of the measures taken to prevent such injury, most notably in
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the form of protective helmets. However, there is a dearth of evidence in the literature on this topic. While these helmets were extensively utilized by both the Greek and Trojan warriors, a detailed analysis of helmet use in The Iliad has not been reported. Thus, such an inquiry, examining the features, protective benefit, and cultural/religious significance of helmets in Homer’s epic poem is warranted.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 4 Materials and Methods: Selection of Text: An English translation of Homer’s epic poem The Iliad was reviewed for all helmet references. Both
currently available in the public domain, was used.
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Statistical Analysis:
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“helmet” and “helm” were considered applicable. Samuel Butler’s translation, first published in 1898 and
An electronic copy of the text was searched for relevant terms using a “find” algorithm. The number of
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helmet references in each of the poem’s 24 books was recorded. For each reference, additional details were noted. These included the context in which the reference was made (combat vs. noncombat), the owner of the helmet, the side the owner belonged to (Greek vs. Trojan vs. divinity), descriptive details (if provided), and whether the helmet provided any protective benefit. Any situation in which the bearer of the helmet was in an altercation with an opposing warrior was considered a combat situation. All other
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situations were considered noncombat. All descriptive details pertaining to the specific reference were considered. The last category, regarding protective benefit, was only considered in combat situations in which a direct blow to the head/neck region was described. Thus, not all combat situations were eligible.
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The helmet was considered protective if any outcome other than death ensued following the blow. A 2 sample homoscedastic t-test was used to evaluate statistical significance when applicable. All data
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was collected and analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2013. Results:
A total of 87 helmet references were recorded throughout the text (Table 1, Chart 1). This included 40 combat related references and 47 noncombat references. The most references were noted in book 13, in which 14 total references were made (7 combat, 7 noncombat). References were made in all books except 1, 9, and 24.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 5 The helmet(s) belonged to a Greek warrior in 41 of the 87 cases (47.1%), a Trojan warrior in 38 cases (43.6%), a divinity in 5 cases (5.7%), and a general group of warriors (assumed to contain both Greek and Trojan warriors) in 3 cases (3.4%). Helmet use provided protective benefit to Greek warriors at a rate of
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30% (3/10) and Trojan warriors at a rate of 11.1% (2/18) (Table 2). The overall combined protective benefit of helmet use in the text was 17.9% (5/28). Greek warriors receiving protective benefit included Menelaus, Ajax, and Peneleos. Trojan warriors receiving protective benefit included Hector and Dolops.
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Neither side was more likely to receive a statistically significant protective benefit from helmet use (p=0.23).
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Helmets belonging to 15 specific Greek warriors were referenced in the text (Table 3). The most frequently referenced Greek helmet belonged to Achilles, referenced 8 times. Other frequently referenced (3+) Greek warriors included Agamemnon (n=4), Odysseus (n=3), and Patroclus (n=3). Helmets belonging to 18 specific Trojan warriors were referenced in the text (Table 3). The most frequently referenced Trojan helmet belonged to Hector, referenced 12 times. Other frequently referenced (3+)
(n=2), were also mentioned.
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Trojan warriors included Alexandrus (n=4). Helmets belonging to 2 divinities, Ares (n=3) and Athena
Multiple descriptive terms were used to characterize the helmets throughout the text (Table 4). There
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were 10 references to the plume/crest of the helmet. Of these, a horsehair plume/crest was the most common (n=6). References to four-plumed/crested and golden-plumed/crested helmets were also
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recorded. Horsehair and four-plumed helmets were worn by Greeks, Trojans, and divinities, while the only reference to a golden-plumed helmet described a Greek warrior, Achilles. Characteristics shared by both Greek and Trojan helmets included being made with bronze, as well as the descriptive terms “gleaming” and “well-wrought.” Characteristics only described in Greek helmets included being made with 4 layers of metal and being made with bull’s hide. Characteristics only described in Trojan helmets included being made with a visor, with 3 layers of metal, with a strap of oxhide, and the descriptive terms “heavy,” “doughty,” and “dyed with scarlet.” There were two helmet characteristics only used to describe
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 6 the helmet of a divinity: made with gold (not to be confused with the golden plumed helmet of Achilles) and made with the emblems of a hundred cities.
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Discussion: A detailed review of helmet use in The Iliad sheds an important light onto the medical, military, and cultural practices of the Mediterranean peninsula in the Bronze Age. Head injuries are noted to occur
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throughout the text and are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality.1,5,11,16 Helmets were frequently utilized in combat settings to prevent such injuries. Helmets are often referenced in noncombat situations
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as well. The use of helmets by the ancient warriors in combat situations suggests, at the very least, a primitive knowledge and appreciation of the potential sequela of traumatic head injury that could be incurred during battle. Additionally, the frequent use of helmets in noncombat situations shows the various forms of cultural significance that they possessed. Frequency of References:
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A review of the text revealed that helmets were frequently referenced, mentioned 87 total times. However, it is not only the number of references that is significant, but also the context. While there were a notable number of combat references (n=40), as one might expect in such a story, the majority (54.0%)
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of the references (n=47) were actually in noncombat situations. These references included, but were not limited to, epithets (“Hector of the gleaming helmet”), battle preparations (“On his [Hector] comely head
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he set his helmet”), physical descriptions (Table 3, Table 4), and discussions of fate/chance (“They cast lots in a bronze helmet and the lot of Teucer fell first”). The array of noncombat references suggests that the cultural significance of the helmet extended beyond the protective benefit that it offered. Quantifying the number of helmet references in The Iliad compliments previous research, which has established the number of combat related head injuries in Homer’s epic. The number of head injuries reported in previous studies has ranged from 41 and 54, varying based on specific inclusion parameters.1-2 Although Homer does not provide specific neuroanatomic locations for most of these injuries, an analysis
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 7 of the text allows the reader to make certain inferences. Possible sites of initial impact include the frontal bone, temporal bone, retromandibular area, and oral cavity, among others.1 It should be mentioned that head injuries and associated fatalities are also found in other Homeric texts.
