Job Satisfaction Among Gerontological Social Workers in Ontario, Canada.

Journal of Gerontological Social Work

ISSN: 0163-4372 (Print) 1540-4048 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wger20

Job Satisfaction Among Gerontological Social Workers in Ontario, Canada Kelsey Simons & Sofiya An To cite this article: Kelsey Simons & Sofiya An (2015) Job Satisfaction Among Gerontological Social Workers in Ontario, Canada, Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 58:6, 547-571, DOI: 10.1080/01634372.2015.1042129 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2015.1042129

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Date: 08 November 2015, At: 02:03

Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 58:547–571, 2015 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0163-4372 print/1540-4048 online DOI: 10.1080/01634372.2015.1042129

Job Satisfaction Among Gerontological Social Workers in Ontario, Canada

Downloaded by [Australian National University] at 02:03 08 November 2015

KELSEY SIMONS Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada and Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

SOFIYA AN School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan

Little is known about job satisfaction among Canada’s social work workforce in aging, although social workers remain a key component of interdisciplinary care in health and social service settings. This study begins to address this gap in knowledge by examining individual, interpersonal, and job-design factors influencing the job satisfaction of gerontological social workers in Ontario. Data were collected via two online surveys with a sample drawn from the Ontario Association of Social Workers’ membership list ( N = 104). A multiple regression model explained 37% of the variance in job satisfaction, F = 5.47[10, 93], p < .001). Three independent variables were significant (positive affect, β = .21; promotional chances, β = .21; and client acuity, β = −.18). The results suggest the importance of promoting strategies for enhancing job satisfaction, advancing promotional opportunities for social work clinicians, and providing educational and clinical supports to clinicians. KEYWORDS Canada, gerontology, job satisfaction, social work labor force

Received 17 October 2014; revised 13 April 2015; accepted 14 April 2015. Address correspondence to Kelsey Simons, Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Canada. E-mail: [email protected] Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www. tandfonline.com/wger. 547


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There were over 38,000 registered social workers in Canada in 2011, a number that rose substantially during the previous decade (Canadian Institute for Health Information [CIHI], 2013). Of this figure, the largest proportion, 13,156 or approximately one-third, were employed in Ontario. In Ontario, social workers with Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees are registered through the Ontario College of Social Workers and Social Service Workers along with social service workers, who have 2-year college degrees. The exact numbers of social workers practicing in gerontology settings in Ontario or other parts of Canada are not readily available; however, as in the United States, population aging has created a greater need for geriatric social work services and recognition that social work education must better prepare the workforce to meet the needs of older adults and their family members (Statistics Canada, 2010, 2012; Stephenson, Rondeau, Michaud, & Fiddler, 2000). Research concerned with the Canadian workforce in health and aging has focused predominantly on nurses, including their workplace conditions, job satisfaction, and other related factors effecting turnover, with implications for service provision and patient outcomes (Alameddine, Laporte, Baumann, O’Brien-Pallas, Croxford, et al., 2006, Alameddine, Laporte, Baumann, O’Brien-Pallas, Mildon, et al., 2006; Chu, Wodchis, & McGilton, 2013; Laschinger, 2012; Laschinger & Leiter, 2006; Leiter & Maslach, 2009; O’Brien-Pallas, Tomblin Murphy, & Shamian, 2008). Compared to the mounting literature on nurses, there is a striking dearth of knowledge about Canada’s social workers employed in health and aging, although they provide a variety of psychosocial services as an integral part of interprofessional health care teams (Berkman & Harootyan, 2003; Canadian Institute for Health Information, 2011). Despite the overall lack of research on gerontological social work in Canada, preliminary evidence points to challenging and increasingly complex work environments for social workers generally. For instance, a study of Ontario social workers’ working conditions describes the workplace as a “contradictory space involving limited resources, increased demands, and low wages” (Baines, MacKenzie Davis, & Saini, 2009, p. 59). Another study, concerned with social workers’ experiences within restructured nonprofit organizations, described workplaces as defined by “endless crises and intensity” (Baines, 2010, p. 937). However, little is known about the effects of specific workplace factors on social workers’ job satisfaction in Canada. This study sought to address this gap in knowledge, with a particular focus on gerontological social work given the growing need for specialists in this area of practice.

