63

Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 36 (1992) 63-80 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.

Indigenous phytotherapy of gastrointestinal disorders in a lowland Mixe community (Oaxaca, Mexico): Ethnopharmacologic evaluation M. Heinrich”, “Institut

ftir Pharmazeutische

H. Rimpler”

and N. Antonio

Biologie, Albert Ludwigs Universitiit, Schiinzlestr. Soledad. Oaxaca (Mexico) (Received

June 26, 1990; accepted

Barrerab

1. 7800, Freiburg (F.R.G.)

December

and hEl Barrio de la

4, 1991)

Gastrointestinal disorders are one of the major health problems in developing countries. Sixty-five plants used popularly in the treatment of such disorders in a Mixe Indian community in Oaxaca (Mexico) and collected during a fieldstudy of I5 months are described. According to indigenous criteria a plant is used in the treatment of a certain illness because of the plant’s characteristic smell and taste. Plants with astringent properties are particularly valued to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Bitter, aromatic and bitter-aromatic plants are especially employed to treat gastrointestinal cramps and pain. Additionally, the efficacy of these plants was evaluated using ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacologic information on the plants. The majority of the plants contain chemicals that may produce the effects desired by the Mixe. Frequently tannin-containing drugs are used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. A large number of the plants used by the Mixe in the treatment of gastrointestinal pain contain essential oil or bitter principles. As a result of this evaluation, plants were selected which should be studied phytochemically and pharmacologically with priority, to evaluate further their potential in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Key words: gastrointestinal plants; ethnobotany

parasites;

gastrointestinal

medicine;

Mixe Indians

Introduction

There have long been two different focuses in ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacologic research. One line of interest tried to ellucidate the principles that are used by indigenous people to classify their environment including the plant life that surrounds them (Berlin et al., 1973; Foster, 1976: 182-187; Messer, 1987; cf. Etkin, 1988). Other researchers have been more inclined towards empirical questions. It is the aim of these studies to evaluate the value of the indigenous plants as medicine (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977; Dominguez and Alcorn, 1985; Caceres et al., 1987), as well as in wider ecological contexts (Alcorn, 1984: 475-483; Neugebauer, 1986). This study on the use of medicinal plants in a Mexican Indian community has evolved out of our interest in empirically evaluating indigenous medicine. Purely descriptive studies on the use of medicinal plants by indigenous people are comparatively frequent. It is less often attempted to evaluate the pharmacopoea of a people (ethno-

(Mexico);

ethnopharmacologic

evaluation;

medicinal

pharmacopoea). Usually screening programmes to evaluate such ethnopharmacopoeas (e.g. screeing plants against specific microorganisms) are used for such a purpose. Since the evaluation should be based on the actual use of the specific plant, this screening method seemed inappropriate. Therefore an initial ethnobothanical study in a Mixe Indian community in Oaxaca (Mexico) was conducted. Afterwards the efficacy of the plants was evaluated using a non-experimental method. It is based on the published information already available on the plants used. It indicates to what degree the plant use is based on empirically verifiable principles or whether symbolic aspects of healing are of greater relevance. Additionally, ethnological data on the importance of a specific plant in the local pharmacopoea are included. Such ethnological data yield information about which plants should be investigated phytochemically and pharmacologically with priority. The criteria for such a selection are accordingly discussed. Background and Methods

Correspondence to: M. Heinrich, lnstitut fur Pharmazeutische Biologie, Albert Ludwigs Universitlt, Schanzlestr. I, 7800, Freiburg,

Ethnobotanical

0378-8741/92/$05.00 0 1992 Elsevier Printed and Published in Ireland

research

The land of the Mixe extends mostly through

F.R.G. Scientific

Publishers

Ireland

Ltd.

64

the cool and humid mountain areas of the Sierra de Juarez in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. San Juan Guichicovi is the only Mixe-speaking community belonging to the subtropical Istmo de Tehuantepec. San Juan is the cabecera (centre) of a m~i~ipo

(subdistrict) of the same name. The average annual temperature is 25.1 “C; the average precipitation is 2254 mm (INEGI, 1987). In 1980 20 000 persons were living in the municipio, approximately 5500 to 6500 of them in the cabecera (Censo General, 1980: 145-146 and unpublished data). Seventyfive percent of the population are considered to be bilingual. A minute fraction of the population speaks only Spanish. The economy is based on subsistence agriculture (mostly maize) and on the production of coffee and citrus fruit. No detailed monograph on the lowland Mixe is available. Brief accounts are give by Foster (1969) and Nahmad (1965; cf. also Wimmer, unpublished bibliography). The only cultural aspect that has been dealt with in greater detail is the prehispanic calendar, which is still in use in some parts of the municipio (Carrasco et al., 1961; Lipp, 1991; Weitlaner and Weitlander, 1963). The language belongs to the macro-nlayan stock. Mixe vowels are geneally pronounced as in Spanish. The Mixe words are transcribed as used by the bilingual teachers of San Juan Guichicovi. Vowels are similar to Spanish. Additionally (s) or (5) is used, which is pronounced as a nasalized Spanish (0). The consonants are pronounced as in Spanish. A glottal stop (‘) and palatalized consonants and vowels are frequent (written as (ay), (ky), (my) etc.). Fairly large differences exist between the curing method of the various groups of pa ‘am iixp ’ (healers) in the community. The largest group are ‘specialists in home remedies’. These are a group of practitioners who do not consider themselves healers, but who ‘only give some plants if a person is ill’. They are generally knowledgeable with respect to plants that can be used in the treatment of common, minor illnesses and ailments. Other large groups are midwives, chupadores (healers that ‘suck out an illness’) e~p~r~ti~t~ and e~piritualistas. There is one healer who is particularly renowned for his skills and who treats a large variety of illnesses. While - according to the Mixe - rituals (e.g. in front of the house altar or in the church) are of importance for successful therapy in severe cases, herbal remedies are usually an integral part of the therapy. The ethnobothanical data were collected between November 1985 and December 1986 and in

February and March of 1988. During the first months all pa ‘am iixp ’ (healers} known in the community were contacted. Most of the plants mentioned in this study were collected together with the info~ants. A total of 15 healers were interviewed repeatedly and in greater detail. With approximately 250 other inhabitants structured and unstructured interviews were conducted. The following information about the individual plants were collected: popular name, uses, part(s) used, mode of preparation and application, doses, time and duration of application, perceived action of the plant on the patient, known side reactions, popular classification of the plant. With 182 inhabitants structured interviews were conducted, to get more detailed information on the forms of treatment of eight popularly recognized illnesses: r&&r@@ (diarrhoea), jaxk baam (pain of the body), kopk ba’am (headache), jobt baam (stomach ache), toy (fever), ts&d’al (susto), wiintooy (evil eye) and tsubox wiintooy (spirit possession). Voucher specimens (collection numbers Heinrich and Antonia: GUI l-265) are deposited at the National Herbarium in Mexico D.F. (MEXU) and at the herbarium of the Institut fur Pharmazeutische Biologie (FB, Freiburg, F.R.G.). The plants were identified at the National Herbarium in Mexico D.F. (see Heinrich, 1989; Antonio, B., 1989). Ethnopharma~o~ogic

evaluation of the plants

Until recently no rational procedure has been available to evaluate the ethnopharmacopeoa of a people. The most frequent procedure involved the screening of plants in one or two selected test systems (e.g. against microorganisms). This frequently excludes the possibility of evaluating the various plants based on the use they actually have. Therefore it was out goal to find out whether there is information available which validates the popular use of the plants. We used a methodology based on the one described by Browner et al. (1988). Plants which are used ritually or in the form of external rubs, massages or shower-baths were not further modes of application is uncertain. Therefore only plants which are used orally or rectally (or topically in the case of wounds and skin infections) have been evaluated further. The plants which are applied in an empirically verifiable manner may either be effective, possibly effective, or ineffective. The plants popularly used in San Juan are frequently not well studied phytochemically or pharmacologically. Therefore the evaluation is based on the info~ation avail-

