HDAC3 inhibition improves glycemia and insulin secretion in obese diabetic rats
Morten Lundh1,2, Thomas Galbo3, Steen S. Poulsen2 Thomas Mandrup-Poulsen2,4
1
Chemical Biology Program, Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
2
Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark 3
4
Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Corresponding author: Morten Lundh; Current address: Integrative Physiology, NNF Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; Tel: +45 23958603; e-mail: [email protected]
This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which may lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as doi: 10.1111/dom.12470
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Abstract Failure of pancreatic β cells to compensate for insulin resistance is a prerequisite for the development of type 2 diabetes. Sustained elevated circulating levels of free fatty acids and glucose contribute to β-cell failure. Selective inhibition of Histone deacetylase (HDAC)-3 protects pancreatic β cells against inflammatory and metabolic insults in vitro. Here we tested the ability of a selective HDAC3 inhibitor, BRD3308, to reduce hyperglycemia and increase insulin secretion in an animal model of type 2 diabetes. At diabetes onset, an ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp was performed. HDAC3 inhibition improved hyperglycemia over the study period without affecting weight gain. At the end of the hyperglycemic clamp, circulating insulin levels were significantly higher in BRD3308-treated animals. Pancreatic insulin staining and contents were also significantly higher. These findings highlight HDAC3 as a key therapeutic target for βcell protection in type 2 diabetes.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Introduction: Obesity is reaching pandemic proportions and an excessive intake of nutrients is suggested to be a major pathogenetic factor in progressive pancreatic β-cell failure in type 2 diabetic patients (1). Currently there are no anti-diabetic drugs that directly target β-cell glucolipotoxicity. Non-selective HDAC inhibitors are already approved for treatment of certain malignancies and are in clinical trials (2). Pre-clinical studies suggest selective HDAC isoform inhibition for a number of non-neoplastic disorders including type 1 and type 2 diabetes (3;4). However, the ability of HDAC inhibition to preserve a functional β-cell mass in an in vivo model of type 2 diabetes has not been investigated.
Methods: Animal study All animals were housed at Yale University of School of Medicine, and protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Six week-old male Zucker Diabetic Fatty (Obese) rats were from Charles River (Wilmington, Massachusetts) and kept on standard chow (2018S, Harlan Laboratories) throughout the study. A schematic overview of the experimental setup is provided in the Supplementary Appendix Fig. 2A. After one week of acclimatization animals (average plasma glucose of 131.2 mg/dL ±7.4SEM) were randomized into two groups and injected intraperitoneally every second day with either 5 mg/kg BRD3308 (a solution of 10% saline, 45% BR3308 dissolved in DMSO and 45% PEG-400 (Fluka)) or vehicle (10% saline, 45% DMSO and 45% PEG-400 (Fluka). Last injection was given on the day of the clamp experiment. Tailvein blood glucose was monitored every fourth day at 4 pm using a hand-held glucometer (Abbott). For the hyperglycemic clamp, catheters were implanted into the carotid artery and jugular vein, and the rats were given at least 5 days to recover before clamps. At diabetes
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
onset (plasma glucose >200 mg/dL), paired vehicle or BRD3308-treated animals were subjected to a 180-min ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp. Glucose was infused from the arterial side, raising the blood glucose to 500 mg/dL. Plasma samples were obtained every 15th min through the venous catheter. Steady-state was achieved after 60 min. Plasma glucose was measured using an YSI 2700 Biochemistry analyzer. Plasma insulin and Cpeptide were measured using RIA kits (Millipore). At the end of the experiment, rats were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital injections (Fatal-Plus, Vortech). Pancreata were removed and insulin was extracted from a segment of the posterior pancreata. Insulin concentrations were measured as described previously (5) and normalized to the wet weight of the excised segments.
