Improving learning with science and social studies text using computer-based concept maps for students with disabilities.

552890 research-article2014

BMOXXX10.1177/0145445514552890Behavior ModificationCiullo et al.

Article

Improving Learning With Science and Social Studies Text Using ComputerBased Concept Maps for Students With Disabilities

Behavior Modification 2015, Vol. 39(1) 117–135 © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0145445514552890 bmo.sagepub.com

Stephen Ciullo1, Terry S. Falcomata2, Kathleen Pfannenstiel2, and Glenna Billingsley1

Abstract Concept maps have been used to help students with learning disabilities (LD) improve literacy skills and content learning, predominantly in secondary school. However, despite increased access to classroom technology, no previous studies have examined the efficacy of computer-based concept maps to improve learning from informational text for students with LD in elementary school. In this study, we used a concurrent delayed multiple probe design to evaluate the interactive use of computer-based concept maps on content acquisition with science and social studies texts for Hispanic students with LD in Grades 4 and 5. Findings from this study suggest that students improved content knowledge during intervention relative to a traditional instruction baseline condition. Learning outcomes and social validity information are considered to inform recommendations for future research and the feasibility of classroom implementation.

1Texas 2The

State University, San Marcos, TX, USA University of Texas at Austin, TX, USA

Corresponding Author: Stephen Ciullo, Texas State University, Education 3045, 601 University Dr., San Marcos, TX 78666, USA. Email: [email protected]

Downloaded from bmo.sagepub.com at GEORGIAN COURT UNIV on March 8, 2015

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Keywords concept mapping, expository text, learning disabilities Many students lack content proficiency in science and social studies. For example, the results of the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) in social studies (U.S. Department of Education, 2011) examination for students in Grades 4, 8, and 12 indicate that between 2006 and 2010, no statistically significant improvements were made in the mean performance of 4th or 12th graders across racial and ethnic groups, and fewer than 25% of all students tested attained the proficient level of performance (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Furthermore, time devoted to content-area subjects in the elementary grades has declined. The Institute of Education Science reported that the amount of instructional time devoted to science and social studies in elementary grades has decreased since the year 2000 (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2007). In Grades 1 to 4, social studies and science instruction each accounted for approximately 7% of weekly instruction, a decrease of at least 11 hr of yearly instruction since the year 2000 (NCES, 2007). In addition to less instructional time allocated to content-area subjects in the elementary grades, students may struggle to demonstrate proficiency because they are expected to learn, in part, by reading complex informational text (Bulgren, Deshler, & Lenz, 2007). The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) highlight the role of informational text in elementary school and describe related skills, including using text to identify facts that support main ideas and making judgments based on text details (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). Deficits in these skills may be particularly evident when reading informational text, as opposed to literary text, due to domain-specific vocabulary, varying text structure, complex content, and unfamiliar proper nouns (Sáenz & Fuchs, 2002). Students with learning disabilities (LD) require explicit instruction in content-enhancing tools and reading comprehension strategies to promote understanding of informational text (Bulgren et al., 2007). However, results of observation studies for students with LD have reported minimal use of explicit instruction in learning strategies or tools (Swanson, Solis, Ciullo, & McKenna, 2012). In two recent systematic observation studies for students with LD in elementary school, researchers reported that extensive text previewing and checking for understanding via questioning was typical, but teachers infrequently used comprehension strategy instruction or contentenhancement techniques including graphic organizers or strategic note taking


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(Klingner et al., 2010; Swanson et al., 2012). In sum, it is important to provide sustained exposure to grade-level text and effective intervention techniques for students with LD in elementary school to prepare students for secondary school (Haager & Vaughn, 2013).

Graphic Organizers and Concept Mapping Graphic organizers are antecedent-based interventions that involve visual or spatial displays of concepts gleaned from text (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Wei, 2004; Mayer, 1984). Concept maps are a type of graphic organizer that illustrates relationships between concepts, such as cause and effect, characteristics of a property, or a portrayal of how two ideas are related (Dexter & Hughes, 2011) and, therefore, are applicable for presenting science and social studies concepts. Previous systematic reviews of research involving graphic organizers have demonstrated that students with LD benefit from these content-enhancement devices, with moderate to high effect sizes reported (Dexter & Hughes, 2011; Kim et al., 2004). The majority of research investigating the potential benefit of concept maps has been conducted in secondary school, with several notable exceptions (e.g., Bos & Anders, 1992). A meta-analysis on graphic organizers by Dexter and Hughes (2011) included only six (20%) interventions that included students in elementary grades with LD. Across grade levels, students improved content knowledge in these studies relative to comparison groups on researcher-developed measures.