Job Satisfaction Among Social Workers

549


LITERATURE REVIEW Job satisfaction, most often defined as the extent workers like their jobs (Kalleberg, 1977; Price, 2001; Williamson, 1996), is a key employee attitude and a general indicator of the working environment (Saari & Judge, 2004). Job satisfaction has been among the most studied constructs in organizational behavior literature (Spector, 1997) and in the past several years, scholarly interest in this concept has shown no signs of declining. For instance, a search of the topic job satisfaction in Google Scholar, limited to publications between 2010 and 2014, generated nearly 6,000 results (August 27, 2014). Research on employee job satisfaction in health care has been driven by concerns about: (a) high turnover and workforce shortages (Lu, Barriball, Zhang, & While, 2012; Lu, While, & Barriball, 2005; Zangaro & Soeken, 2007); (b) withdrawal behaviors, as dissatisfied workers have been found to be more likely to quit their jobs (Castle, Engberg, & Anderson, 2007; Kash, Naufal, Cortés, & Johnson, 2010; Lynn & Redman, 2005; Sourdif, 2004); and (c) higher rates of absenteeism (Cohen & Golan, 2007; Davey, Cummings, Newburn-Cook, & Lo, 2009; Zboril-Benson, 2002). Likewise, employee job satisfaction in such settings has been linked with greater patient satisfaction or perceived quality of care (Adams & Bond, 2000; Aiken et al., 2012; Leggat, Bartram, Casimir, & Stanton, 2010; Sengin, 2001; Tzeng, Ketefian, & Redman, 2002). Among social workers and child welfare professionals, job dissatisfaction has been consistently found to be a predictor of quitting intentions (Evans & Huxley, 2009; Mor Barak, Levin, Nissly, & Lane, 2006; Mor Barak, Nissly, & Levin, 2001; O’Donnell & Kirkner, 2009; Strolin, McCarthy, & Caringi, 2006; Weaver, Chang, Clark, & Rhee, 2007). This includes research involving social services directors in US nursing homes, where job dissatisfaction was also associated with lower organizational commitment and greater job search behavior (Simons & Jankowski, 2008). Although job satisfaction among social workers has been previously associated with better job performance (Acker, 1999; Lonne, 2003), more research in this area is needed.

Predictors of Job Satisfaction in Social Work and Human Services Certain interpersonal and individual worker characteristics have been demonstrated to impact the job satisfaction of social workers and other human service professionals; however, a greater proportion of research on job satisfaction has focused on the contribution of organizational and job design issues.

550


JOB DESIGN

K. Simons and S. An AND

ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Job design and organizational characteristics that have been shown to have a negative association with job satisfaction in social work and human services research include role conflict and role ambiguity (Acker, 2004), high stress, a lack of autonomy or control over decision-making, and a lack of resources to carry out one’s work (Wilberforce et al., 2012). Among social workers in mental health, employment factors such as greater access to professional development opportunities and involvement in supervisory and administrative responsibilities have been found to be significantly and positively associated with job satisfaction (Acker, 2004). Likewise, satisfaction with organizational distributive justice, defined as both distributive justice (equity of pay and benefits) and procedural justice, were associated with greater job satisfaction in research involving social service staff (Lambert, Cluse-Tolar, Pasupuleti, Hall, & Jenkins, 2005). Factors such as job variety, job creativity, and positive perceptions of supervision were also significantly and positively associated with job satisfaction among social service staff in previous research (Smith & Shields, 2013). A limited amount of research has investigated employee satisfaction in the context of the organization’s ethical climate. In one study, workers’ perception of adequate or extensive institutional support with dealing with ethical issues was associated with greater job satisfaction, and a positive ethical climate and job satisfaction also protected against respondents’ intentions to leave (Ulrich et al., 2007). Similarly, ethical conflict, defined as organization-worker value incongruence, has been found to be associated with lower job satisfaction among masters level social work graduates in public child welfare (O’Donnell et al., 2008). Certain organizational policies aimed at supporting employees have been shown to enhance employee job satisfaction and encourage retention. For instance, Wright and Kim (2004) identified a positive relationship between task significance and career development support and job satisfaction. Further, salary and benefits, along with organizational culture, have been found to serve as incentives to remain employed in child welfare positions (Strand, Spath, & Bosco-Ruggiero, 2010). Greater salaries were also found to be positively associated with job satisfaction among social workers in mental health (Acker, 2004). Finally, retention initiatives (e.g., facilitiesrelated programs, good caseload management, and working from home) have been shown to reduce worker dissatisfaction (Evans & Huxley, 2009).

INTERPERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS Among interpersonal variables, supervisor and coworker support have been consistently shown to contribute to greater job satisfaction of employees in social and human service organizations (Acker, 2004; Barth, Lloyd, Christ,



551

Chapman, & Dickinson, 2008; Juby & Scannapieco, 2007; Mor Barak et al., 2006; Mor Barak, Travis, Pyun, & Xie, 2009). Also, job satisfaction and the discrepancy between workers’ expectations of the leadership and their perceptions of leaders’ actual behaviours have been found to have a negative relationship (Elpers & Westhuis, 2008). Job satisfaction has also been found to be influenced by social workers’ perceptions of their place within the multidisciplinary work environment. For instance, for social workers in mental health, lower job satisfaction was associated with perceptions of being undervalued, having unreasonable job demands, having limited participation in decision-making, and overall dissatisfaction with the position of social workers (Evans et al., 2006). Similarly, lower job satisfaction was associated with a feeling of being taken advantage of namong social workers in Ohio (Fitts, 2006). Haley-Lock (2007) identified positive correlations between job satisfaction and the degree of emotional bond and the proximity within professional networks among workers in domestic violence programs. Studies examining the impact of client characteristics on social workers’ job satisfaction are generally lacking or have not yielded consisted results. Those that we have identified were conducted approximately 15–20 years ago, but are included here to provide some historical context. This includes Schulz, Greenley, and Brown (1995) who found no relationship between the severity of clients’ problems and job satisfaction and burnout among the staff members of mental health organizations. It also includes a study by Acker (1999), who identified a risk for higher burnout among social workers who work with clients with severe mental illnesses. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS Individual characteristics that have been examined in relation to social worker’s job satisfaction include demographics, education, and personality traits. Age has been found to be negatively associated with both job dissatisfaction and turnover intentions among employees of social service agencies (Pasupuleti, Allen, Lambert, & Cluse-Tolar, 2009); having a degree in social work was found to be associated with greater job satisfaction among child welfare workers (p < .10, Barth et al., 2008). In addition, among employees of public sector health and human service organizations, public service motivation and dedication has been shown to positively influence job satisfaction, although this relationship was mediated by the congruence of values between an employee and organization (Wright & Pandey, 2008). Individual motivation might serve as an explanation of a contradictory combination of job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion of social workers (Stalker, Mandell, Frensch, Harvey, & Wright, 2007). Length of employment was found to be significantly and negatively associated with job satisfaction among social workers in mental health facilities (Acker, 2004). Last, diverse individual characteristics within the

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context of organizational climates perceived to be stressful, unjust, exclusionary, and nonsupportive, have been shown to have a negative relationship with job satisfaction among child welfare workers (Mor Barak et al., 2006).


Theoretical Model and Study Hypotheses A conceptual model of job satisfaction was adapted from the work of Price (See Figure 1; Price, 2001). Price’s review paper describes the long history of his turnover model in which job satisfaction is one of several intervening variables that predicts job-leaving, along with organizational commitment, search behavior, and intent to stay in one’s job. The model is based on the assumption that workers have certain expectations of their jobs, and their job satisfaction depends on the extent to which these expectations are met. According to the model, less job satisfaction begets more job-searching behavior, which is associated with greater intent to quit and employee turnover. The Price model has been previously tested with other medical and social service professionals, including nurses (Kovner, Brewer, Wu, Cheng, & Suzuki, 2006; Price & Mueller, 1981), hospital employees (Price & Mueller, 1986), military physicians (Kim, Price, Mueller, & Watson, 1996), and social service directors of nursing homes (Simons & Jankowski, 2008). The latter study, conducted by the lead author (KS), identified significant relationships between several of the structural variables presented in Figure 1 and job satisfaction, which in turn had both a direct, negative effect on quitting intentions and indirect effects on this outcome via organizational commitment (positively related) and job searching behaviors (negatively related). This study builds on this earlier work using a broader sample of gerontological social workers, but limits the analysis to job satisfaction as the dependent variable. Constructs contained within the model were grouped into three categories consistent with the prior literature review: individual level variables, interpersonal variables, and job design characteristics. Four worker-related characteristics included job involvement (effort exerted), negative and positive affectivity, and work experience (the mean of years practicing in social work, gerontological social work, and current job tenure). Eight job-design characteristics included role ambiguity (unclear responsibilities), role conflict (conflicting responsibilities), resource inadequacy (lack of means to carry out responsibilities), workload (amount of effort required), autonomy (exercising power relative to one’s work), distributive justice (the perception of pay and benefits being related to performance), promotional opportunities, and routinization (the extent to which work is repetitive). Three interpersonal characteristics included supervisor support, coworker support, and client acuity (complexity of client’s biopsychosocial needs).