Immunohistochemistry Pancreata were fixed in ice-cold 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 7.4. Samples were embedded in paraffin and cut into 5 μm sections. Two consecutive sections were incubated for 5 min in 2% BSA followed by 18 h at 4° C with anti-insulin (in-house, no 2006) diluted 1:12.800. Subsequently, sections were incubated for 1 h with biotinylated secondary antibody (Vector labs, Burlingame, California, USA) diluted 1:200, followed by StreptABComplex/horseradish peroxidase (DakoCytomation) diluted 1:200, and finally stained using 3,3-diaminobenzidine for 15 min and counterstained with
haematoxylin. Islets size and proportions of insulin immunoreactive cells were estimated using Image Pro plus 6.0. Images of identical isles stained for insulin on neighboring sections were captured and scored blinded with a Leica Ortoplan microscope fitted with a Leica DFC 420 C camera. Three non-tangentially cut islets were randomly chosen from each section. The total area of the islets (6 from each pancreas) was calculated by tracing around the islets by a color pipette tool.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Statistical analysis Comparisons between groups were by two-tailed Student’s t-test. Data were analyzed using SAS 9.1. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
Results: We wished to investigate the effect of HDAC inhibition in the rat Zucker Diabetic Fatty (ZDF) model of type 2 diabetes, thus we first confirmed the ability of HDAC inhibition to protect the rat cell line INS-1E (Supplementary Fig. 1A) exposed to lipotoxicity. We expanded on these findings by demonstrating that the HDAC1-3 inhibitor MS-275 also prevented combined gluco- and lipotoxicity. MS-275 prevented the induction of the ER stress marker CHOP in INS-1E cells (Supplementary Fig. 1B and 1C). Thus, HDAC inhibition protects pancreatic beta-cells against nutrient overload in vitro. HDAC3 inhibition improves plasma glucose levels and β-cell function in vivo To investigate if selective HDAC3 inhibition protects β cells in vivo, we treated male ZDF rats, a model for type 2 diabetes that develops hyperglycemia as a result of β-cell loss (6), with 5mg/kg BRD3308 or vehicle i.p. every second day starting from 7 weeks of age prior to development of hyperglycemia. Although BRD3308 did not significantly affect weight gain, a small increase was observed (Fig. 1A+1B). BRD3308 was well-tolerated by all animals over the course of the study. Plasma glucose levels of the two groups prior to IV line insertion and the first clamp experiments are shown in Figure 1C. BRD3308 significantly lowered glycemia by 61% (Fig. 1D). After onset of diabetes, the functional β-cell mass was assessed by an ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp. The average steady-state glucose-infusion rate required to maintain plasma glucose of 500 mg/dl (Fig. 1E) was significantly higher in BRD3308-treated animals (Fig. 1F and Supplementary Fig. 2B). Notably, at the end of the clamp experiment, plasma insulin concentrations were 84% higher in BRD3308-treated
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
animals (Fig. 1G and Supplementary Fig. 2C). Although not reaching statistical significance, peak C-peptide levels were increased by ~38% (Fig. 1H and Supplementary Fig. 2D) in BRD3308-treated animals. Peak insulin level was increased by 49% (p=0.057). Importantly, the pancreatic insulin content measured by ELISA was more than doubled in BRD3308-treated rats (Fig. 2A) supported by blinded immunohistochemical scoring of insulin-positive cell area (Fig. 2B+2C). Finally, the pancreatic islet area in BRD3308-treated animals were significantly larger compared to the vehicle-treated controls (Fig. 2D). Taken together these data indicate that BRD3308 preserves the functional β-cell mass against glucolipotoxicity in vivo.