65

able on the various plants in the scientific literature. It is assumed that the more information validates the popular use of a single plant the more likely it is to be effective in treating a certain illness. Consequently four levels of validity were established: If no information whatsoever supports the use, the plant is presumably inactive. A plant (or a closely related species of the same genus) which is used in geographically or temporally distinct areas in the treatment of similar illnesses, is assigned to level one if no further phytochemical or pharmacologic information validates the popular use. The use in other areas presumably increases the likelihood that the plant is active against this illness. This is the lowest level of validity. If in addition to the ethnobotanical data, phytochemical or pharmacologic information also validates the use in San Juan Guichicovi, the plant is assigned to level two. Plants in the category presumably exert a physiologic action on the patient and are more likely to be effective remedies than those in level one. If ethnobotanical and phytochemical and pharmacologic information supports the folk use, the plant is grouped into the level with the highest degree of confidence: three. ‘Plants assigned to this level are very likely to be efficacious remedies. The results are an indication of our current state of knowledge on these plants (Ortiz de Montellano and Browner, 1985: 62) and we hope that this evaluation will guide further phytochemical and pharmacologic research on the efficacy and safety of indigenous medicinal drugs. Plants which are also used in other areas and that have neither been studied phytochemically nor pharmacologically in great detail are likely candidates for further research. Additionally we were interested in the frequency of usage of a given plant. Since the observations on the frequency of usage could not be quantified, popularity of a plant was used as an indicator. We consider information on plants which is more frequently cited by the informants as ethnographically more valid than information on plants which is infrequently cited (cf. Alcorn, 1984: 527-528). Therefore, the plants were divided into three groups according to the frequency of their being cited as medicinal by our informants. Plants were are known to a large number of informants and

which are also known to at least three healers are assigned the ethnographic validity (A). Plants which are only known to two informants and which are not known to the healers are assigned the lowest level (C). B is an intermediate category, which is used for plants known to several informants and to one or two healers. Plants that were cited by only one informant as being medicinal are not included in the collection. The data on the ethnographic validity are included in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Accordingly plants with high ethnographic validity should be investigated phytochemically and pharmacologically with higher priority than those with a low ethnographic validity. Results Indigenous

criteria for plant selection

In order to understand the criteria that are used to characterize and select a medicinal plant, the informants were asked why a specific plant is considered to be medicinal. The Mixe distinguish a large number of qualities of the plants which are used medicinally (Table 1). Odour and taste of a plant or its parts are the most important criteria for deciding against what illness a plant may be used. These qualities also guide the search for new medicinal plants. To treat infections of the skin plants with all of the qualities summarized in Table 1, with the exception of pahk, are used. Aromatic (cooling) plants are considered particularly useful to treat illnesses that are associated with fever and are mostly applied externally. Astringent drugs (especially the bark of various trees) are valued to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Additionally, bitter plants are used as a supplementary therapy for

TABLE

I

PROPERTIES OF TO INDIGENOUS iuip jumuump

pu bk ra ‘urn ri’ity

ISU‘tsp u ?y xujts 00 ‘Is

xun xuup

MEDICINAL CRITERIA

PLANTS

ACCORDING

hot (like onions) hot (like chilli) sweet bitter astringent burning gelatinous (also called nQ tempd) foaming (‘forms foam when rubbed’) sour aromatic (cooling)

these indications. Bitter, aromatic and aromaticbitter plants are particularly valued in the treatment of gastrointestinal cramps and pain. Cough and other complaints of the respiratory system are treated mostly with sweet and sometimes with sour drugs. A special category is xajtz oo’ts. The foam that is formed if one rubs the plant is seen as a hint for its medicinal properties. A plant may also have other qualities which prevent its usage or which make it dangerous to touch. The most important one are ke’ep (burning), no’op (burning-itching), tuamts (salty), xi’@ (hot-itching), u ‘xp (itching). The hot/cold dichotomy (cf. Foster and Anderson, 1976: 39, 59-60, 74-75) is of little importance in San Juan Guichicovi. In fact, asking whether a plant ought to be considered as hot or cold does not make sense to many informants. Results of the ethnobotanical study A total of 213 plants were documented as medicinal in San Juan Guichicovi. Of these only four are used in rituals while the vast majority are applied orally or topically (the latter in case of skin diseases). Usually fairly broad illness categories were given by the informants. One should be cautious not to equate these indigenous categories with medical concepts. Sixty three plants are applied externally in the form of shower baths of rubs to treat illnesses associated with fever. Seventy-two are used topically to treat various infections of the skin. Eighteen and 38 are used in the treatment of respiratory disorders and ‘female disorders’, respectively (Heinrich, 1989). Sixty-five are used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders (see Appendix). All but three of these are applied orally or also rectally. Thirty and 24 plants, respectively, are used to treatjoot bahm (stomach ache) or t@‘&z&#(diarrhoea). Ten plants are used to expel tu’unk (intestinal parasites) Several of the latter plants are used because they act as purgatives. They are also used to treat a rather large variety of illnesses: susto (sudden fright), fever, stomach ache and even in a few cases diarrhoea. To establish the most common forms of application of plant remedies, 182 inhabitants of the community were asked to list their preferred forms of treatment for eight popularly recognized illnesses. With respect to diarrhoea (tf#n# and stomach ache f’joot bu’am) the results are summarized in Table 2. As can be seen from these data the most popular form of treatment in both cases is teas. Commercially available tablets (presumably most-

TABLE

2

PREFERRED FORMS OF CURING FOR DIARRHOEA AND STOMACH ACHE BASED ON 182 INTERVIEWS (MULTIPLE

RESPONSES

Mode of application

POSSIBLE) Biness category tdYn& (diarrhoea)

External

application

Oral application Tea Drops Purging Tablets Rectal

application

Total responses

3.7

(8)

64.3 (137) 6.1 (13) 3.3 (7) 18.3 (39) 4.2

(9)

99.9 (213)

% (n) Jo’ot

bahm

(stomach 9.7

pain) (22)

49.1 (112) 2.6 (6) 20.2 (46) 9.6 (22) 8.8 100

(20) (228)

ly antibiotics) are increasingly becoming popular. The relatively high percentage of rectal applications and the use of purges especially to treat stomach pain are also noteworthy. Ethnopharmacologic evaluation of the plants Ethnobotanical information that confirms the use in San Juan is available on 56 of the 63 plants. The plants are therefore at least effective at level 1. Our search for ethnobotanical information was unsuccessful in the remaining seven cases. The later - according to our evaluation scheme - are presumably inactive (level 0). The results of the ethnopharmacologic evaluation indicate that many plants do contain chemicals that might produce the desirec physiologic effects (level 2 and 3, respectively). The results are summarized in Tables 3, 4 and 5. To facilitate the discussion, the three largest groups of popularly recognized gastrointestinal illnesses will be discussed separately (for most references, see Appendix). Treutment of diarrhoea and dysentery Diarrhoea and dysentery are two of the major health problems treated by the healers in San Juan. Most frequently tannin containing drugs (ti’ity) are used as in many other countries (Steinegger and Hansel, 1988: 123). Tannins are effective antidiarrhoeal agents and this type of therapy, therefore, has to be considered a useful, general therapy of diarrhoea. The mechanism of action is still uncertain (Haslam, 1989; Schmid, 1952: 16-20; Verhaeren and Lemli, 1986).