Computer-Based Graphic Organizers In special education, there is growing interest in computer-assisted contentenhancement tools including computer-based graphic organizers (Smith & Okolo, 2010). Two specific reasons, which represent a theoretical rationale for the current study, are noteworthy. First, students and educators have increased access to technology. More than 50% of educators reported that students have access to laptops, and rates of technology integration within daily lessons increases each year (Gray, Thomas, & Lewis, 2010). Research to determine the effectiveness of common classroom technology and software programs can inform instructional decisions, specifically for students with disabilities (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010). Second, social validity findings from students in secondary school with disabilities that utilized computer-based content-enhancing tools indicate that students perceive these tools as beneficial to learning. A survey of 25 students (more than 50% with disabilities) expressed positive attitudes about


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computer-based concept maps to improve social studies acquisition, indicated that the software was user-friendly, and that the tools could be applied to other settings (Boon, Fore, & Rasheed, 2007). Other studies for which computer-assisted technology was used with younger students with LD to enhance literacy skills reported that student perceptions were positive regarding the potential for technology to improve outcomes (e.g., Regan, Berkeley, Hughes, & Kirby, 2014). In sum, encouraging outcomes using paper-based graphic organizers, increased technological access, and favorable social validity results suggest that research to explore the effectiveness of computerbased concept maps is warranted. Ciullo and Reutebuch (2013) conducted a systematic review of 12 studies that utilized computer-based graphic organizers. A total of 162 students with LD in Grades 4 through 12 were reviewed. Study design included randomized control trials, quasi-experimental, single-case, and single-group. The review reported that when computer-based concepts maps were paired with explicit instruction and extensive guided practice, high effect sizes were attained relative to comparison conditions on researcher-developed social studies measures for students in high school. Consistent with previous reviews of the research, the extant research was predominantly conducted with older students. One exception was a study implemented with elementary students with LD where story maps from Kidspiration© software subsequent to reading narrative text were used (Wade, Boon, & Spencer, 2010). All three students improved comprehension of story components (i.e., plot, setting). No experimental studies utilizing computer-based graphic organizers with informational text were identified for students with LD in Grades K-5.

Current Study The purpose of the current study was to provide initial information about the effects of computer-based graphic organizers via Kidspiration© software to increase learning from science and social studies text. Kidspiration© software was selected because (a) this software program was a district-adopted technology, but no special educators in the school where the study was conducted reported using the software; (b) more than 230 large districts across United States purchased this program according to the company website (inspiration.com); (c) it is available online and as an application for computers and tablets; and (d) the concept mapping program allows for students to customize the design, size, and content, making it a practical tool for pairing with content-area text given the variance of topics. Finally, the previously described information pertaining to increased technological access and perceptions of computer-assisted technology supported the study’s theoretical rationale.


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A concurrent delayed multiple probe across participants experimental design (White & Bailey, 1990) was used to evaluate the intervention with four participants in Grades 4 and 5. Two research questions were evaluated: (a) Do computer-based concept maps improve learning outcomes from content-area text in four participants with disabilities? (b) How do participants and a special educator perceive the intervention and what recommendations can inform future investigation and classroom application?