Conclusions: Here we demonstrate that HDAC3 inhibition improves hyperglycemia, insulin secretion and pancreatic insulin contents in an animal model of type 2 diabetes. This conclusion is in line with a recent finding that ablation of HDAC3 protects β cells against lipotoxicity in vitro (7) and substantiates HDAC3 as a therapeutic target in type 2 diabetes. The treatment was given prior to development of hyperglycemia indicating the HDAC3 inhibition protects β-cells before onset of diabetes. Studies to investigate if HDAC3 inhibition also reverts β-cell failure after onset of overt hyperglycemia would provide additional important translational evidence for HDAC3 as a therapeutic target. Although we did not formally assess the β-cell mass in our in vivo model, we did observe that HDAC3 inhibitor treatment increased islet area. Taken together with the increased circulating insulin and C-peptide levels and islet insulin staining in vivo, and the data in vitro demonstrating a β-cell protective effect of HDAC inhibition (7) and supplementary figure 1, we propose that the increased islet size reflects an increase in functional beta-cell mass.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Unfortunately the hyperglycemic clamp does not allow assessment of first or second phase insulin response, both compromised in type 2 diabetics. To clarify this, additional studies including IVGTT and ex vivo studies could be performed. It must be noted that we cannot exclude that the observed effects are, at least partially, secondary to improved insulin sensitivity as the class I HDAC inhibitor MS-275 targeting HDAC 1, 2, 3 and 8 has been shown to lower blood glucose and insulin levels in db/db mice (8). However, the pancreatic islet function was not assessed in that study. Furthermore, we observed markedly increased insulin secretion in response to a hyperglycemic clamp and increased pancreatic insulin contents, strongly suggesting that HDAC3 inhibition improves both insulin sensitivity and secretion. A hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp combined with radio-labeled glucose uptake experiment could clarify if BRD3308 also improves insulin sensitivity in muscle, fat and/or liver tissue. Pancreatic islet inflammation is hypothesized to cause additional β-cell damage in type 2 diabetic patients, and we and others have shown HDAC3 to mediate this toxicity (9;10). In this study, the in vitro experiments show reduced Chop levels suggesting reduced stress of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Plaisance et al. (7) also observed reduced markers of ER stress. Thus, pharmacological targeting of HDAC3 may offer several therapeutic benefits in patients suffering from type 2 diabetes by alleviating both metabolic ER stress and inflammatory stress to the β-cell. To support the role of HDAC3 in pancreatic β-cell glucolipotoxocity in vivo, generation of a β-cell specific HDAC3 deficient mouse model could be considered. However, liver specific HDAC3 null mice are phenotypically different from mice deficient for the nuclear receptor co-repressors NCOR1 and SMRT required for HDAC3 deacetylase activity by providing the deacetylase activating domain (DAD) (11), indicating that HDAC3 deletion has biological
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
consequences disparate from its effect on HDAC3 enzymatic activity. In addition, chemical inhibition of HDAC3 is a realistic translational strategy in type 2 diabetic patients. In conclusion, HDAC3 selective inhibition protects pancreatic β cells in an in vivo model of type 2 diabetes. These findings warrant further development of the HDAC3-selective small molecule BRD3308 as a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.
Acknowledgements: We would like to thank B. Wagner, F. Wagner and E. Holson (Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Boston, USA) for providing BRD3308 and support, and G. Shulman (Dept. of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, USA) for support to the animal experiments.
Funding: This work was supported by a University of Copenhagen career PhD fellowship and an ELITE-research travel grant (M.L.) and by the Novo Nordisk Foundation (T.M.P.).
Duality of interest: The authors have no relevant duality of interest to disclose.
Contribution statement: ML, TG and TMPO designed the experiment. ML, TG, SSP and TMPO performed the experiment and analyzed the data. ML wrote the manuscript. All authors edited the manuscript and approved the final version.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Reference List 1. Halban PA, Polonsky KS, Bowden DW, et al (2014) beta‐cell failure in type 2 diabetes: postulated mechanisms and prospects for prevention and treatment. J.Clin.Endocrinol.Metab 99: 1983‐1992 2. West AC, Johnstone RW (2014) New and emerging HDAC inhibitors for cancer treatment. J.Clin.Invest 124: 30‐39 3. Dinarello CA, Fossati G, Mascagni P (2011) Histone deacetylase inhibitors for treating a spectrum of diseases not related to cancer. Mol.Med. 17: 333‐352
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