TABLE PLANTS

3 USED

ORALLY

IN THE TREATMENT

OF DIARRHOEA

AND

DYSENTERY

X, present or used for the given indication; (X), present in minor amounts; ?, uncertain if the plant contains such compounds; A, B, C, ethnographic validity (A, highest; C, lowest); 0, 1, 2, 3, evaluation (3, presumably active; 2, likely to be active; I, only ethnobotanical information validates the popular use in San Juan; 0, presumably inactive; see ethnopharmacologic evaluation of the plants); CO, commercial drug. Plant

Popular indication(s) Diarrhoea

Active compounds (if known) Dysentery

Tannins present

Evaluation

Other relevant compounds

Yes Annona muricata Annona reticulata

No

X X

X

X

-

2B 2B

Anthurium schlechtendalii ssp. jimenezii Anthurium schlechtendalii ssp. schlechtendalii

X

x

-

OC

X

x

-

oc

Byrsonima crassifolia Cissampelos pareira Citrus limon (See Table 4)

X X

Croion repens Guazuma ulmifolia Eugenia acapulcensis Hymenea courbaril Machaerium jloribundum Malvaviscus arboreus Muss x paradisiaea Oryza safiva (CO) Pluchea symphytt$olia (see Table 4) Psidium guajava Psidium guineense Punica granatum Quercus glaucescens Quercus oleoides Quercus sapotifolia Sinningia incarnata Smilax lanceolata Spondias purpurea Zen mays

X

X X X X X

alkaloids(?)

x

-

x x X X

saccharides saccharides

IA 2A 2A 28 OB OA 28 3B

X X

-

2A 2A

X X X X

-

2A 2A 2B 2A OA 1B 2A 2A

X X X

X X X X

2A IA

X

X

In a few other cases (Muss x paradisiaca, Oryza Zey mars) plant parts which are rich in starch are used. The main beneficial effect of this treatment (e.g. using rice water) is the reduction of the stool volume and consequently the rehydration of the patient (Molla et al., 1984, 1985). It is therefore a useful dietary addition (Mohan et al., 1986). In several cases neither tannins nor polysaccharides are known, or it is known that the plant

saliva,

-

X X

x x

-

X

saccharides

X

contains none: Anthurium schlechtendalii, Cissampelos pareira, Machaerium floribundum, Malvaviscus arboreus. Sinningia incarnata and Smilax lanceolata. Whether these plants exert a physiological effect is inknown. Of all 24 plants used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery, one and 15 are active on levels 3 and 2, respectively. In three cases only ethnobotanical information validates the use. In five cases no information whatsoever is available.

Treatment

of gastrointestinal

pain and cramps

Frequently bitter (tu’am) and/or aromatic (xuup) plants are used in San Juan to treat gastrointestinal pain. Especially ‘Amara-aromatica’ and essential oil-containing drugs are useful in the treatment of gastrointestinal pain and cramps (Steinegger and Hansel, 1988: 286-298, 304, 595). A large number of the plants from San Juan contain essential oil or butter principles (see Table 4).

In a few cases the active constituents of the plant are known and pharmacologic tests have been undertaken: Artemisiu absinthium, Chamomilla recutita, Mentha x piperita

and Ruta graveolens.

Besides these four plants, which are active at level 3, there are 12 plants active at level 2. No pharmacologic studies have been undertaken on these plants. In other cases, no or only minor amounts of essential oil or bitter compounds are

TABLE 4 PLANTS USED ORALLY IN THE TREATMENT OF STOMACH ACHE AND RELATED DISORDERS (ABBREVIATIONS SEE TABLE 3) Plant

Popular indication(s) Stomach ache

Abe~moschus mo~chat~ Acosmium panamense Ageratum conyzoides Anethum graveolens (CO) Artemisia absinthium (CO) Artemisia iudovi~iana ssp. mexicana Calea urticifolia Chamomilla recutita (CO) Che~opodjum ambro~jojdes (see Table 5) Cinnamomum zeylanicum

X X X X X

Bitter compounds

Relevant compounds

(Xl intest. cramps

? intest. cramps vomiting

X X X

X X

absinthin sesquiterpenlactones

lB IA IC 2A 3A 2A

X

vorhiting

X

2A

vomiting diarroea

mt

IA

indigestion

X X

7

X

bisabolol

X X X X X X X X

Persea americana Pluchea Syrn~hytI~o~ia

X

w intest. cramps ‘belly ache’

Russelia sarmentosa

X

Ruta graveolens Seleria nutans

X

? ?

X X X

IB X

2A 2A

IA X

intest. cramps

X ?

aucubin. catalpol arborinine

X X

OB

X

‘belly ache’ intest. parasites ‘belly ache’

X X

2B 3A IB IA 2B 1B 2A

?

X X X

IB 3A

IB 2B 2B IC IA 2A 2A 3A

‘belly ache’ intest. paras. ‘belly ache’

Polygala variabilis

(CO) Zornia thymijolia

Essential oil

hyperacidity

lllicium verum (CO) Lippia alba Mentha x piperita Oxalis acuminata

Scoparia d&is Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Tagetes Iucida Tana~etum Farthenium

Other uses

Evaluation

X X

(CO) Citrus limon Cocos nuct~era (see Table 5) Croton glandulosus Cymbopogon citratus Eryngium foetidum Gnaphahum attenuatum Hyptis verticillata

Active compounds (if known)

ipolamiid

69

TABLE PLANTS

5 USED

ORALLY

IN THE TREATMENT

Plant

Popular

OF INTESTINAL

(ABBREVIATIONS

indication(s)

Intest. parasites

General purgative

Acrocomia mexicana Asclepias curassavica

X X

X X

Carica papaya Chenopodium ambrosioides Cocos nucifera

X X X

Hura polyandra Pedilanthus tithymaloides Pluchea symphytifolia (see Table 4)

X X

Sechium edule Tanacetum parthenium (see Table 4)

X

SEE TABLE

3)

Active compounds

Evaluation

-

oc 2A

uses

cardenolides

X X

ache ache

(9 papain ascaridol hurin (?) -

3B 3A IB 2A IA

oc

Treatment of gastrointestinal parasites and the use of purging A total of ten plants are being used to treat gastrointestinal parasites (for Pluchea symphytifolia and Tanacetum parthenium see the previous paragraphs). Three of the plants are very strong purgatives and their use is associated with severe side effects. The side reactions of Asclepias curassavica are due to the presence of cardenolides. The toxic compounds from Hura polyandra and Pedilanthus tithymaloides are unknown. Deaths due to the overdosing of A. curassavica and P. tithymaloides are reported by the informants. In both cases approximately three times the curative doses is considered lethal. All these plants are effective purgatives, but due to the side reactions these plants should not be used as therapeutics. Chenopodium ambrosioides and Carica papaya are effective antiparasitic remedies. Both contain well known compounds with antihelmintic activity (Claus and Tyler, 1965: 403-4; Steinegger and Hansel, 1988: 489-90). For Acrocomia mexicana and Cocos nucifera it is unknown whether they evoke any effect.

in this paper

Other

stomach stomach

known from the species. Thirteen of the plants are accordingly grouped into level 1. One plant is likely to be inactive.