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Such references have been noted in Homer’s Odyssey, although at a notably less frequent rate.16 However, this decrease in frequency is not surprising, as The Odyssey has relatively little emphasis on large scale combat.
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Distribution of References:
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In terms of the distribution of references, there was a relatively even distribution, with references occurring in 21 of 24 books. The books in which no references were made include books 1, 9, and 24. Notably, no references were made in the opening and closing books of the epic, as these sections of the story focus less on the battle itself, and more on the background and aftermath of the conflict, respectively. As one might expect, the most helmet references were made in the middle of the poem, at
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the height of the conflict, in book 13. This section included 14 total references (7 combat, 7 noncombat). The number of references for each of the opposing forces was nearly identical, with helmets belonging to Greek warriors described 41 times (47.1% of total references) and helmets belonging to Trojan warriors
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referenced 38 times (43.6% of total references). The relatively similar frequency suggests that protective headgear was ubiquitously used by military forces of the Mediterranean region during this time period,
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not solely utilized by a single side. Helmets belonging to divinities were also referenced on select occasions (n=5), but far less pervasively than those belonging to Greek or Trojan warriors. Protective Benefit:
After establishing the prevalence of helmet use, one must turn one’s attention to the protective benefit afforded to the warriors (Table 2). In order to assess this, all situations in which a helmet was referenced in the setting of a blow to the head/neck region were examined. The helmet was considered protective if any outcome other than death ensued. Notably, helmets provided relatively little protective benefit,
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 8 preventing death in only 17.9% of cases (5/29). Greek warriors had a slightly higher rate of protection (30%, 3/10) compared to their Trojan counterparts (11.1%, 2/18). However, this difference was not statistically significant (p=0.23). Given the relatively few instances in which a helmet was protective, one
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might expect only major characters, more likely to have superiorly crafted armor, to receive protective benefit. However, this was not the case. While major characters such as Hector, Ajax, and Menelaus were among those receiving protective benefit, relatively minor characters, Peneleos and Dolops, also received
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protection. A notable example of the protective benefit afforded by helmet use is seen in the battle
between Lycon and Peneleos. In book 16 the text states: “Lycon struck the plumed crest of Peneleos'
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helmet but his sword broke at the hilt, while Peneleos smote Lycon on the neck under the ear.” Other vivid examples also exist throughout the epic.
While this study is the first to specifically examine helmet use, others have looked at head injury in general.1,16 These studies have also found that most cases of head trauma in the text result in death, with fatalities reported in up to 87% of cases. This further supports the notion that helmets conferred relatively
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little protective benefit to the Greek and Trojan warriors.
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In terms of the individuals to whom the helmets belonged, the texts references 15 specific Greek warriors, 18 specific Trojan warriors, and 2 specific divinities (Chart 2, Table 3). The most frequently referenced
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Trojan helmet belonged to Hector (n=12). It was also the most frequently referenced helmet in the text. The only other Trojan helmet referenced 3+ times belonged to Alexandrus (n=4), a relatively minor character. Of the Greeks, Achilles’ helmet was most commonly referenced (n=8), followed by Agamemnon (n=4), Odysseus (n=3), and Patroclus (n=3). While on a large scale The Iliad is a conflict between the Greek and Trojan forces, it ultimately evolves into a conflict between two men, Hector and Achilles. Thus, it seems appropriate that the helmets belonging to these two men are referred to most frequently. It is ironic that Hector obtains Achilles’ helmet from another Greek warrior during the course
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 9 of the conflict and then wears it in the final confrontation. Achilles’ intimate knowledge of his own armor allows him to exploit its weakness, ultimately leading to the death of Hector. There were 2 divinities, Athena and Ares, which were described as wearing helmets, both in noncombat
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settings. Ares helmet is included in his epithet, as he is referred to as Ares “of the gleaming helmet.” There are two notable scenes involving Athena and the use of a helmet. The first reference is part of a vivid description of the goddess. The second reference, in which Athena dons the helmet of Ares to avoid
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being recognized by Hades, displays the importance of the helmet in the identity of a warrior/deity. It is also a unique situation in which the primary function of the helmet is for deception, rather than protection.
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Descriptive Terms Utilized:
The descriptive terms used to characterize the various helmets worn throughout The Iliad can also prove insightful to the modern reader. Multiple descriptive terms are used throughout the text (Table 4), illustrating the variety of design elements incorporated into protective headwear. Descriptive passages
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tended to fall into one of three categories, either referring to the helmet’s plume/crest, notable design features (including metal, shape, etc), or descriptive adjectives (ex: heavy, gleaming). The most commonly used descriptor referred to the horsehair plume/crest that projects from the superior aspect of
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the helmet’s exterior. This feature was often included in ancient artistic representations of the Trojan War, as seen in Figure 1. It is also frequently included in modern reconstructions, as noted in Figure 2. This
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feature was described most often in Trojan helmets (n=3), but was also used to describe helmets belonging to Greeks (n=2) and a divinity (n=1). The prevalence of this feature suggests the importance of the horse to both Trojan culture, a well-known association, and other cultures of the Mediterranean. Bronze, a commonly utilized metal during this period, was also noted in both Greek (n=2) and Trojan (n=1) helmets. A feature unique to Trojan helmets was the inclusion of a visor (n=3). Such a feature was likely intended to be protective, as opposed to ornamental, and was surely meant to protect the eye region, thus
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 10 decreasing associated morbidity. A notable example is seen when Hector is attacked by an opposing warrior. Homer states “the spear was stayed by the visored helm [of Hector],” possibly referring to the protective benefit afforded by this feature.