4. Christensen DP, Dahllof M, Lundh M, et al (2011) Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition as a novel treatment for diabetes mellitus. Mol.Med. 17: 378‐390 5. Lundh M, Christensen DP, Rasmussen DN, et al (2010) Lysine deacetylases are produced in pancreatic beta cells and are differentially regulated by proinflammatory cytokines. Diabetologia 53: 2569‐2578 6. Pick A, Clark J, Kubstrup C, et al (1998) Role of apoptosis in failure of beta‐cell mass compensation for insulin resistance and beta‐cell defects in the male Zucker diabetic fatty rat. Diabetes 47: 358‐364 7. Plaisance V, Rolland L, Gmyr V, et al (14 A.D.) The Class I Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor MS‐275 Prevents Pancreatic Beta Cell Death Induced by Palmitate. Journal of Diabetes Research 2014: 8. Galmozzi A, Mitro N, Ferrari A, et al (2013) Inhibition of class I histone deacetylases unveils a mitochondrial signature and enhances oxidative metabolism in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. Diabetes 62: 732‐742 9. Chou DH, Holson EB, Wagner FF, et al (2012) Inhibition of histone deacetylase 3 protects beta cells from cytokine‐induced apoptosis. Chem.Biol. 19: 669‐673 10. Lundh M, Christensen DP, Damgaard NM, et al (2012) Histone deacetylases 1 and 3 but not 2 mediate cytokine‐induced beta cell apoptosis in INS‐1 cells and dispersed primary islets from rats and are differentially regulated in the islets of type 1 diabetic children. Diabetologia 55: 2421‐2431 11. You SH, Lim HW, Sun Z, Broache M, Won KJ, Lazar MA (2013) Nuclear receptor co‐repressors are required for the histone‐deacetylase activity of HDAC3 in vivo. Nat.Struct.Mol.Biol. 20: 182‐187
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Figure 1: BRD3308 improves glycemia and increases secretion during a hyperglycemic clamp in ZDF-rats. Male Zucker Diabetic Fatty (Obese) rats were injected i.p. every second day with BRD3308 (5 mg/kg) or vehicle starting at week 7. (A) Body weight from arrival (day 0) until clamp. (B) Gained body weight. (C) Blood glucose levels were monitored every fourth day, here samples until the first clamping was initiated are depicted. (D) Area under the curve (AUC) of blood glucose levels, with subtracted baseline, from week 7 until diabetes onset was calculated. (E-H) Upon onset of diabetes (plasma glucose>200 mg/dl) animals were subjected to an ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp for 180 min and plasma insulin and Cpeptide concentrations determined. (E) The plasma glucose levels were raised to 500 mg/dl, and steady-state was established after 60 min. (F) The average glucose infusion rates during steady-state. (G) Plasma insulin levels at the end of the clamp. (H) Peak C-peptide levels. Data are presented as means + SEM, n=6 -7, NS= not significant, *p
Morten Lundh1,2, Thomas Galbo3, Steen S. Poulsen2 Thomas Mandrup-Poulsen2,4
1
Chemical Biology Program, Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
2
Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark 3
4
Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Corresponding author: Morten Lundh; Current address: Integrative Physiology, NNF Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; Tel: +45 23958603; e-mail: [email protected]
This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which may lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as doi: 10.1111/dom.12470
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Abstract Failure of pancreatic β cells to compensate for insulin resistance is a prerequisite for the development of type 2 diabetes. Sustained elevated circulating levels of free fatty acids and glucose contribute to β-cell failure. Selective inhibition of Histone deacetylase (HDAC)-3 protects pancreatic β cells against inflammatory and metabolic insults in vitro. Here we tested the ability of a selective HDAC3 inhibitor, BRD3308, to reduce hyperglycemia and increase insulin secretion in an animal model of type 2 diabetes. At diabetes onset, an ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp was performed. HDAC3 inhibition improved hyperglycemia over the study period without affecting weight gain. At the end of the hyperglycemic clamp, circulating insulin levels were significantly higher in BRD3308-treated animals. Pancreatic insulin staining and contents were also significantly higher. These findings highlight HDAC3 as a key therapeutic target for βcell protection in type 2 diabetes.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Introduction: Obesity is reaching pandemic proportions and an excessive intake of nutrients is suggested to be a major pathogenetic factor in progressive pancreatic β-cell failure in type 2 diabetic patients (1). Currently there are no anti-diabetic drugs that directly target β-cell glucolipotoxicity. Non-selective HDAC inhibitors are already approved for treatment of certain malignancies and are in clinical trials (2). Pre-clinical studies suggest selective HDAC isoform inhibition for a number of non-neoplastic disorders including type 1 and type 2 diabetes (3;4). However, the ability of HDAC inhibition to preserve a functional β-cell mass in an in vivo model of type 2 diabetes has not been investigated.