553

FIGURE 1 Proposed theoretical model of job satisfaction (adapted from Price, 2001).

It is important to note that client acuity is not an original part of the Price (2001) model, but we added it to further clarify whether the complexity of client characteristics and needs are significantly related to social workers’ affective experiences with work, as previously discussed in the literature review. Likewise, Price originally included coworker and supervisor support as structural variables, part of what we call job design characteristics, as noted previously. However, we have conceptualized these social

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support variables, as well as client acuity, as interpersonal characteristics in our version of this model. Social workers, perhaps more than other health care professionals, utilize interpersonal skills and develop relationships with clients and their families, colleagues, and supervisors in the field as a process of their work; therefore, we wanted to distinguish the interpersonal nature of social work practice in relation to the other sets of structural and personal characteristics included in the theoretical model.


HYPOTHESES Grounded in our theoretical model, we expected to identify the following relationships: 1. Worker-related characteristics: As social workers’ levels of involvement in their work, positive affect, and work experience increased, their job satisfaction was expected to also increase. Conversely, as negative affectivity increased, job satisfaction was expected to decrease. 2. Interpersonal characteristics: Greater supervisory and coworker support and lower levels of client acuity were expected to be associated with greater job satisfaction. 3. Job-design characteristics: As social workers’ autonomy, perceptions of adequacy of pay and benefits, opportunities for promotion, and role clarity increased, so would their level of job satisfaction. Conversely, as the reported levels of routinization, resource inadequacy, role conflict, and workload rose, job satisfaction was expected to decrease.

METHODS Sampling and Procedure Data were collected in two waves, using an online survey web site. Rather than conduct a purely cross-sectional study, this approach reflected the temporal nature of the theoretical model, with independent variables measured 6 months prior to job satisfaction (the exception to this being client acuity, which was also measured at Time 2.) Having more than one survey also minimized respondent burden (i.e., two shorter surveys vs. one long one), and allowed the researchers to examine changes in job circumstances over a 6-month time period. The sponsoring university provided ethics approval prior to recruitment and data collection. Participants were required to complete an online registration form prior to participating in the study. The form asked them several screening questions consistent with the study eligibility criteria, such as whether they possessed a degree in social work, provided clinical services in their current job, were currently employed full-time social (35 hr or more per week), and



555

had clients aged 65 and older. Those who responded positively to these items were allowed to register themselves for the study, whereas those who responded negatively to one or more items were screened out. Part-time workers were excluded, as they were presumed to have different attitudes toward, and experiences with, work because they spend less time on the job (Price, 2001). Participants did not need to self-identify as aging specialists (gerontologists) to participate, but could be serving a range of clients that included older adults (a point that was emphasized in the consent form and cover letter). The survey was advertised through three Ontario regional professional membership organizations via listserv announcements; however, the primary sample frame was the Ontario Association of Social Workers (OASW) listserv. Participation in the study was voluntary with no material incentives offered to eligible social workers. Those who consented to participate and completed the online registration form were sent a cover letter and customized links to surveys via e-mail. All procedures were explained in the study consent form, including means for protecting confidentiality and the inclusion of separate surveys conducted 6 months apart. Completion of surveys was tracked through the customized e-mail links to allow for up to two reminders to nonrespondents. The e-mail links enabled the study team to track completed and incomplete surveys by study ID numbers without requiring participants to record any identifying information such as their names or e-mail addresses on the surveys themselves. This identifying information was collected only during the registration process and was used for study administration purposes. As part of the Time 2 job satisfaction survey, participants were screened for continuing eligibility to determine whether they continued to work within the same position on a full-time basis or had changed employers or job circumstances (e.g., full-time to part-time employment). All participants whose employment situations had changed were screened out of the study at the beginning of the Time 2 survey. In other words, participants needed to remain in their Time 1 positions to remain eligible for the study at Time 2. An underlying assumption of the theoretical model was that all survey questions related to the original, Time 1 place of employment.