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Helmet features unique to divine characters included the use of gold in the helmet’s frame (as opposed to the golden plume of Achilles’ helmet). The use of a precious metal, such as gold, may suggest the superior status of the divinities, in comparison to the mortal warriors. There is also an interesting
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reference to Athena’s helmet containing emblems of a hundred cities. From a construction standpoint, this suggests that unique designs/emblems could be crafted into the helmet’s frame. From a cultural
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standpoint, it may suggest the vast influence of Athena throughout the ancient Mediterranean, if one assumes that she is the patron divinity in each of these 100 cities. While the exterior features of the helmets are described in detail, little mention is made of any interior features, such as protective insulation. A review of the text and associated literature did not provide insight into this issue. However,
Choice of Translation:
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this is a potentially important aspect of helmet design that warrants further exploration.
Any study of a Homeric text must address the issue of translation. The Iliad was originally an oral tale,
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memorized and recited by the bards. It was, at a much later point, transcribed in Greek, and then later Latin. It is from these original texts that most English translations are based. However, there are multiple
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English versions available. Samuel Butler’s translation has been used by many since its initial publication in 1898, making it a reasonable choice. It should be noted that other modern translations are also available, including those by Robert Fitzgerald, and more recently Robert Fagles. Conclusion:
A review of the text makes it clear that helmets play a prominent role in Homer’s epic poem The Iliad. The combat uses suggest a basic appreciation for the potentially debilitating morbidity associated with head injury. Additionally, the relatively low protective benefit of helmet use suggests that effective
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 11 helmet design and construction practices were still developing at this time. The noncombat uses illustrate the cultural significance of protective headwear, functioning as a symbol of status, fate, and identity. Going forward, future studies could investigate other protective measures utilized in the text, such as
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shields and armor. Acknowledgments:
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None
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 12 Resources: 1. Sapounakis C, Rallis G, Mourouzis C, et al. Injuries to the head and neck in Homer's Iliad. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;45(2):112-5.
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2. Konsolaki E, Astyrakaki E, Stefanakis G, Agouridakis P, Askitopoulou H. Cranial trauma in ancient Greece: from Homer to classical authors. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2010;38(8):549-53.
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3. Melchionda E. Homer, a Military Physician? Ann Med Nav (Roma). 1964;69:85-111. 4. Godquin B. Was Homer a surgeon? Chirurgie. 1990;116(2):136-43.
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5. Ralli I, Stathopoulos P, Mourouzis K, et al. Facial trauma in the Trojan War. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;19(2):191-4.
6. Galanakos SP, Bot AG, Macheras GA. Pelvic and lower extremity injuries in Homer's Iliad: a review of the literature. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2015;78(1):204-8.
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7. Kömürcü E, Tok F, Simşek A, Ozçakar L. Musculoskeletal injuries in Homer's Iliad: the War of Troy revisited. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2014;93(4):335-41. 8. Hutchison RL, Hirthler MA. Upper extremity injuries in Homer's Iliad. J Hand Surg Am.
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2013;38(9):1790-3.
9. Apostolakis E, Apostolaki G, Apostolaki M, Chorti M. The reported thoracic injuries in Homer's Iliad.
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J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010;5:114.
10. Saunders KB. The wounds in "Iliad" 13-16. Class Q. 1999;49(2):345-63. 11. Mylonas AI, Tzerbos FH, Eftychiadis AC, Papadopoulou EC. Cranio-maxillofacial injuries in Homer's Iliad. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2008;36(1):1-7.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 13 12. Aydn A, Tümerdem B, Yazar M, Erer M. Three-thousand-year-old written reference to a description of what might be the earliest brachial plexus injuries in the Iliad of Homer. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;114(5):1352-3.
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13. Sahlas DJ. Functional neuroanatomy in the pre-Hippocratic era: observations from the Iliad of Homer. Neurosurgery. 2001;48(6):1352-7.
14. Walshe TM. Neurological concepts in archaic Greece: what did Homer know? J Hist Neurosci.
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1997;6(1):72-81.
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15. Grunert P, Darabi K, Espinosa J, Filippi R. Computer-aided navigation in neurosurgery. Neurosurg Rev. 2003;26(2):73-99.
16. Stathopoulos P, Ghaly GA, Azari A. Injuries to the head and neck in Homer's Odyssey. Br J Oral
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Maxillofac Surg. 2015;S0266-4356(15)00650-6. [Epub ahead of print]
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 14 Figure Legends: Figure 1: Depiction of Achilles (With Helmet) and Ajax (Without Helmet) on a Greek Amphora (c. 530
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BC, attributed to Exekias).