Methods: Animal study All animals were housed at Yale University of School of Medicine, and protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Six week-old male Zucker Diabetic Fatty (Obese) rats were from Charles River (Wilmington, Massachusetts) and kept on standard chow (2018S, Harlan Laboratories) throughout the study. A schematic overview of the experimental setup is provided in the Supplementary Appendix Fig. 2A. After one week of acclimatization animals (average plasma glucose of 131.2 mg/dL ±7.4SEM) were randomized into two groups and injected intraperitoneally every second day with either 5 mg/kg BRD3308 (a solution of 10% saline, 45% BR3308 dissolved in DMSO and 45% PEG-400 (Fluka)) or vehicle (10% saline, 45% DMSO and 45% PEG-400 (Fluka). Last injection was given on the day of the clamp experiment. Tailvein blood glucose was monitored every fourth day at 4 pm using a hand-held glucometer (Abbott). For the hyperglycemic clamp, catheters were implanted into the carotid artery and jugular vein, and the rats were given at least 5 days to recover before clamps. At diabetes
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
onset (plasma glucose >200 mg/dL), paired vehicle or BRD3308-treated animals were subjected to a 180-min ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp. Glucose was infused from the arterial side, raising the blood glucose to 500 mg/dL. Plasma samples were obtained every 15th min through the venous catheter. Steady-state was achieved after 60 min. Plasma glucose was measured using an YSI 2700 Biochemistry analyzer. Plasma insulin and Cpeptide were measured using RIA kits (Millipore). At the end of the experiment, rats were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital injections (Fatal-Plus, Vortech). Pancreata were removed and insulin was extracted from a segment of the posterior pancreata. Insulin concentrations were measured as described previously (5) and normalized to the wet weight of the excised segments.
Immunohistochemistry Pancreata were fixed in ice-cold 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 7.4. Samples were embedded in paraffin and cut into 5 μm sections. Two consecutive sections were incubated for 5 min in 2% BSA followed by 18 h at 4° C with anti-insulin (in-house, no 2006) diluted 1:12.800. Subsequently, sections were incubated for 1 h with biotinylated secondary antibody (Vector labs, Burlingame, California, USA) diluted 1:200, followed by StreptABComplex/horseradish peroxidase (DakoCytomation) diluted 1:200, and finally stained using 3,3-diaminobenzidine for 15 min and counterstained with
haematoxylin. Islets size and proportions of insulin immunoreactive cells were estimated using Image Pro plus 6.0. Images of identical isles stained for insulin on neighboring sections were captured and scored blinded with a Leica Ortoplan microscope fitted with a Leica DFC 420 C camera. Three non-tangentially cut islets were randomly chosen from each section. The total area of the islets (6 from each pancreas) was calculated by tracing around the islets by a color pipette tool.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Statistical analysis Comparisons between groups were by two-tailed Student’s t-test. Data were analyzed using SAS 9.1. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
Results: We wished to investigate the effect of HDAC inhibition in the rat Zucker Diabetic Fatty (ZDF) model of type 2 diabetes, thus we first confirmed the ability of HDAC inhibition to protect the rat cell line INS-1E (Supplementary Fig. 1A) exposed to lipotoxicity. We expanded on these findings by demonstrating that the HDAC1-3 inhibitor MS-275 also prevented combined gluco- and lipotoxicity. MS-275 prevented the induction of the ER stress marker CHOP in INS-1E cells (Supplementary Fig. 1B and 1C). Thus, HDAC inhibition protects pancreatic beta-cells against nutrient overload in vitro. HDAC3 inhibition improves plasma glucose levels and β-cell function in vivo To investigate if selective HDAC3 inhibition protects β cells in vivo, we treated male ZDF rats, a model for type 2 diabetes that develops hyperglycemia as a result of β-cell loss (6), with 5mg/kg BRD3308 or vehicle i.p. every second day starting from 7 weeks of age prior to development of hyperglycemia. Although BRD3308 did not significantly affect weight gain, a small increase was observed (Fig. 1A+1B). BRD3308 was well-tolerated by all animals over the course of the study. Plasma glucose levels of the two groups prior to IV line insertion and the first clamp experiments are shown in Figure 1C. BRD3308 significantly lowered glycemia by 61% (Fig. 1D). After onset of diabetes, the functional β-cell mass was assessed by an ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp. The average steady-state glucose-infusion rate required to maintain plasma glucose of 500 mg/dl (Fig. 1E) was significantly higher in BRD3308-treated animals (Fig. 1F and Supplementary Fig. 2B). Notably, at the end of the clamp experiment, plasma insulin concentrations were 84% higher in BRD3308-treated
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
animals (Fig. 1G and Supplementary Fig. 2C). Although not reaching statistical significance, peak C-peptide levels were increased by ~38% (Fig. 1H and Supplementary Fig. 2D) in BRD3308-treated animals. Peak insulin level was increased by 49% (p=0.057). Importantly, the pancreatic insulin content measured by ELISA was more than doubled in BRD3308-treated rats (Fig. 2A) supported by blinded immunohistochemical scoring of insulin-positive cell area (Fig. 2B+2C). Finally, the pancreatic islet area in BRD3308-treated animals were significantly larger compared to the vehicle-treated controls (Fig. 2D). Taken together these data indicate that BRD3308 preserves the functional β-cell mass against glucolipotoxicity in vivo.