Overall efficacy of the plants Of the 65 plants discussed

PARASITES

only

three are used externally. Of the remaining 62 plants 36 (58%) contain chemicals that may explain the popular use (29 (47%) and 7 (1 l%), respectively for effectivity levels 2 and 3); 18 (29%) are known from other regions to be used for similar illnesses (effective level 1); and 8 (13%) are presumably ineffective. Four of the plant genera have not been studied phytochemically at all: Oxalis acuminata, Pedilanthus tithymaloides, Sinningia incarnata and Zornia thymzfolia. In other cases little information on the plant or information only on other members of the genus is available. Discussion Ethnobotanical investigations have resulted in a large body of descriptive data (cf. Morton, 1981). What is needed now are methods to evaluate these data more rigorously (Farnsworth et al., 1985; 965; Browner et al., 1988: 686; Weniger and Robineau, 1989) and to select plants that should be investigated phytochemically and pharmacologically with priority. In this article we attempt to contribute to the development of such procedures. After documenting the medicinal plants in San Juan it was our goal to evaluate this ethnopharmacopoea. A procedure, such as the one outlined in this paper, helps to indicate whether the treatment used in a community has to be regarded as an efficacious form of cure or whether symbolic aspects are of greater importance (Moerman, 1979).

70

The results of our research clearly demonstrate that the use of medicinal plants in San Juan Guichicovi is based on rational criteria. Taste and smell are used to pre-select plants which may be used medicinally. The continued use of such a pIant depends on its efftcacy according to the observations by the Mixe. The use of medicinal plants is embedded into a complex cultural context and is based on indigenous criteria. It is distinct from the hot/cold classification, which is reported to be used in many parts of Mexico, Central and South America (Foster and Anderson, 1976: 39, 59-60,74-75). Systems of plant ~lassi~cation based on taste and smell are also reported from other regions of Oaxaca. Ortiz de Montellano and Browner (1985) report on the quality ‘astringent’ in the popular medicine and botany of a Chinantec-speaking community. The importance of taste and odour is also stressed by Messer (1978: 45-47) using a Zapotec community as an example. Further studies in other communities will be necessary to find out whether criteria based on taste and odour are more widely distributed. However, there is no unicausal relation between a certain quality of a plant - according to indigenous criteria - and its use. For example, not all plants used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery are astringent. Plants with other qualities, which are regarded as appropriate, are also used. Our results demonstrate not only that the use of medicinal plants in San Juan Guichicovi is based on rational criteria, but that a relatively large proportion of plants do produce the physiologic effects desired by the Mixe. The number of effective remedies used in the community should not be underestimated. The overal effectiveness of the Mixe ethnopharmacopoea is comparable to the results from a Chinantec community (Ortiz de Montellano and Browner, 1985). Especially the diarrhoea, dysentery and treatment of gastrointestinal pain has to be considered as a of the unspecific useful, general therapy gastrointestinal diseases prevalent in the community. With the exception of Caricu papayu and Chenopodium ambrosioides, the plants used in the treatment of gastrointestinal parasites or as purgatives have to be considered as a form of treatment which is of little therapeutic value. The use of plants with strong side reactions will under the conditions in San Juan Guichicovi - be a potential health hazard. This evaluation is the first step for further phytochemical and pharmacologic investigations. With increasing knowledge of the constituents of

these plants, more plants may be assigned to levels 2 and 3. One goal ought to be the search for plants to be used as safe and cheap medication in the areas where the plants are available. Therefore, pharmacologic and phytochemical studies on the medicinal flora of San Juan Guichicovi should concentrate on those plants which are potentially of greatest value in treating gastrointestinal illnesses. Whether the criteria proposed in this paper (high ethnographic validity and similar uses in other regions) are sufficient can only be shown through a more detailed analysis of such plants. Acknowledgements

We thank all persons who have helped us in the field and especially the inhabitants of San Juan Guichicovi and the staff of the Instituto National Indigenista’s (INI) local centre. Special thanks are due to Abelardo Ascona, Glafida Figueira, Gonzalo Gonzales, Amador MUAOZ,Epifania Pifieda, Roberto Cervantes Alarcon (INI), Leopold0 Lopez Ordodez (INI), Adelberto Torres Toledo (INI) and Carlos Viesca TreviAo (UNAM). The plants were identified at the National Herbarium in Mexico D.F. We appreciate the help of D. Lorence A., Francisco Ramos M., T. Ramamoorthy, R. Torres, Mario Sousa and J.L. Villaseiror in the identification of difficult specimens. Thanks are also due to R. Hertel, U. Kohler, (Freiburg, F.R.G.), K.W. Ankenbrandt and B. Ortiz de Montellano (both Detroit, U.S.A.) for help at various stages of the project. M.H.‘s research in Mexico was partially supported by the DAAD (Bonn, F.R.G.), by the Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores (Mexico D. F.) and the Freiburger Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft (F.R.G. j. Appendix Plants used in the treatment disorders

of gastrointestinal

*Very common plants, no voucher specimen collected. moschatus Med. (Malvaceae, GCIlr51) effective level 1B Reports from the Huastec (Alcorn, 1984: 528) validate the folk use of the combined leaves, Bowers and seeds to treat stomach pain in San Juan. It is also - as in many other regions of Central America and the Caribbean -- renowned for Abelmoschus

71

its properties to cure snake-bites (Martinez, 1969: 490-492.; Morton, 1981: 515). Whether the mucilage or the essential oil (farnesol 0.12% in seeds, ambretolide and ester thereof) produce a physiologic effect is unknown (Hegnauer, 1969: 34, 42). (Benth.) Yakov (FabaceaeCadieae, GUI 22) effective level 1A Ethnobotanical data from a Zapotec community in Oaxaca validate the use of the bark in the treatment of stomach cramps (Heinrich et al., 1990).

Acosmium panamense

Karw. ex Mart. (Arecaceae, GUI 241) not effective OC The treatment of intestinal parasites with the oil-rich seeds is unlikely to produce specific effects on the parasites. It acts as a mild purgative.