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Figure 2: Helmet with Central Plume, Modern Reconstruction Based on Homeric Text
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Table 1: Helmet References in Homer’s Iliad
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Noncombat Related References 0 1 3 0 4 3 4 0 0 4 2 0 7 1 2 4 1 2 3 2 0 1 3 0 47
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Combat Related References 0 0 0 5 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 5 7 2 3 6 1 0 0 4 1 2 0 0 40
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Total
Total Helmet References 0 1 3 5 4 4 5 1 0 4 3 5 14 3 5 10 2 2 3 6 1 3 3 0 87
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Book
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Table 2: Protective Benefit of Helmet Use Frequency of Protective Benefit
Specific Warriors Receiving Protective Benefit
30.0% (3/10) 11.1% (2/18) 17.9% (5/28)
Menelaus, Ajax, Peneleos Hector, Dolops -
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Greek Trojan General/Unspecified Divinity Total
Number of References (% of total references) 41 (47.1%) 38 (43.6%) 3 (3.4%) 5 (5.7%) 87
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Owner of Helmet
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Table 3: Specific Warriors Referenced Number of References
Descriptive Details
8
Agamemnon Odysseus Patroclus
4 3 3
-Golden-plumed/crested -Gleaming -Made with 4 layers of metal -Four-plumed/crested -Made with bull's hide -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Well-wrought
Aphareus Deipyrus Diomed Eioneus Nestor Amphimachus Menelaus Periphetes Ajax Peneleos Epeigeus Trojan Warriors Hector
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
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Damasus Deiphobus Demoleon Echepolus Acamas Gorgythion Agastrophus Epicles Ilioneus Dolops
Erylaus Hippothous
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-Made with bronze
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Aeneas
4
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Alexandrus
12
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Name Greek Warriors Achilles
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
-Horsehair-plumed/crested
-Well-wrought -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Made with a visor -Made with three layers of metal -Gleaming -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Made with a strap of oxhide -Made with a visor -Doughty -Made with a visor -Made with bronze
-Heavy -Four-plumed/crested -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Made with bronze -Dyed with scarlet
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Deucalion Lycaon Sarpedon Divinities Ares
1 1 1
Athena
2
-Well-wrought -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Gleaming -Made with gold -Four-plumed/crested -Made with the emblems of a hundred cities
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3
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Table 4: Descriptive Terms Utilized Greek/Trojan/Divinity
Plume/Crest Horsehair-plumed/crested
6
Four-plumed/crested
3
Golden-plumed/crested Design Features Made with bronze
1
Trojan (3) Greek (2) Divinity (1) Greek (1) Trojan (1) Divinity (1) Greek (1)
Made with a visor Made with 4 layers of metal Made with 3 layers of metal Made with a strap of oxhide Made with bull's hide Made with the emblems of a hundred cities Made with gold Other Descriptive Features Gleaming
3 1 1 1 1 1 1
Trojan (2) Greek (1) Trojan (3) Greek (1) Trojan (1) Trojan (1) Greek (1) Divinity (1) Divinity (1)
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Heavy Doughty Dyed with scarlet
3
3
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Well-wrought
3
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Number of References
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Descriptive term
1 1 1
Greek (1) Trojan (1) Divinity (1) Greek (1) Trojan (1) Divinity (1) Trojan (1) Trojan (1) Trojan (1)
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Chart 1: Helmet References in Homer’s Iliad
16 Combat References
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Noncombat References 12 10 8 6
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4 2 0 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
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1
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Book
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Number of References
14
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Chart 2: Frequently Referenced Helmets in Homer’s Iliad*
14
Achilles
10
Odysseus Patroclus
6
Hector Alexandrus
4
Ares
0 Greek
Trojan
Owner of Helmet
Divinity
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*3+ References
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2
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References
Agamemnon 8
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12
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Highlights: A total of 87 helmet references were recorded in Homer’s Iliad. There was a relatively even distribution of references between Greek and Trojan warriors.
A majority of traumatic head injuries resulted in death. Neither side received a superior protective benefit from helmet use.
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Helmet use was relatively ineffective at preventing traumatic head injury.
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The most common descriptive feature referred to the horsehair plume sitting atop the helmet.
S1878-8750(16)00213-8
DOI:
10.1016/j.wneu.2016.02.002
Reference:
WNEU 3695
To appear in:
World Neurosurgery
Received Date: 3 January 2016 Revised Date:
31 January 2016
Accepted Date: 1 February 2016
Please cite this article as: Swinney C, Helmet Use and Head Injury in Homer’s Iliad, World Neurosurgery (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2016.02.002. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Title: Helmet Use and Head Injury in Homer’s Iliad Abbreviated Title: Helmet Use in Homer’s Iliad Authors: Christian Swinney BA1 1
Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery
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Interests: None of the authors have any proprietary or commercial interests applicable to this paper. Funding: No funding was received/used for the research presented in this paper. Presentations: None
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Christian Swinney Stanford University School of Medicine Department of Neurosurgery 300 Pasteur Dr. Stanford, CA 94305 Phone: (317) 753-9026 Fax: (650) 723-4000 E-mail: [email protected]
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Correspondence and Reprints to:
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 2 Abstract: Homer’s detailed descriptions of head injuries inflicted during the Trojan War are of particular interest to those in the medical community. While studies have examined the prevalence of such injuries, none have
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examined the preventative measures taken to avoid them. An in depth review of helmet use in Homer’s Iliad was conducted to address this previously unexplored facet of the epic. An English translation of Homer’s text was reviewed for all references to helmet use. The number of helmet references in each
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book was recorded, along with other pertinent details for each reference. A total of 87 helmet references were recorded (40 combat, 47 noncombat). The helmet(s) belonged to a Greek warrior in 41 cases
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(47.1%), a Trojan warrior in 38 cases (43.6%), a divinity in 5 cases (5.7%), and a general group of warriors in 3 cases (3.4%). Helmet use provided protective benefit to Greek warriors at a rate of 30.0% (3/10) and Trojan warriors at a rate of 11.1% (2/18). This difference was not statistically significant (p=0.23). The overall combined protective benefit of helmet use in the text was 17.9% (5/28). Helmets belonging to 15 specific Greek warriors and 18 specific Trojan warriors were referenced in the text.