Conclusions: Here we demonstrate that HDAC3 inhibition improves hyperglycemia, insulin secretion and pancreatic insulin contents in an animal model of type 2 diabetes. This conclusion is in line with a recent finding that ablation of HDAC3 protects β cells against lipotoxicity in vitro (7) and substantiates HDAC3 as a therapeutic target in type 2 diabetes. The treatment was given prior to development of hyperglycemia indicating the HDAC3 inhibition protects β-cells before onset of diabetes. Studies to investigate if HDAC3 inhibition also reverts β-cell failure after onset of overt hyperglycemia would provide additional important translational evidence for HDAC3 as a therapeutic target. Although we did not formally assess the β-cell mass in our in vivo model, we did observe that HDAC3 inhibitor treatment increased islet area. Taken together with the increased circulating insulin and C-peptide levels and islet insulin staining in vivo, and the data in vitro demonstrating a β-cell protective effect of HDAC inhibition (7) and supplementary figure 1, we propose that the increased islet size reflects an increase in functional beta-cell mass.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Unfortunately the hyperglycemic clamp does not allow assessment of first or second phase insulin response, both compromised in type 2 diabetics. To clarify this, additional studies including IVGTT and ex vivo studies could be performed. It must be noted that we cannot exclude that the observed effects are, at least partially, secondary to improved insulin sensitivity as the class I HDAC inhibitor MS-275 targeting HDAC 1, 2, 3 and 8 has been shown to lower blood glucose and insulin levels in db/db mice (8). However, the pancreatic islet function was not assessed in that study. Furthermore, we observed markedly increased insulin secretion in response to a hyperglycemic clamp and increased pancreatic insulin contents, strongly suggesting that HDAC3 inhibition improves both insulin sensitivity and secretion. A hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp combined with radio-labeled glucose uptake experiment could clarify if BRD3308 also improves insulin sensitivity in muscle, fat and/or liver tissue. Pancreatic islet inflammation is hypothesized to cause additional β-cell damage in type 2 diabetic patients, and we and others have shown HDAC3 to mediate this toxicity (9;10). In this study, the in vitro experiments show reduced Chop levels suggesting reduced stress of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Plaisance et al. (7) also observed reduced markers of ER stress. Thus, pharmacological targeting of HDAC3 may offer several therapeutic benefits in patients suffering from type 2 diabetes by alleviating both metabolic ER stress and inflammatory stress to the β-cell. To support the role of HDAC3 in pancreatic β-cell glucolipotoxocity in vivo, generation of a β-cell specific HDAC3 deficient mouse model could be considered. However, liver specific HDAC3 null mice are phenotypically different from mice deficient for the nuclear receptor co-repressors NCOR1 and SMRT required for HDAC3 deacetylase activity by providing the deacetylase activating domain (DAD) (11), indicating that HDAC3 deletion has biological
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
consequences disparate from its effect on HDAC3 enzymatic activity. In addition, chemical inhibition of HDAC3 is a realistic translational strategy in type 2 diabetic patients. In conclusion, HDAC3 selective inhibition protects pancreatic β cells in an in vivo model of type 2 diabetes. These findings warrant further development of the HDAC3-selective small molecule BRD3308 as a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.