Acrocomia

mexicana

Ageratum conyzoides L. (Asteraceae-Eupatorieae, GUI 259) effective level 1C

The plant is also used in other parts of Central America and in the Philippines to treat stomach ache and similar complaints (Perry and Metzger, 1980: 83; Morton, 1981: 902). Numerous compounds have been isolated from the plant: essential oil with monoterpenes (sabinene, P-pinene), sesquiterpenes (especially germacrene D, P-caryophyllene) and phenylpropanes (eugenol); a triterpene (friedelin), polyoxygenated flavones, benzofuranes and coumarins (Hegnauer 1964: 453; Dominguez, 1977: 494; Proksch and Rodriguez, 1983; Vyas and A. Mulchandani, 1986; Bennet et al., 1988 and Ekundayo et al., 1988). The physiologic effects of these compounds are unknown. Anethum graveolens L. (Apiaceae, GUI 38) effective level 2A The use of the fruit to treat stomach pain is widely distributed (Perry and Metzger, 1980: 410; Morton, 1981: 642). The essential oil (monoterpenes and phenylpropanes: dillapiol, myristicin and isomyristicine) act as mild carminative and stomachic (List and Hlirhammer, 1972: 86-88). Additionally flavonoids and their glycosides (quercetinand kaempferol-glycosides) and coumarins (scopoletin, anethum-coumarin) are known from the fruit (Hegnauer, 1973; 575, 604, 618, 766).

Annona muricata L. (GUI 208) and Annona reticulata L. (GUI 194) (both Annonaceae) effec-

tive level 2B The bark is used in the treatment of diarrhoea. Similar uses are reported from the Huastec (Alcorn, 1984: 544-545) and African cultures (Sengbusch and Dippold, 1980: 170). The tannins which have been isolated from the bark (Hegnauer, 1964: 120, 1989: 43-44,50; Leboeuf et al., 1982) are presumably the active constituents. Anthurium schlechtendalii ssp. jimenezii (Matude) Croat (GUI 98) and Anthurium schlechtendalii ssp. schlechtendalii Kunth. (GUI 179, Araceae) not ef-

fective OC No data are available to validate treatment of diarrhoea. Both plants side reactions due to the presence glycosides (Hegnauer, 1963: 82-85,

the use in the might produce of cyanogenic 1986: 583).

Artemisia absinthium L. (Asteraceae-Anthemideae, GUI 171) effective level 3A The use of the leaves in the treatment of stomach ache is widely distributed (Morton, 198 1: 909) and has been introduced into San Juan. Absinthin is especially known to be very bitter, to stimulate the appetite and to have weak antihelminthic properties (List and Hiirhammer, 1972: 256; Schneider and Mielke, 1979). Artemisia ludoviciana ssp. mexicana Nutt. (Asteraceae-Anthemideae, GUI 1) effective level 2A The use of the plant is similar to the use of Artemisia absinthium and is also widely distributed: U.S.A., Huastec Indians of Mexico, Guatemala and other parts of Central Americas (Morton, 1981: 909; Alcorn, 1984: 550). As Zztauhyatl it was part of the folk pharmacopoea of the Aztec (Ortiz de Montellano, 1975). No data are available on pharmacologic tests performed with the plant, but the essential oil (rich in monoterpenes; limonene, borne01 and sesquiterpenelactones: arglanine, douglanine, estaliatin, crisartemin A) contributes to the physiological effect (List and H&hammer, 1972: 276; Lozoya and Lozoya, 1982: 45-59). Asclepias curassavica L. (Asclepiadaceae, GUI 12) effective level 2A This is one of the strongest purgatives known to the Mixe and it is especially used to treat infections with intestinal parasites. It is also used in other illnesses if purgation is desired as part of the

72

therapy. Similar usages are reported from the Huastec (Alcorn, 1984: 552). Numerous cardenolides are known from this species and from other members of the genus: uscharine, uscharidine, calotropine, calactine, calotoxine, calotropagenin (Seiber et al., 1982). These contribute to the purgative effect (Benson, J.M. et al., 1979; Kelly et al., 1988). The strong side-reactions of the plant that may lead to death are feared by the Mixe and therefore the plant is now frequently being substituted by magnesium hydroxide.

this plant which interact to produce these effects: flavonoids (apigenin-, luteolin- and quercetinderivates), mucilage and especially essential oil with sesquiterpenes (bisabolol, prochamazulen, chamazulene, bisabololoxid A, B, farnesene), (Hegnauer, 1964: 452-537; Jakovlev and Schlichtegroll, 1969; Forster et al., 1980; Cinco et al., 1983; Hartke and Mutschler, 1986; 2061-2065; Carle et al., 1987).

Buddleja americana L. (Loganiaceae, GUI 99) not evaluated The leaves are used externally to massage the belly in case of stomach pain.

This plant is well known (Morton, 198 1: 176- 179; Alcorn, 1984: 595) for the antihelminthic action of the monoterpene ascardiol (Donatelli, 1935; Lozoya and Lozoya, 1982: 31-44). The use by the Mixe in case of parasitosis and related gastrointestinal complaints is therefore a useful treatment (Hegnauer, 1964; 4 19-422; Martinez, 1969: 127-128). Side effects in case of overdosing (especially when using the extracted essential oil) are possible (Rezza and Soragni, 1951).

Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) H.B.K. (Malphigiaceae, GUI 65) effective level 2A

The bark is also used in Guyana and Cuba (Morton, 1981: 413) to treat diarrhoea. High concentration of tannins (2%40%) are reported from the bark (Hegnauer, 1969: 26). Calea urticifolia (Mill.)

D.C. T. (AsteraceaeHeliantheae, GUZ 85) effective level 1B A popular digestive in many parts of Mexico (Martinez, 1969: 348), which is used in San Juan Guichicovi against stomach ache and acidity of the stomach. It is unknown whether the sesquiterpenes and benzofurans known from the species exert any effect on the gastrointestinal tract (Seaman 1982; Proksch and Rodriguez, 1983). Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae, G CJ12.39) effective level 3B The continuous use of the fruit milk in the treatment of gastrointestinal parasites in many parts of South America (Dragendorff, 1967: 454; Martinez, 1969: 241-244) and the presence of papain with proteolytic and antihelminthic properties validates the popular use in San Juan (List and Hiirhammer, 1972: 714, Emeruwa, 1982; Hegnauer, 1989: 213). Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert

(AsteraceaeGUI 73) effective level 3A Manzanilla is well known in many parts of the world for its antiphlogistic action and for curing mild stomach disorders. In San Juan Guichicovi the plant is used for similar indications. A spasmolytic effect has been demonstrated on the guinea pig ileum and the plant also acts against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Numerous compounds have been isolated from Anthemideae,

Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Chenopodiaceae, GUI 27) effective level 3A