Method Setting and Participants Setting. The elementary school was located in a district near a large city in a southwestern state. The district was culturally and linguistically diverse. In all, 95% of students in the school were economically disadvantaged, which is higher than the district (86.8%) and state average (60.4%). This school had a higher percentage of limited English proficiency (LEP) students (54.4%) compared with the district (31.9%) and state average (16.8%). The student population was 10% Black, 87% Hispanic, and 2% Caucasian, and less than 1% for American Indian, Asian, and Pacific Islander. All baseline and intervention sessions were conducted in the participating special educator’s resource classroom. The study included a mean of 38 sessions per participant (a quiz was administered after every third session following each book and concept map). A mean of 25.3 hr of instruction (including baseline and intervention) across participants was recorded. Each session in baseline and intervention lasted 40 min to establish consistency across conditions with regard to text access. Prior to the study, students also received 40 min of reading intervention in the resource room. Participants. The subsequent criteria were used for study eligibility. First, participants had to be receiving special education services in Grades 4 or 5 with goals on their Individualized Education Plans (IEP) for reading comprehension. Second, participants were given the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE; Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1999), and had to attain a score above grade 2.0 or higher on the word reading fluency and nonsense word fluency subtests to participate. Finally, the students’ educators had to confirm that each participant experienced reading comprehension difficulties. Seven participants were screened; five students met criteria, but one student moved prior to baseline. The disabilities were LD (n = 3) and intellectual disability (ID; n = 1). Table 1 contains descriptive information for each participant. All four participants were Hispanic, of Mexican descent, and English was their first language and home language with no services for LEP documented.


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Table 1. Descriptive Participant Information. Free/reduced lunch status TOWRE

Participant Grade Disability

Ethnicity

Diego

5

LD

Hispanic

Yes

3.4

Julio

4

LD

Hispanic

Yes

2.5

Mateo

4

ID

Hispanic

Yes

2.2

Salvador

4

LD

Hispanic

Yes

3.8

State testreading Pass, modified assessment Withdrew from school Fail, modified assessment Pass, modified assessment

Note. TOWRE = Test of Word Reading Efficiency; LD = learning disability; ID = intellectual disability.

The special educator who implemented the study was a White female, held a bachelor’s degree, and reported taking specialized literacy trainings that emphasized early reading skills including phonics. This educator was in her 12th year of teaching.

Experimental Design We utilized a concurrent delayed multiple probe design across participants (Heward, 1978, as cited in Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007; White & Bailey, 1990) to evaluate the effects of the independent variable. Specifically, we incorporated a delay component (e.g., White & Bailey, 1990) in which the baseline sessions with the third and fourth participants were not initiated simultaneously with the first and second participants, but were strategically implemented to covary with intervention effects observed with the other participants. The sequence in which books were implemented was randomly determined before baseline. Following randomization, lessons and quizzes were presented in an identical sequence across participants. Book randomization and preserving consistent subject presentation was conducted to mitigate potential threats to internal validity. The threat to internal validity in the form of nonequivalence across materials was controlled for in that if inequality were present and affected the results, it would be revealed within the context of the design (i.e., covariation of the implementation of the independent variable and positive effects on the dependent variable would rule out the impact of variables relating to materials; for example, quiz inequality).


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For practical reasons, including school-specific constraints, baseline procedures were implemented simultaneously with pairs of participants (i.e., Salvador & Diego; Julio & Mateo) until a participant entered the intervention (i.e., baseline continued with the other student individually). When the subsequent participant entered treatment, he rejoined the other student who entered treatment first (e.g., Diego joined Salvador; Mateo joined Julio) and intervention was implemented simultaneously with both students. Instructions and procedures were identical regardless of individual or paired sessions across conditions and sessions; all quizzes were implemented individually for baseline and treatment. Furthermore, students’ time in the resource room was constant across prestudy support, baseline, and intervention.

Data Collection, Measures, and Interrater Agreement Screening. Each potential participant was given the sight word efficiency and phonemic decoding efficiency subtests of the TOWRE. This instrument includes two subtests that are 45 s each and measures a student’s ability to accurately read printed words and decode nonsense words to demonstrate reading proficiency (Torgesen et al., 1999). Test–retest reliability indexes for the two subtests are high, .90 to .91. Content probes. This study involved researcher-developed measures. More than 90% of the previous studies investigating graphic organizers have used researcher-developed measures (Ciullo & Reutebuch, 2013; Kim et al., 2004), possibly due to an absence of standardized measures for content learning. As part of baseline and intervention, participants read expository readers from the Treasures basal series, by Macmillan/McGraw-Hill. The topic of each book varied (i.e., explorers, national parks). The books were at a Grade-4 level, with a Lexile range of 590 to 790 and each book included comprehension questions and a vocabulary list. Each book’s comprehension questions were adapted to create the content probes by an educator not directly associated with the study. Each probe included 10 questions, with six multiple-choice questions measuring content acquisition (i.e., dates, historical figures) and four short answer questions assessing main idea and inference. Each question was worth 3 points and partial credit could be attained on short answer questions based on a scoring rubric for each quiz. The number of questions correct on the 10-item quiz was converted to a percentage for scoring (i.e., 6 of 10 = 60%). Although a formal technical adequacy evaluation was not conducted, the following steps were taken to address item and quiz equivalency. First, it was ensured that the number of questions, type of questions, and order of question