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Helmets belonging to Hector (n=12) and Achilles (n=8) were most frequently mentioned. Helmet use and head injury both play a prominent role in Homer’s Iliad. Helmets are frequently utilized in combat
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Key Words:
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settings, but with relatively little success. Helmets are also used in various noncombat settings.
Iliad, Homer, Head Injury, Helmet, Hector, Achilles
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 3 Introduction: Homer’s epic poem The Iliad is an invaluable resource in our understanding of Bronze Age culture. His vivid retelling of the final days of the Trojan War, a 10 year conflict between Greek and Trojan forces in
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12th century BC, provides the modern reader with insight into the military strategy, customs, and culture of ancient Mediterranean civilizations.1 Of particular interest to those in the medical community are Homer’s detailed descriptions of injuries inflicted during the siege of Troy. Notable anatomic detail is
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often provided, suggesting a relatively significant degree of medical knowledge.2 In fact, some have gone as far as to suggest that Homer may have actually been trained as a physician or surgeon.3,4 Multiple
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studies have examined the breadth of injuries described by Homer.5-12 These studies have examined injuries specific to multiple anatomic regions, including the thorax, upper extremity, lower extremity, brachial plexus, and face, among others. They have shown that the poet not only provided detailed anatomic descriptions of these injuries, but also provided insight into the mechanisms of injury and subsequent medical complications.
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Traumatic head injury is one of the most substantial causes of morbidity and mortality in Homer’s epic poem. A recent study showed 54 total references to head and neck injury in The Iliad, typically resulting in death.1 Of note, it has been suggested that Homer’s detailed descriptions of head injury provided some
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of the earliest written reports of neurotrauma in recorded history.13-15 Essential to one’s understanding of head injury in The Iliad is an understanding of the measures taken to prevent such injury, most notably in
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the form of protective helmets. However, there is a dearth of evidence in the literature on this topic. While these helmets were extensively utilized by both the Greek and Trojan warriors, a detailed analysis of helmet use in The Iliad has not been reported. Thus, such an inquiry, examining the features, protective benefit, and cultural/religious significance of helmets in Homer’s epic poem is warranted.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 4 Materials and Methods: Selection of Text: An English translation of Homer’s epic poem The Iliad was reviewed for all helmet references. Both
currently available in the public domain, was used.
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Statistical Analysis:
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“helmet” and “helm” were considered applicable. Samuel Butler’s translation, first published in 1898 and
An electronic copy of the text was searched for relevant terms using a “find” algorithm. The number of
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helmet references in each of the poem’s 24 books was recorded. For each reference, additional details were noted. These included the context in which the reference was made (combat vs. noncombat), the owner of the helmet, the side the owner belonged to (Greek vs. Trojan vs. divinity), descriptive details (if provided), and whether the helmet provided any protective benefit. Any situation in which the bearer of the helmet was in an altercation with an opposing warrior was considered a combat situation. All other
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situations were considered noncombat. All descriptive details pertaining to the specific reference were considered. The last category, regarding protective benefit, was only considered in combat situations in which a direct blow to the head/neck region was described. Thus, not all combat situations were eligible.
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The helmet was considered protective if any outcome other than death ensued following the blow. A 2 sample homoscedastic t-test was used to evaluate statistical significance when applicable. All data
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was collected and analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2013. Results:
A total of 87 helmet references were recorded throughout the text (Table 1, Chart 1). This included 40 combat related references and 47 noncombat references. The most references were noted in book 13, in which 14 total references were made (7 combat, 7 noncombat). References were made in all books except 1, 9, and 24.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 5 The helmet(s) belonged to a Greek warrior in 41 of the 87 cases (47.1%), a Trojan warrior in 38 cases (43.6%), a divinity in 5 cases (5.7%), and a general group of warriors (assumed to contain both Greek and Trojan warriors) in 3 cases (3.4%). Helmet use provided protective benefit to Greek warriors at a rate of
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30% (3/10) and Trojan warriors at a rate of 11.1% (2/18) (Table 2). The overall combined protective benefit of helmet use in the text was 17.9% (5/28). Greek warriors receiving protective benefit included Menelaus, Ajax, and Peneleos. Trojan warriors receiving protective benefit included Hector and Dolops.
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Neither side was more likely to receive a statistically significant protective benefit from helmet use (p=0.23).
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Helmets belonging to 15 specific Greek warriors were referenced in the text (Table 3). The most frequently referenced Greek helmet belonged to Achilles, referenced 8 times. Other frequently referenced (3+) Greek warriors included Agamemnon (n=4), Odysseus (n=3), and Patroclus (n=3). Helmets belonging to 18 specific Trojan warriors were referenced in the text (Table 3). The most frequently referenced Trojan helmet belonged to Hector, referenced 12 times. Other frequently referenced (3+)
(n=2), were also mentioned.
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Trojan warriors included Alexandrus (n=4). Helmets belonging to 2 divinities, Ares (n=3) and Athena
Multiple descriptive terms were used to characterize the helmets throughout the text (Table 4). There
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were 10 references to the plume/crest of the helmet. Of these, a horsehair plume/crest was the most common (n=6). References to four-plumed/crested and golden-plumed/crested helmets were also
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recorded. Horsehair and four-plumed helmets were worn by Greeks, Trojans, and divinities, while the only reference to a golden-plumed helmet described a Greek warrior, Achilles. Characteristics shared by both Greek and Trojan helmets included being made with bronze, as well as the descriptive terms “gleaming” and “well-wrought.” Characteristics only described in Greek helmets included being made with 4 layers of metal and being made with bull’s hide. Characteristics only described in Trojan helmets included being made with a visor, with 3 layers of metal, with a strap of oxhide, and the descriptive terms “heavy,” “doughty,” and “dyed with scarlet.” There were two helmet characteristics only used to describe
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 6 the helmet of a divinity: made with gold (not to be confused with the golden plumed helmet of Achilles) and made with the emblems of a hundred cities.