Acknowledgements: We would like to thank B. Wagner, F. Wagner and E. Holson (Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Boston, USA) for providing BRD3308 and support, and G. Shulman (Dept. of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, USA) for support to the animal experiments.
Funding: This work was supported by a University of Copenhagen career PhD fellowship and an ELITE-research travel grant (M.L.) and by the Novo Nordisk Foundation (T.M.P.).
Duality of interest: The authors have no relevant duality of interest to disclose.
Contribution statement: ML, TG and TMPO designed the experiment. ML, TG, SSP and TMPO performed the experiment and analyzed the data. ML wrote the manuscript. All authors edited the manuscript and approved the final version.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Reference List 1. Halban PA, Polonsky KS, Bowden DW, et al (2014) beta‐cell failure in type 2 diabetes: postulated mechanisms and prospects for prevention and treatment. J.Clin.Endocrinol.Metab 99: 1983‐1992 2. West AC, Johnstone RW (2014) New and emerging HDAC inhibitors for cancer treatment. J.Clin.Invest 124: 30‐39 3. Dinarello CA, Fossati G, Mascagni P (2011) Histone deacetylase inhibitors for treating a spectrum of diseases not related to cancer. Mol.Med. 17: 333‐352
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
4. Christensen DP, Dahllof M, Lundh M, et al (2011) Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition as a novel treatment for diabetes mellitus. Mol.Med. 17: 378‐390 5. Lundh M, Christensen DP, Rasmussen DN, et al (2010) Lysine deacetylases are produced in pancreatic beta cells and are differentially regulated by proinflammatory cytokines. Diabetologia 53: 2569‐2578 6. Pick A, Clark J, Kubstrup C, et al (1998) Role of apoptosis in failure of beta‐cell mass compensation for insulin resistance and beta‐cell defects in the male Zucker diabetic fatty rat. Diabetes 47: 358‐364 7. Plaisance V, Rolland L, Gmyr V, et al (14 A.D.) The Class I Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor MS‐275 Prevents Pancreatic Beta Cell Death Induced by Palmitate. Journal of Diabetes Research 2014: 8. Galmozzi A, Mitro N, Ferrari A, et al (2013) Inhibition of class I histone deacetylases unveils a mitochondrial signature and enhances oxidative metabolism in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. Diabetes 62: 732‐742 9. Chou DH, Holson EB, Wagner FF, et al (2012) Inhibition of histone deacetylase 3 protects beta cells from cytokine‐induced apoptosis. Chem.Biol. 19: 669‐673 10. Lundh M, Christensen DP, Damgaard NM, et al (2012) Histone deacetylases 1 and 3 but not 2 mediate cytokine‐induced beta cell apoptosis in INS‐1 cells and dispersed primary islets from rats and are differentially regulated in the islets of type 1 diabetic children. Diabetologia 55: 2421‐2431 11. You SH, Lim HW, Sun Z, Broache M, Won KJ, Lazar MA (2013) Nuclear receptor co‐repressors are required for the histone‐deacetylase activity of HDAC3 in vivo. Nat.Struct.Mol.Biol. 20: 182‐187
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Figure 1: BRD3308 improves glycemia and increases secretion during a hyperglycemic clamp in ZDF-rats. Male Zucker Diabetic Fatty (Obese) rats were injected i.p. every second day with BRD3308 (5 mg/kg) or vehicle starting at week 7. (A) Body weight from arrival (day 0) until clamp. (B) Gained body weight. (C) Blood glucose levels were monitored every fourth day, here samples until the first clamping was initiated are depicted. (D) Area under the curve (AUC) of blood glucose levels, with subtracted baseline, from week 7 until diabetes onset was calculated. (E-H) Upon onset of diabetes (plasma glucose>200 mg/dl) animals were subjected to an ambulatory hyperglycemic clamp for 180 min and plasma insulin and Cpeptide concentrations determined. (E) The plasma glucose levels were raised to 500 mg/dl, and steady-state was established after 60 min. (F) The average glucose infusion rates during steady-state. (G) Plasma insulin levels at the end of the clamp. (H) Peak C-peptide levels. Data are presented as means + SEM, n=6 -7, NS= not significant, *p