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presentation (Questions 1-6 assessed fact acquisition, Questions 6-10 evaluated main idea/inference) were identical on all probes. Second, the randomization of book order was a precaution to mitigate the potential for questions or content in baseline from being more challenging than those in treatment, or vice versa. This process allowed the researchers to monitor equivalence issues, which would have been observed during the covariation of effects as the treatment and content were replicated. Finally, the teacher confirmed that each quiz, content, and question types were consistent with grade-level expectations. Interrater agreement. The interventionist scored each quiz using a rubric. A member of the research team and the interventionists scored 75% of quizzes for interrater agreement. Exact agreement was calculated by comparing scores on an item-by-item basis, dividing the number of agreements by the number of agreements plus disagreements, and then multiplying by 100. Mean agreement was 90%, with a range of 8 to 10 items correct during the study; most disagreements occurred in scoring partial credit items on Questions 7 to 10; thus, the grading rubric was referred to in order to reach a scoring consensus.

General Procedures After participant selection, the first author met with the teacher on two occasions to review and practice the lessons and software. During the two sessions, research questions were reviewed along with baseline and intervention lesson plans. The teacher asked questions and practiced lessons. After 90% accuracy of lesson implementation was reached according to the fidelity instrument, the training was considered complete although ongoing support and questions were allowed. Prior to intervention, a member of the research team conducted a training session with each participant and the interventionist. The training consisted of explicit instruction in using the functions of the program including inserting pictures to support concepts or vocabulary, changing font color and size, inserting arrows to connect ideas, and practice time was provided. The practice topic was “healthy foods”; each participant and the researcher created a map depicting his or her favorite healthy foods and making connections and categories between foods (e.g., arrows inserted to connect vegetables) and pictures (e.g., a picture of an athlete next to the word milk). Baseline. Baseline was implemented 3 days per week and consisted of 40-min lessons (quiz administered after every third) during the participants’


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scheduled resource room period. First, the teacher guided participants through a vocabulary and prereading lesson. This included a discussion of pictures in the book, a preview of chapter and page headings (each book used during baseline and intervention contained 3 chapters), and students made predictions. The teacher probed students for prior knowledge of each topic. Finally, the participants and teacher engaged in echoed reading (teacher reads a sentence followed by students orally reading the sentence) of the vocabulary words, which were located in the glossary of each book. Next, participants (i.e., Salvador & Diego; Julio & Mateo) read orally and the teacher provided feedback on word reading errors. During and after reading, the teacher asked questions and conducted a review. This included asking participants to identify the most important who or what of each section and asking participants to explain the important details related to the who or what to identify main ideas. When participants did not answer the question correctly during the verbal questioning procedures and discussion, paragraphs were reread to provide access to the information. These procedures were designed to emulate typical practice procedures in previous interventions that incorporated content-area reading. Observation studies for students with LD suggest that the baseline procedures were consistent with typical instruction including previewing, reading orally with feedback, and monitoring learning via questioning (Klingner et al., 2010; Swanson et al., 2012). Finally, a quiz was administered following every third session individually. The interventionist read questions, and on the short answer questions, the student stated the answer and information was transcribed verbatim by the interventionist. Computer-based concept mapping. With the exception of concept mapping, a considerable amount of the procedures were consistent with baseline, including the prereading procedures and dosage. The intervention was implemented 3 days per week during 40-min lessons (quiz after every third lesson). As with baseline, participants partook in instructional components before, during, and after reading. The prereading preview, vocabulary, and procedures during reading were identical to baseline procedures. During the intervention condition, the concept map was implemented instead of the detailed questioning and text review that were conducted during baseline. After reading each chapter, participants completed the missing parts of the concept map by locating information in the book and typing content into the partially completed concept map. In addition, participants added colors and pictures onto the map until the book and concept map were completed. For example, when comparing three national parks, two students highlighted the background of each park description in a different color to represent the