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Discussion: A detailed review of helmet use in The Iliad sheds an important light onto the medical, military, and cultural practices of the Mediterranean peninsula in the Bronze Age. Head injuries are noted to occur
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throughout the text and are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality.1,5,11,16 Helmets were frequently utilized in combat settings to prevent such injuries. Helmets are often referenced in noncombat situations
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as well. The use of helmets by the ancient warriors in combat situations suggests, at the very least, a primitive knowledge and appreciation of the potential sequela of traumatic head injury that could be incurred during battle. Additionally, the frequent use of helmets in noncombat situations shows the various forms of cultural significance that they possessed. Frequency of References:
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A review of the text revealed that helmets were frequently referenced, mentioned 87 total times. However, it is not only the number of references that is significant, but also the context. While there were a notable number of combat references (n=40), as one might expect in such a story, the majority (54.0%)
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of the references (n=47) were actually in noncombat situations. These references included, but were not limited to, epithets (“Hector of the gleaming helmet”), battle preparations (“On his [Hector] comely head
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he set his helmet”), physical descriptions (Table 3, Table 4), and discussions of fate/chance (“They cast lots in a bronze helmet and the lot of Teucer fell first”). The array of noncombat references suggests that the cultural significance of the helmet extended beyond the protective benefit that it offered. Quantifying the number of helmet references in The Iliad compliments previous research, which has established the number of combat related head injuries in Homer’s epic. The number of head injuries reported in previous studies has ranged from 41 and 54, varying based on specific inclusion parameters.1-2 Although Homer does not provide specific neuroanatomic locations for most of these injuries, an analysis
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 7 of the text allows the reader to make certain inferences. Possible sites of initial impact include the frontal bone, temporal bone, retromandibular area, and oral cavity, among others.1 It should be mentioned that head injuries and associated fatalities are also found in other Homeric texts.
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Such references have been noted in Homer’s Odyssey, although at a notably less frequent rate.16 However, this decrease in frequency is not surprising, as The Odyssey has relatively little emphasis on large scale combat.
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Distribution of References:
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In terms of the distribution of references, there was a relatively even distribution, with references occurring in 21 of 24 books. The books in which no references were made include books 1, 9, and 24. Notably, no references were made in the opening and closing books of the epic, as these sections of the story focus less on the battle itself, and more on the background and aftermath of the conflict, respectively. As one might expect, the most helmet references were made in the middle of the poem, at
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the height of the conflict, in book 13. This section included 14 total references (7 combat, 7 noncombat). The number of references for each of the opposing forces was nearly identical, with helmets belonging to Greek warriors described 41 times (47.1% of total references) and helmets belonging to Trojan warriors
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referenced 38 times (43.6% of total references). The relatively similar frequency suggests that protective headgear was ubiquitously used by military forces of the Mediterranean region during this time period,
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not solely utilized by a single side. Helmets belonging to divinities were also referenced on select occasions (n=5), but far less pervasively than those belonging to Greek or Trojan warriors. Protective Benefit:
After establishing the prevalence of helmet use, one must turn one’s attention to the protective benefit afforded to the warriors (Table 2). In order to assess this, all situations in which a helmet was referenced in the setting of a blow to the head/neck region were examined. The helmet was considered protective if any outcome other than death ensued. Notably, helmets provided relatively little protective benefit,
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 8 preventing death in only 17.9% of cases (5/29). Greek warriors had a slightly higher rate of protection (30%, 3/10) compared to their Trojan counterparts (11.1%, 2/18). However, this difference was not statistically significant (p=0.23). Given the relatively few instances in which a helmet was protective, one
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might expect only major characters, more likely to have superiorly crafted armor, to receive protective benefit. However, this was not the case. While major characters such as Hector, Ajax, and Menelaus were among those receiving protective benefit, relatively minor characters, Peneleos and Dolops, also received
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protection. A notable example of the protective benefit afforded by helmet use is seen in the battle
between Lycon and Peneleos. In book 16 the text states: “Lycon struck the plumed crest of Peneleos'
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helmet but his sword broke at the hilt, while Peneleos smote Lycon on the neck under the ear.” Other vivid examples also exist throughout the epic.
While this study is the first to specifically examine helmet use, others have looked at head injury in general.1,16 These studies have also found that most cases of head trauma in the text result in death, with fatalities reported in up to 87% of cases. This further supports the notion that helmets conferred relatively
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little protective benefit to the Greek and Trojan warriors.