Cinnamomum zeylanicum B 1. (Lauraceae, 90*) effective level 2A

GUI

This introduced plant is used to treat vomiting and stomach pain. Similar uses are widespread (Dragendorff, 1967: 238). A vasoconstrictoric and antihelminthic activity is known (Bennet et al., 1988). Especially eugenol (with an inhibitory action on the biosynthesis of prostaglandin and inhibitory action on smooth muscles) and essential oil with monoterpenes (camphor), diterpenenes, sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene etc.) and phenylpropanes (cinnamomic aldehyde, benzaldehyde) were isolated. Tannins have been reported from the bark (Hegnauer, 1966: 355, 1989: 644,650; List and Hoi-hammer, 1973: 58-71). Cissampelos pareira L. (Menispermaceae, GUI 113) effective level 1A The root is also used in Sri Lanka and India to treat dysentery and is popular in many parts of the world to treat a wide variety of illnesses (Dragendorff, 1967; 236; Morton, 1981: 217). The drug is reported to have curariform activity and another species has been shown to possess local anesthetic activity (Basu, 1970, Gorinsky et al., 1972). Whether the isoquinoline alkaloids (hayatine, hayatidine, hayatinine, etc.), bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids (dimethylwarifteine, methylwarifteine, warifteine) and protoberine alkaloids (cyclanolinechloride) isolated from the plant contribute to this effect is unknown. (Pradhan and De,

73

1959; Srivastava and Khare, 1964; Bhatnagar and Popli, 1967; Answer et al., 1968; Dwuma-Badu et al., 1975; Borkakoti and Palmer, 1978).

assumed to contribute to this action, but its activity has not been proven (Hegnauer, 1963: 187; BGA, 1988).

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. (Rutaceae, GUI 166) effective level 1A The fruit juice is particularly valued to treat vomiting and vomiting associated with diarrhoea. The use for these indications is widely distributed (Morton, 1981: 373-377). Citric acid is the main constituent of the fruit juice. Limonoids, flavonoids, vitamin C and various sugars are also known (Hegnauer, 1973: 177-210, 215-217; List and Hiirhammer, 1973: 93-94; Maier, 1983). Whether these compounds exert any specific action on the gastrointestinal tract is uncertain.

Eryngium foetidum L. (Apiaceae, GUI 2) effective

Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae, GUI 235*) effective level 1B The use of coconut milk against gastrointestinal parasites is widely distributed in the Caribbean. No active constituents are known from the plant (List and Horhammer, 1973: 183; Hegnauer, 1986: 749-756). Croton glandulosus L. (Euphorbiaceae,

GUI 119)

effective level 1B The use of members of this genus in the treatment of stomach ache is also reported from Guatemala and the U.S.A. (Dragendorff, 1967: 377; Reis, 1973: 151; Reis and Lipp, 1982: 156). Several species of the genus show activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Nickell, 1959). Essential oil (0.04%), diterpenes and alkaloids are known from the genus (Hegnauer, 1966: 119-122,461; Farnsworth et al., 1969). Croton repens Schlecht. (Euphorbiaceae, GUI 167) effective level 1A This species is reported to be used in the treatment of dysentery and heavy diarrhoea in Guatemala (Reis, 1973; 151). No compounds responsible for this action are known. Several species of the genus show activity against Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria (Nickell, 1959; see also C. glandulosus).

level 2B The use in the treatment of stomach ache (‘air in the belly’) is also reported from the Caribbean, South America, Panama, the Malay Peninsula (in combination with Scoparia dulcis) (Dragendorff, 1967: 485; Reis, 1973: 212; Perrry and Metzger, 1980: 385; Morton, 1981: 647-648). The extract is active against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus (Nickel& 1959: 292; Goncalves de L., 1962/3: 271). The aqueous extract of the aerial parts act as anti-spasmodics on cramps induced by picrotoxine (Simon and Singh, 1986). Especially essential oil (0.03% from the fresh plant) with dodec-2-en-l-01 (major fraction), monoterpenes (cr-pinene, fenchylalcohol, furfurol) and coumarins are known (Hegnauer, 1973: 601; Pinar and Galan, 1985). Eugenia acapulcensis Steud. (Myrtaceae, GUI 140)

effective level 2A The use of bark and leaves of other members of this genus in the treatment of dysentery is also reported from Cuba (Morton, 1981: 624) and Brazil (Filho et al., 1985). Tannins are presumably the active constituents of the plant (Bate-Smith, 1962: 147; Hegnauer, 1969: 186; List and Horhammer, 1973: 861-863; Nonaka et al., 1987). Gnaphalium attenuatum DC. (AsteraceaeInuleae, GUI 260) effective level 1C Ethnobotanical data validate the popular use in the treatment of stomach pain (Reis, 1973: 312). Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. (Sterculiaceae, GUI 64) effective level 2A The bark, which is used in the treatment of diarrhoea in San Juan, is also used by the Huastec and was listed in the Mexican Pharmacopoea (Sociedad Farmaceutica Mexicana, 1952: 232; Alcorn, 1984: 661). Leaves and bark are rich in tannins (List and Horhammer, 1973: 1210). Hura polyandra Baillon (Euphorbiaceae,

Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf. (Poacea, GUI 133) effective level 2B

The use in the treatment of stomach pain is reported from the Huastec (Alcorn, 1984: 621). The essential oil with monoterpenes (especially citral (70-80%) and myrcene (approx. 20%)) is

GUI 1.54)

effective level 2A This tree, which was introduced into San Juan at the end of the last century, was used as a strong purgative, especially in cases of gastrointestinal parasites. This use is also reported from Guatemala. Other species of the same genus are

used in various parts of America for the same purpose (Morton, 1981: 447). Di- and triterpenes (latex), flavonoids (leaves) and lectins (latex) are known. The lectins hurin and crepitin are presumably responsible for the purgative action (List and Horhammer, 1976: 109; Barbieri et al., 1983; Rizk, 1987). The toxicity of the tree is feared by the Mixe and the latex is no longer used. Hymenaea courbaril L. (Caesalpinaceae-Detarieae, GUI 81) effective level 2B The use in the treatment of diarrhoea is also reported from Costa Rica and Venezuela (Morton, 198 1: 322). The bark is active against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis (Verpoorte and Dihal, 1987). Sesquiterpenes and tannins as well as a diterpene (copalic acid) are known from the leaves and wood, respectively (Harborne, 1971: 264; Crankshaw and Langenheim, 1981). Hyptis verticillata Jacq. (Lamiaceae,

GUI 14) effective level 1A Ethnobotanical data validate the popular use to treat stomach cramps (Alcorn, 1984: 672). Lignanes (e.g. fl-peltatine), some with antimitotic action (podophyllotoxine), were isolated from H. verticillata (German, 1971). Other species yield essential oil with mono- and sesquiterpenes. Diterpenes, triterpenes and lactones are reported for several species of Hyptis (Hegnauer, 1966: 3 13; Misra et al., 1983; Mukherjee et al., 1984; Luz et al., 1984; Achmad et al., 1987). Zllicium verum Hook f. (Illiciaceae, GUI 84) effec-

tive level 2A Introduced from Asia, this plant is popularly used in San Juan to treat gastrointestinal pain (Perry and Metzger, 1980: 180- 181). Especially essential oil with phenylpropanes (anethol (80-95%) isoanethol and anisaldehyde) and monoterpenes ((+)-pinene, a-pinene, a-phellandrene) are known from the fruits and are responsible for the carminative action (List and Horhanmrer, 1976: 228-231). Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. (Verbenaceae, GUI 79)

effective level 2A The use of the leaves in the treatment of from gastrointestinal pain is also reported Curacao (Sengbusch and Dippold, 1980: 244). The plant is very rich in essential oil and also contains an iridoid (geniposide). These act as mild carminatives (Craveiro et al., 1981; Heni 1987).