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The Life of Whales

Cool Facts

Protecting Whales

sperm Sperm Pod- A family or group of whales that live togeher

Fat that whales store in body is called blubber

humpback

5-40 years old: Join a new pod

sing FLUKING- Whales raise two flat pieces of tails and dive back in water

Animals that hunt and kill are called predators

Baleen

Whales use ECHOLOCATION Finding where something is by measuring how long echo takes to return

Sperm Whale 0-5 years old: Stay with Mother

Orca

After 40: Live alone

play games

Baleen Whale-2 blowholes and a filter to separate the food from seawater

People hunt whales-could become endangered or extinct

Whales Play!! Pilot follow the leader

They jump, fluke, and play "follow the leader", and sing

Blue

largest animal on earth

Figure 1. Student-created concept map for “Whales” text.

weather and geography of which the location reminded them. Figure 1 is an example of a concept map completed by participants during the study. The concept maps highlighted integral information for the purpose of facilitating the categorization of material (e.g., interesting facts, main ideas, or details about animals). During every third session, the teacher reviewed what was completed during the previous sessions, and participants reviewed the map and described concepts and facts they found interesting, as opposed to the oral text review that occurred during baseline. Consistent with baseline, quizzes were administered individually following the third session using identical procedures. Fidelity of implementation. An observer collected data on the fidelity with which the independent variable was implemented for 20% of sessions. A fidelity form was utilized that consisted of 10 items that addressed organization, lesson components, and instructional delivery. Each component was scored on a 0 to 2 scale, with 0 used for noncompletion of the activity, 1 if the teacher implemented with insufficient instruction, and 2 if proper instruction and organization were evident. For example, if the teacher began a lesson on Day 2 without reviewing the material read during the previous session, a


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score of 0 would be provided. The first or second author conducted all fidelity observations. The teacher received a fidelity score of 90% or above on each lesson.

Social Validity Participants. Five open-ended questions were developed to assess participants’ preferences to ascertain under which condition they found it easier to learn. Participants were asked questions such as their favorite and least favorite part about using the concept maps. To assess perceptions regarding graphic organizers, they were asked whether or not they would recommend these procedures to other students. Participants were also asked for suggestions that would help them learn better. Teacher. The teacher was given a questionnaire to obtain feedback and suggestions for changes prior to replication in another setting or a randomized clinical trial. Questions focused on which technique enabled participants to learn and retain information more effectively, benefits offered by the intervention, and difficulties encountered by participants using computerbased graphic organizers. The teacher was queried on how utilizing computer-based graphic organizers affected her instruction and whether or not she would continue to use Kidspiration© in the subsequent academic year.

Results Figure 2 displays the results of the baseline and intervention conditions. Salvador’s scores were relatively low during baseline (M = 36.7%; range, 30% to 50%). His quiz scores immediately increased when the intervention was implemented (M = 68.3%; range, 38% to 100%) and remained high relative to baseline with the exception of one session (Session 8: 38%). An 86% increase in mean quiz scores was observed from baseline to intervention with Salvador. Diego’s quiz scores were low during baseline (M = 60%; range, 45% to 70%) and continued to decrease as the baseline condition progressed. His scores increased when the intervention condition was implemented (M = 88.3%; range, 80% to 100%) and remained consistently elevated relative to baseline throughout the condition. A 47% increase in mean quiz scores was observed from baseline to intervention with Diego. Mateo’s quiz scores were low during baseline (M = 15%; range, 10% to 20%) with minimal variability. His scores increased during the intervention (M = 68.9%; range, 50% to 90%) and remained consistently high relative to


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Baseline Computer-based Concept Mapping 100 80 60 40 20

Salvador

0 100 80 60

Percentage Correct

40 Diego

20 0 100 80 60 40

Julio

20 0 100 80 60 40

Mateo

20 0 5

10

15

20

25

30

Sessions

Figure 2. Quiz scores during baseline and computer-based concept mapping for Salvador (top), Diego (top middle), Julio (bottom middle), and Mateo (bottom).