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In terms of the individuals to whom the helmets belonged, the texts references 15 specific Greek warriors, 18 specific Trojan warriors, and 2 specific divinities (Chart 2, Table 3). The most frequently referenced
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Trojan helmet belonged to Hector (n=12). It was also the most frequently referenced helmet in the text. The only other Trojan helmet referenced 3+ times belonged to Alexandrus (n=4), a relatively minor character. Of the Greeks, Achilles’ helmet was most commonly referenced (n=8), followed by Agamemnon (n=4), Odysseus (n=3), and Patroclus (n=3). While on a large scale The Iliad is a conflict between the Greek and Trojan forces, it ultimately evolves into a conflict between two men, Hector and Achilles. Thus, it seems appropriate that the helmets belonging to these two men are referred to most frequently. It is ironic that Hector obtains Achilles’ helmet from another Greek warrior during the course
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 9 of the conflict and then wears it in the final confrontation. Achilles’ intimate knowledge of his own armor allows him to exploit its weakness, ultimately leading to the death of Hector. There were 2 divinities, Athena and Ares, which were described as wearing helmets, both in noncombat
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settings. Ares helmet is included in his epithet, as he is referred to as Ares “of the gleaming helmet.” There are two notable scenes involving Athena and the use of a helmet. The first reference is part of a vivid description of the goddess. The second reference, in which Athena dons the helmet of Ares to avoid
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being recognized by Hades, displays the importance of the helmet in the identity of a warrior/deity. It is also a unique situation in which the primary function of the helmet is for deception, rather than protection.
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Descriptive Terms Utilized:
The descriptive terms used to characterize the various helmets worn throughout The Iliad can also prove insightful to the modern reader. Multiple descriptive terms are used throughout the text (Table 4), illustrating the variety of design elements incorporated into protective headwear. Descriptive passages
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tended to fall into one of three categories, either referring to the helmet’s plume/crest, notable design features (including metal, shape, etc), or descriptive adjectives (ex: heavy, gleaming). The most commonly used descriptor referred to the horsehair plume/crest that projects from the superior aspect of
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the helmet’s exterior. This feature was often included in ancient artistic representations of the Trojan War, as seen in Figure 1. It is also frequently included in modern reconstructions, as noted in Figure 2. This
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feature was described most often in Trojan helmets (n=3), but was also used to describe helmets belonging to Greeks (n=2) and a divinity (n=1). The prevalence of this feature suggests the importance of the horse to both Trojan culture, a well-known association, and other cultures of the Mediterranean. Bronze, a commonly utilized metal during this period, was also noted in both Greek (n=2) and Trojan (n=1) helmets. A feature unique to Trojan helmets was the inclusion of a visor (n=3). Such a feature was likely intended to be protective, as opposed to ornamental, and was surely meant to protect the eye region, thus
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 10 decreasing associated morbidity. A notable example is seen when Hector is attacked by an opposing warrior. Homer states “the spear was stayed by the visored helm [of Hector],” possibly referring to the protective benefit afforded by this feature.
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Helmet features unique to divine characters included the use of gold in the helmet’s frame (as opposed to the golden plume of Achilles’ helmet). The use of a precious metal, such as gold, may suggest the superior status of the divinities, in comparison to the mortal warriors. There is also an interesting
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reference to Athena’s helmet containing emblems of a hundred cities. From a construction standpoint, this suggests that unique designs/emblems could be crafted into the helmet’s frame. From a cultural
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standpoint, it may suggest the vast influence of Athena throughout the ancient Mediterranean, if one assumes that she is the patron divinity in each of these 100 cities. While the exterior features of the helmets are described in detail, little mention is made of any interior features, such as protective insulation. A review of the text and associated literature did not provide insight into this issue. However,
Choice of Translation:
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this is a potentially important aspect of helmet design that warrants further exploration.
Any study of a Homeric text must address the issue of translation. The Iliad was originally an oral tale,
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memorized and recited by the bards. It was, at a much later point, transcribed in Greek, and then later Latin. It is from these original texts that most English translations are based. However, there are multiple
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English versions available. Samuel Butler’s translation has been used by many since its initial publication in 1898, making it a reasonable choice. It should be noted that other modern translations are also available, including those by Robert Fitzgerald, and more recently Robert Fagles. Conclusion:
A review of the text makes it clear that helmets play a prominent role in Homer’s epic poem The Iliad. The combat uses suggest a basic appreciation for the potentially debilitating morbidity associated with head injury. Additionally, the relatively low protective benefit of helmet use suggests that effective
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 11 helmet design and construction practices were still developing at this time. The noncombat uses illustrate the cultural significance of protective headwear, functioning as a symbol of status, fate, and identity. Going forward, future studies could investigate other protective measures utilized in the text, such as
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shields and armor. Acknowledgments:
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None
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 12 Resources: 1. Sapounakis C, Rallis G, Mourouzis C, et al. Injuries to the head and neck in Homer's Iliad. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;45(2):112-5.
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2. Konsolaki E, Astyrakaki E, Stefanakis G, Agouridakis P, Askitopoulou H. Cranial trauma in ancient Greece: from Homer to classical authors. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2010;38(8):549-53.
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3. Melchionda E. Homer, a Military Physician? Ann Med Nav (Roma). 1964;69:85-111. 4. Godquin B. Was Homer a surgeon? Chirurgie. 1990;116(2):136-43.
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5. Ralli I, Stathopoulos P, Mourouzis K, et al. Facial trauma in the Trojan War. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;19(2):191-4.
6. Galanakos SP, Bot AG, Macheras GA. Pelvic and lower extremity injuries in Homer's Iliad: a review of the literature. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2015;78(1):204-8.
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7. Kömürcü E, Tok F, Simşek A, Ozçakar L. Musculoskeletal injuries in Homer's Iliad: the War of Troy revisited. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2014;93(4):335-41. 8. Hutchison RL, Hirthler MA. Upper extremity injuries in Homer's Iliad. J Hand Surg Am.
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2013;38(9):1790-3.
9. Apostolakis E, Apostolaki G, Apostolaki M, Chorti M. The reported thoracic injuries in Homer's Iliad.
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J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010;5:114.