Machaerium ji’oribundum Benth. (FabaceaePterocarpeae, GUI 75) not effective OB No ethnobotanical data are available to validate the use of this plant in San Juan to treat diarrhoea. Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. (Malvaceae, GUI 93) not effective OA While the plant is presumably useful in the treatment of post-partum problems (the other popular use in San Juan) the use of leaves, flowers and seed to treat gastrointestinal pain is not validated by any ethnobotanical or other information. No phytochemical information is available on this species. From M. conzattii sesquiterpenes (farnesol), triterpenes, a flavonoid (kaempferol), a purin-alkaloid (allantoin) and malvidinchloride are known (Hegnauer 1969: 35; Achari et al., 1984). Mentha x piperita L. (Lamiaceae, GUI 95) effective level 3A A very common folk remedy (Morton, 1981: 771/2; Alcorn, 1984: 704) which is used as a mild spasmolytic. This action has been demonstrated pharmacologically (Forster et al., 1980). Especially essential oil (0.5-4%) with monoterpenes ((-)menthol (major component), (-)-menthon, menthy1 acetate and others) as well as caffeic acid esters are known (Hartke and Mutschler, 1986: 2702-2708). Musa x paradisiaca L. (Musaceae, GUI 164 *) effective level 2B The polysaccharides of the fruit are a useful dietetic treatment of diarrhoea, which is also used in many other regions of the world (Hegnauer, 1962: 366-371; Alcorn, 1984: 710). Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae, GUI 126*) effective level 3B The treatment of diarrhoea with commercially available rice is a widely distributed (Perry and Metzger, 1980: 167-168) and effective dietetic addition to other forms of treatment. The rice water will influence the uptake of electrolytes and saccharides (Molla et al., 1984). This will reduce the stool volume (Molla et al., 1985). Oxalis acuminata Schlecht.

(Oxalidaceae, GUI 195) effective level 1B Ethnobotanical information on other members of the genus in India and Brazil validates the use in the treatment of stomach pain (Morton, 1981: 361-362; Maheshwari and Singh, 1984: 258).

75

Pedilanthus

tithymaloides (L.) Poit. (Euphorbiaceae, GUI 57) effective level 1A The stem juice is used as a strong purgative. This use is also reported from other parts of South America (Dragendorff, 1967: 385; Martinez, 1969: 388). It is popularly regarded as very toxic. Due to the reported strong side reactions, the plant is today mostly being substituted by commercially available magnesium hydroxide. No phytochemical or pharmacologic information is available on the genus. Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae, GUI 106) effective level 2A Ethnobotanical data from the Huastec validate the use of the leaves in the treatment of stomach ache (Alcorn, 1984: 735). The lipophilic extract is active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, mycobacteria and pathogenic fungi. Essential oil with sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene, E-cardinene) and phenylpropanes (especially estragol, eugenol) are known (Bergh et al., 1973; Montes et al., 1981; Hegnauer, 1989: 637). Eugenol acts as an inhibitor on smooth muscle (Bennet et al., 1988). Pluchea symphytifolia (Miller) Gilis (Asteraceae-

Inuleae, GUI 42) effective level 2A The leaves of this plant are used to treat stomach pain, gastrointestinal parasites, and as a supplementary treatment also for diarrhoea. It is one of the most popular medicinal plants of the Mixe and is also used to treat infections and pain of the ear and menstrual problems. The use of the genus in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders is widely distributed: Brazil, the Orient, Egypt (Morton, 1981: 956). Plutchea lanceolata [sic] induces a reduction of the rhythmic concentrations of the isolated rat and rabbit ileum (Prasad et al., 1965). Numerous sesquiterpenes are known from the genus (Ahmad and Fizza, 1988).Cuauthemone derivatives were isolated from the species (Jakupovic et al., 1985). Also triterpenes, coffeic acid derivatives and flavonoids are known (Martino et al., 1979; Wollenweber et al., 1985; Scholz et al., 1990). Humeria rubra L. (Apocynaceae, GUI I44) not evaluated The crushed leaves are used externally to massage the belly in case of stoinach pain. Polygala

variabilis H.B.K. (Polygalaceae, GUI f98) effective level 1A The treatment of intestinal cramps is also

reported from Curacao (Morton, 198 1: 418). The compounds (methylsalicylate, lignane) known from this genus are unlikely to produce the desired effect (Hegnauer, 1969: 353-357). Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae, GUI 41) effective level 2A The treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery using the leaves of this plant is also reported from other ethnic groups in South America (Morton, 1981: 629-631; Alcorn, 1984: 765; Schmeda Hirschmann, 1988; Heinrich et al., 1990). The leaves are rich in tannins (Bate-Smith 1962, Okuda et al. 1982, 1987). Psidium guineense. SW. (Myrtaceae,

GUI 114) effective level 2A The root of this species is used in a manner similar to Psidium guajava. The activity is also based on the presence of tannins (Bate-Smith, 1962; Morton, 1981: 629-631; Okuda et al., 1982, 1987; Alcorn, 1984: 765; Schmeda Hirschmann, 1988). Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae,

GUI 165) effective level 2A The pericarp is used to treat diarrhoea. Similar uses are reported from many other parts of America (Morton, 1981: 613). Hydrolysable tannins in fruit and bark (granatin A and B, punicalagin, punicalin) presumably are the active constituents (List and HGrhammer, 1977: 981; Mayer et al., 1977; Okuda et al., 1981; Tanaka et al., 1985). Alkaloids are only known from the bark of the stem and root (Wade and Reynolds, 1977: 1JO). The plant has been introduced. Quercus glaucescens H. and B. (GUI 77A), Qu. oleoides Schlecht. and Cham. (GUI IlO), Qu. sapotifolia Liebm. (GUI 47) (all Fagaceae) effective

level 2A, B, A All three species are used to treat diarrhoea. In numerous other parts of the world the bark is used for similar indications (Hegnauer, 1966: 145-148, Martinez, 1969: 418-419; Perry and Metzger, 1980: 154; Morton, 1981: 135). Active constituents are hydrolysable and condensed tannins, which are known from numerous members of the genus (Bate-Smith, 1966: 117; Haslam, 1989: 34, 118-l 19). The quality of the remedy is - according to the Mixe - better if one uses brown or black forms of xoj. Therefore Qu. oleoides (jiny xoj, black oak) is considered a much more useful remedy than Qu. sapotifolia (poop xoj, white oak). This might be due to the varying contents of tannins in the two species.