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baseline. Mateo’s scores increased considerably during the final three sessions with a quiz score of 90% during the final session. A 359% increase in mean quiz scores was observed. Julio’s quiz scores were consistently low during baseline (M = 36.3%; range, 20% to 45%) with little variability. His scores immediately increased when the intervention condition was implemented (M = 91.3%; range, 80% to 100%) and remained consistently high relative to baseline throughout the condition. A 151% increase in mean quiz scores was observed from baseline to intervention. Overall, the results of the evaluation suggested that computer-based concept mapping was effective at increasing quiz scores relative to baseline conditions. All participants consistently scored higher when the intervention was in place relative to baseline conditions. Specifically, positive gains were observed only following the implementation of the intervention for each of the participants.

Social Validity Participants. Of the four participants, one participant moved to another school prior to the completion of the social validity measure. When asked to identify under which conditions they found it easier to acquire the information, all participants indicated a preference for the concept maps. All participants stated that their favorite part was inserting pictures to aid memory. When asked if they had more fun learning information using paper or the computer, all participants indicated they preferred the assistance of the computer. Furthermore, the participants responded that they would recommend this tool to others. When asked what would assist them in acquiring more content, two respondents stated that using the Internet to further investigate topics would improve their understanding and the other participant stated that it would be helpful to use the concept map to generate their own questions for other participants to answer. Teacher. The instructor stated, “By far, the students retained information better using the graphic organizer on the computer.” Without the computer, she stated that the amount of information in the book was too complex and detailed. One of the benefits mentioned was increased vocabulary knowledge, which is integral to content learning. The teacher stated that further differentiating for student needs would improve the intervention. The teacher wrote that concept mapping made reviewing for quizzes efficient because, instead of always referring back to the book, participants could use the concept map. She indicated that the pictures reinforced the concepts.


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Discussion The results suggest that computer-based concept mapping was effective at increasing content acquisition in four individuals with disabilities. Each of the participants consistently scored higher when the computer-based concept mapping procedure was in place relative to baseline conditions, and the positive response to the independent variable was systematically replicated. To our knowledge, these results represent the first integration of this computer-mediated tool to increase learning from social studies or science text at the elementary school level. The results extend the limited literature pertaining to LD and ID with students in elementary school for reading informational text to acquire content. Given the rising academic standards and increased emphasis on complex informational text (Haager & Vaughn, 2013), the implementation of grade-level Lexiled text was notable. Studies have shown that science and social studies instruction together account for less than 25% of weekly instruction in Grades 1 to 4 (NCES, 2007), indicating that additional exposure to informational text could benefit content learning. The procedures were consistent with studies that used paper-based concept maps with students in middle school. These procedures included guided support during reading and during the construction of the concept map, feedback, having students identify main ideas, and using the map as a study guide. These procedures of explicit instruction are notable and have been used extensively in interventions for students with disabilities (e.g., Jameson, Walker, Utley, & Maughan, 2012). The current procedures and results also add to the behavioral literature pertaining to interventions intended to promote improvements in academic responding. Specifically, the procedures add to and extend previous works focusing on antecedent-based interventions. Previous studies have evaluated the effects of antecedent-based interventions on responding, including the provision of choice of instructional procedures (e.g., Daly, Garbacz, Olson, Persampieri, & Ni, 2006), visual stimuli (i.e., pictures) within prompts to promote sight-reading (e.g., Baranek, Fienup, & Pace, 2011), manipulation of difficulty of reading passages for oral reading performance (e.g., Daly, Bonfiglio, Mattson, Persampieri, & Foreman-Yates, 2006), and within-stimulus prompts to improve reading recognition and comprehension (e.g., Belfiore, Grskovic, Murphy, & Zentall, 1996). The positive effects of computer-based graphic organizers demonstrated in this pilot study provide an additional example of the effectiveness of antecedent-based interventions to improve academic performance. Intervention research pertaining to Hispanic students with LD, a growing population of students with LD, is notable because the students in this study


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were of Mexican heritage. Hispanic and African American students have historically demonstrated a significant achievement gap in reading (NCES, 2009). In addition, the socioeconomic status of the neighborhood of the setting and participants was lower than the state average. Researchers have been encouraged to provide interventions to improve outcomes for students with disabilities from all ethnic backgrounds (Ford, 2012).