10. Saunders KB. The wounds in "Iliad" 13-16. Class Q. 1999;49(2):345-63. 11. Mylonas AI, Tzerbos FH, Eftychiadis AC, Papadopoulou EC. Cranio-maxillofacial injuries in Homer's Iliad. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2008;36(1):1-7.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 13 12. Aydn A, Tümerdem B, Yazar M, Erer M. Three-thousand-year-old written reference to a description of what might be the earliest brachial plexus injuries in the Iliad of Homer. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;114(5):1352-3.
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13. Sahlas DJ. Functional neuroanatomy in the pre-Hippocratic era: observations from the Iliad of Homer. Neurosurgery. 2001;48(6):1352-7.
14. Walshe TM. Neurological concepts in archaic Greece: what did Homer know? J Hist Neurosci.
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1997;6(1):72-81.
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15. Grunert P, Darabi K, Espinosa J, Filippi R. Computer-aided navigation in neurosurgery. Neurosurg Rev. 2003;26(2):73-99.
16. Stathopoulos P, Ghaly GA, Azari A. Injuries to the head and neck in Homer's Odyssey. Br J Oral
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Maxillofac Surg. 2015;S0266-4356(15)00650-6. [Epub ahead of print]
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Swinney 14 Figure Legends: Figure 1: Depiction of Achilles (With Helmet) and Ajax (Without Helmet) on a Greek Amphora (c. 530
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BC, attributed to Exekias).
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Figure 2: Helmet with Central Plume, Modern Reconstruction Based on Homeric Text
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Table 1: Helmet References in Homer’s Iliad
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Noncombat Related References 0 1 3 0 4 3 4 0 0 4 2 0 7 1 2 4 1 2 3 2 0 1 3 0 47
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Combat Related References 0 0 0 5 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 5 7 2 3 6 1 0 0 4 1 2 0 0 40
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Total
Total Helmet References 0 1 3 5 4 4 5 1 0 4 3 5 14 3 5 10 2 2 3 6 1 3 3 0 87
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Book
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Table 2: Protective Benefit of Helmet Use Frequency of Protective Benefit
Specific Warriors Receiving Protective Benefit
30.0% (3/10) 11.1% (2/18) 17.9% (5/28)
Menelaus, Ajax, Peneleos Hector, Dolops -
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Greek Trojan General/Unspecified Divinity Total
Number of References (% of total references) 41 (47.1%) 38 (43.6%) 3 (3.4%) 5 (5.7%) 87
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Owner of Helmet
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Table 3: Specific Warriors Referenced Number of References
Descriptive Details
8
Agamemnon Odysseus Patroclus
4 3 3
-Golden-plumed/crested -Gleaming -Made with 4 layers of metal -Four-plumed/crested -Made with bull's hide -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Well-wrought
Aphareus Deipyrus Diomed Eioneus Nestor Amphimachus Menelaus Periphetes Ajax Peneleos Epeigeus Trojan Warriors Hector
2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
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Damasus Deiphobus Demoleon Echepolus Acamas Gorgythion Agastrophus Epicles Ilioneus Dolops
Erylaus Hippothous
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-Made with bronze
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Aeneas
4
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Alexandrus
12
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Name Greek Warriors Achilles
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
-Horsehair-plumed/crested
-Well-wrought -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Made with a visor -Made with three layers of metal -Gleaming -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Made with a strap of oxhide -Made with a visor -Doughty -Made with a visor -Made with bronze
-Heavy -Four-plumed/crested -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Made with bronze -Dyed with scarlet
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Deucalion Lycaon Sarpedon Divinities Ares
1 1 1
Athena
2
-Well-wrought -Horsehair-plumed/crested -Gleaming -Made with gold -Four-plumed/crested -Made with the emblems of a hundred cities
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Table 4: Descriptive Terms Utilized Greek/Trojan/Divinity
Plume/Crest Horsehair-plumed/crested
6
Four-plumed/crested
3
Golden-plumed/crested Design Features Made with bronze
1
Trojan (3) Greek (2) Divinity (1) Greek (1) Trojan (1) Divinity (1) Greek (1)
Made with a visor Made with 4 layers of metal Made with 3 layers of metal Made with a strap of oxhide Made with bull's hide Made with the emblems of a hundred cities Made with gold Other Descriptive Features Gleaming
3 1 1 1 1 1 1
Trojan (2) Greek (1) Trojan (3) Greek (1) Trojan (1) Trojan (1) Greek (1) Divinity (1) Divinity (1)
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Heavy Doughty Dyed with scarlet
3
3
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Well-wrought
3
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Number of References
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Descriptive term
1 1 1
Greek (1) Trojan (1) Divinity (1) Greek (1) Trojan (1) Divinity (1) Trojan (1) Trojan (1) Trojan (1)
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Chart 1: Helmet References in Homer’s Iliad
16 Combat References
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Noncombat References 12 10 8 6
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4 2 0 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
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1
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Book
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Number of References
14
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Chart 2: Frequently Referenced Helmets in Homer’s Iliad*
14
Achilles
10
Odysseus Patroclus
6
Hector Alexandrus
4
Ares
0 Greek
Trojan
Owner of Helmet
Divinity
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*3+ References
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2
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References
Agamemnon 8
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Highlights: A total of 87 helmet references were recorded in Homer’s Iliad. There was a relatively even distribution of references between Greek and Trojan warriors.
A majority of traumatic head injuries resulted in death. Neither side received a superior protective benefit from helmet use.
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Helmet use was relatively ineffective at preventing traumatic head injury.
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The most common descriptive feature referred to the horsehair plume sitting atop the helmet.