76

Ricks communis L. (Euphorbiaceae, GUI 54) not evaluated The seed oil is used externally to treat gastrointestinal cramps. Russelia sarmentosa Jacq. (Scrophulariaceae,

GUI 28) effective level 2B The leaves are used in San Juan and in other parts of Mexico to treat stomach ache (Hegnauer, 1973: 350). Two bitter iridoid glycosides (aucubin, catalpol) are known (Kooiman, 1970). These act as mild stomachics. Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae, GUI 87) effective level 3A This is a popular remedy introduced from Europe. It is especially used to treat stomach ache and ‘air in the belly’ (amoebiasis). It is also used - together with Quercus spp. - to treat diarrhoea. Numerous other uses in the treatment of skin infections and female disorders are also reported. It is a very popular plant with a wide distribution (Perry and Metzger, 1980: 368; Ortiz de Montellano and Browner, 1985: 81). The crude extract shows spasmolytic and abortifacient action, with arborinin having the strongest effect (List and Horhammer, 1977b: 207-208; Steinegger and Hansel, 1988: 702). It also acts vermicidally @repel and Akacic, 1962). Chalepensin (a coumarin) acts as a spasmolytic and abortifacient. It is supposed to have antimicrobial action. Numerous other compounds are known: essential oil, flavonoids (especially rutin with protective action on vascular tissue), coumarins and alkaloids (Hegnauer, 1973: 227-228; Mester, 1983; O’Sullivan, 1983). A known side-reaction is photosensitization due to the coumarins.

A, B, C, scopadulcic acid A (with antiviral action)), triterpenes (dulcionic acid, betulinic acid, ifflaion acid, etc.), alkaloids (6-methyloxybenzoxazolinone) (Hegnauer, 1973: 355; Chen and Chen, 1976; Mahato et al., 1981; Hayashi et al., 1987a,b, 1988). Sechium edule (Jacq.) SW. (Cucurbitaceae,

GUI

1.56) not effective OC

No data are available to validate the popular use of the young leaves in San Juan to treat intestinal parasites. Sinningia incarnata (Aubl.) D. Denh. riaceae, GUI 211) not effective OA

(Gesne-

No data validate the popular use in San Juan to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. No phytochemical data are available on the genus. Smilax lanceolata L. (Smilacaceae, GUI 76) effec-

tive level 1B Another species of the genus is used by the Huastec to treat diarrhoea (Alcorn, 1984: 792). Whether the saponins known from several species (Hegnauer, 1963: 346-348) contribute to the physiological action of the plant is unknown. Spondiaspurpurea L. (Anacardiaceae, GUI 101) effective level 2A The use of the bark of this species in the treatment of diarrhoea is also known from Brazil, Haiti, Colombia and Trinidad (Morton, 1981: 476-478). Presumably tannins are the active constituents (Hegnauer, 1964: 109). Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. aceae, GUI 205) effective level 2B

(Verben-

fective level 1B Another species of the genus is used in South America to treat stomach ache (Reis and Lipp, 1982). No phytochemical information is available on the genus.

This bitter plant is being used to treat pain of the gastrointestinal tract, a use which is also reported from Haiti and Mexico (Morton, 1981: 752-754). Ipolamiid (a bitter iridoid glycoside) is known from S. jamaicensis and several other species of the genus (Heni, 1987). It acts as a mild stomachic.

Scoparia dulcis L. (Scrophulariaceae, GUI 61) effective level 1A The use of the leaves to treat stomach pain is also reported from Paraguay (‘stomach diseases’), Martinique and other parts of South and Central America (Morton, 1981: 816; Kawasaki et al., 1987). Numerous compounds, some of which possess cytotoxic activity, were isolated from the aerial parts of the plant: diterpenes (scoparic acid

Tagetes lucida Cav. (Asteraceae-Helenieae/ Tageteae, GUI 9) effective level 1B Uses in the treatment of stomach ache are also reported from other parts of Mexico and from Guatemala (Morton, 198 1: 97 1). Especially flavonoids (kempferitrin, quertagitrin) and essential oil with monoterpenes (tagetone, ocimene) are reported from the genus (Hegnauer, 1964: 457, 526, 528).

Scleria nutans Kunth. (Cyperaceae,

GUI 107) ef-

77

Schultz-Bip. ~arthenium Tan~cet~m CL.1 (Asteraceae-Anthemideae, GUI 103) effective level 2A The use of this plant especially in the treatment of dysmenorrhea is widespread. In San Juan it is used additionally to treat gastrointestinal cramps and parasites. Similar uses are reported from Europe (Dragendorff, 1967: 676). Flavonoids and essential oil with monoter~nes ((-)-borneol, camphor), sesquiterpenes (parthenolide, stachydrine), monoterpene-derivatives (pyrethrine) and derivatives of apigenin were isolated (Hegnauer, 1964: 473,525; List and H~rha~er, 1973: 906; Wagner et al., 1988). In a double blind study it was shown to reduce the mean number and severity of migraine attacks and the degree of vomiting during these attacks (Murphy et al., 1988). Zea mays L. (Poaceae,

GUI 122*) effective level 2A The use of polysaccharides to treat diarrhoea is widely distributed in America (Morton, 1981: 43-45). This is a useful dietetic treatment (List and H&hammer, 1979: 55 l-552). H.B.K. thymifalia (FabaceaeHedysareae, GUI 196) not effective OB No ethnobotanical or phytochemical data are available on the genus.

Zornia

References El., Basu, K. and Pakrashi, SC. (1984) Chemical investigations of Malvaviscus coffzattii. Journal of Natural

Achari,

Products 47, 75 1.

Achmad, S., Hoyer, T., Kjaer, A., Makmur, L. and Norrestam, R. (1987) Molecular and crystal structure of hyptolide. Acla Chemica Scandinaviea Ser. Biochemistry 41, 599-609.

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Organic

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Ahmad, V.U. and Fizza K. (1988) Argutin: A new cuauhtemone ester from Pluchea arguta. Planta medico 54, 462-463.

Alcorn, J.B. (1984) Huastec iwuyun Efhnobomzy. University of Texas Pr., Austin. Answer, F., Popli, S.P., Srivastava R.M. and Khare M.P. (1968) Protoberine alkaloids from the roots of Cissampelos pareira. Experien~ia 24, 999.

Antonio Barrera, Nereyda (1989) Planins medicinaies urilizadas en la comunidad de San Juan Guichicovi. Cordoba (Veracruz, Mexico). Universidad Veracruzana (tesis inedita). Barbieri, L., FaIasca, A., Franceshi, C., Licastro, F., Ross CA. and Stripe, F. (1983) Purification and properties of two lectins from the latex of Hura crepifans L. and Euphorbia characias L. Biochemical Journal 2 15,433-439. Basu, D.K. (1970) Studies on curariform activity of hayatin meth~hloride, an alkaloid of ~~s~~~eios pare&a. Japanese Journal of Pharmacology

20, 246-252.

Bate-Smith. EC. (1962) The phenolic constituents of plants and their taxonomic significance. Journal ofthe Linnean Society {Botany)

58, 95-173.

Bennet, A., Stamford, LF., Tavares, LA., Jacobs, S., Capasso, F. Mascolo, N., Autore, G., Romano, V. and Di Carlo, G. (1988) The biological activity of eugenol. Phytotherapy Research 2, 124- 130.

Benson, J.M., Seiper, J.N., Bagley, C.V., Keeler, R.F., Johnson A.E. and Young, S. (1979) Effects on sheep of the milkweeds. Toxicon 17, IS- 165. Bergh, B.O., Scora, R. and Storey, W. (1973) A comparison of leaf terpenes in Persea subgenus persea. Botanical Gazette 134, 130-134.

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