Limitations Several limitations must be considered. First, although the study evaluated content acquisition and comprehension, no application measures were included, such as writing. The CCSS suggests the integration of writing and reading, and research indicates that students can improve comprehension via writing (Graham & Hebert, 2011). Including a writing measure or intervention component could contribute to the literature by reflecting the instructional procedures required in Grades 6 to 12. Future investigations should consider integrating writing as an independent variable within a multicomponent intervention. A second limitation is the manner in which baseline and intervention conditions were implemented with participants in pairs, at times, and individually at other times due to scheduling and logistical concerns. The presence/ absence of a partner during the respective conditions might affect responding on subsequent, individually administered quizzes. However, this limitation was somewhat mitigated because the results suggested that this procedural variation had no impact on responding during baseline or intervention conditions. The consistent co-occurrence of positive changes in responding and the initiation of the intervention, regardless of the format, suggested that the variation did not influence the effects of the independent variable. Specifically, when participants experienced baseline conditions in pairs, responding remained low; when participants (i.e., Diego and Mateo) experienced baseline conditions individually, responding remained low according to the quizzes; when participants (i.e., Salvador and Julio) experienced the intervention individually, responding improved; and when participants experienced the intervention in pairs, responding continued at high levels. Future studies should further evaluate the extent to which these procedures might be effective in group instructional formats that might further represent typical classroom grouping procedures and school personnel constraints.

Future Research More research is needed to further understand the efficacy of computer-based graphic organizers. First, randomized clinical trials are a next step to evaluate


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this treatment with a larger sample size. Second, comparing learning and engagement outcomes for computer-based graphic organizers versus paperbased graphic organizers will provide an understanding of the relative effectiveness via a direct comparison. Third, the use of the Internet and other technologies should be considered as practical mechanisms to further support content mastery and vocabulary (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010). Finally, the integration of writing, such as persuasive writing in response to social studies or science topics, can increase comprehension (Graham & Hebert, 2011).

Implications for Practice Similar to other antecedent-based academic interventions, computer-assisted instruction has the potential to improve engagement and promote differentiated learning (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010). Although more research is warranted to determine the extent to which computer-based concept maps are effective, the procedures in this study and other studies for students with LD include components of instruction that are critical for students with LD. This includes explicit training and systematic instruction in using the tools, guided practice, and using text as a reference to locate main ideas (Bulgren et al., 2007). Findings from this study suggest that computer-based concept maps are tools that could be considered within a comprehensive intervention that includes sustained exposure to grade-level informational text and explicit instruction. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References Baranek, A., Fienup, D. M., & Pace, G. (2011). Brief experimental analysis of sight word interventions: A comparison of acquisition and maintenance of detected interventions. Behavior Modification, 35, 78-94. Belfiore, P. J., Grskovic, J. A., Murphy, A. M., & Zentall, S. S. (1996). The effects of antecedent color on reading for students with learning disabilities and co-occurring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 432-438.


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Author Biographies Stephen Ciullo is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at Texas State University and a research fellow at the Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk. His research focuses on content-area literacy for students in upper elementary school with learning disabilities and reading difficulties. Terry S. Falcomata is an assistant professor of special education at the University of Texas at Austin and research fellow at the Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk. He received his PhD in school psychology from the University of Iowa and is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst–Doctoral. His research focuses on the assessment and treatment of individuals with developmental disabilities. Kathleen Hughes Pfannenstiel is a researcher at the Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk at the University of Texas at Austin. Her research focuses on mathematics interventions for students with learning difficulties and disabilities. Glenna Billingsley is an Assistant Professor in Curriculum and Instruction at Texas State University. She teaches in the Special Education concentration of Behavior Disorders/Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports.


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