Measurement THEORETICAL MODEL CONSTRUCTS Most measures, with the exceptions of coworker support, client acuity, and work experience, derived from the work of Price and colleagues (Kim, 1996; Price, 2001). The Price et al. measures were short attitudinal Likert-type scales, four to six items each, that asked respondents to rate the extent of their agreement or disagreement along a five point scale (e.g., I am fairly well satisfied with my job; 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Scores for negatively phrased items were reversed, and the mean score was calculated

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TABLE 1 Descriptive statistics independent and dependent variables

Dependent variable Job satisfaction Job-design characteristics Role clarity Autonomy Workload Rewards Promotions Role conflict Resources inadequacy Routinization Interpersonal characteristics Coworker support Supervisor’s support Client acuity Individual characteristics Positive affect Work experience Job involvement Negative affect ∗

M∗

SD

A

3.79

.63

.82

4.13 3.93 3.64 3.50 2.69 2.50 2.49 2.21

.67 .67 .84 .95 .74 .75 .81 .68

.76 .63 .86 .87 .76 .70 .72 .80

4.01 3.78 1.97

.69 .87 .46

.95 .85 .82

3.73 3.57 2.44 2.33

.69 1.00 .74 .86

.88 .82 .78 .88

All variables originally scaled 1–5 (with 5 the highest score) except for client acuity (0–4)

across scale items. The construct validity of the Price measures is supported by prior research (Kim, 1996). All of these scales demonstrate adequate internal consistency reliability (α > .70) in previous research (Kim, 1996; Kim et al., 1996; Poulin, 1996; Simons & Jankowski, 2008). In this study, alpha scores for each measure were > .70, with the exception of autonomy (α = .63) (see Table 1). Additional scales utilized included Poulin’s (1996) Coworker Support Scale, an eight-item scale also comprised of attitudinal items rated on the same five-point scale (e.g., My coworkers enhance my morale.) Work experience was operationalized as the mean of three items (i.e., years of social work experience, years of experience in gerontology, and years of experience in the current position; 1 ≤ 1 year; 5 ≥ 15 years). Third, client acuity was an investigator-developed index calculated as the mean of reported scores based on 14 common biopsychosocial issues among older adults such as Alzheimer’s disease, need for assistance with activities of daily living (ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), sensory loss, and depression, also rated on a five-point Likert scale (0 = none of my clients; 4 = all of my clients). DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS ORGANIZATIONS

OF

PARTICIPANTS

AND

THEIR

Background information on participants and employer organizations was also collected. Participant characteristics included demographic items (i.e.,


557

age, gender, race/ ethnicity, and income) and training characteristics (i.e., Bachelor’s of Social Work [BSW] or Master’s of Social Work [MSW] degree and university specialization in aging). Employer characteristics included the type of facility (e.g., hospital, long-term care home, community-based facility and so forth) and location (urban, suburban, or rural).

RESULTS


Data Analysis IBM SPSS 20 was used for all statistical analyses. First, univariate analyses were conducted to describe the sample and to explore frequency distributions of key variables. Second, intercorrelations among the theoretical variables were conducted, which also allowed examination of bivariate relationships between job satisfaction and the independent variables. Last, a multiple regression analysis was completed to test the study hypotheses.

Descriptive Results PARTICIPANT

AND

ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

One-hundred twenty-eight social workers completed the Time 1 survey; 104 completed the second survey 6 months later that contained the job satisfaction items. Ten respondents (9%) were screened out at Time 2 due to changes in job circumstances (i.e., eight social workers who quit their jobs and two participants switched to part-time jobs), as per our inclusion and exclusion criteria. The remainder of missing cases were those lost to followup (n = 14, 12%). The OASW had approximately 3,900 registered members at the time of the study. However, some members were not active practitioners and the proportion employed in settings serving older adults could not be estimated given enrolment data. As the number of social workers who met the eligibility criteria for this study is therefore not known, a response rate was not calculated. The majority of respondents were White (n = 89, 87.25%) women (n = 91, 89.2%). Their average age was 46.95 years (SD = 10.72, ranging from 23 to 66). Most (n = 79, 85.9%) had a MSW degree, but only 30 (29.4%) reported having specialized in gerontology as part of their social work education. Study participants were experienced social workers: 71 (69.6%) had 10 or more years of professional social work experience and 55 (54.4%) had worked with the elderly for 10 or more years. Sixty (58.8%) social workers had kept the same job for 5 years or more. The majority (n = 86, 85.2%) reported yearly incomes of $60,000 and above. The most commonly reported employment setting were hospitals (n = 57, 54.8%) followed by programs providing outpatient (n = 15, 14.3%) or inpatient gero-psychiatric services

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(n = 7, 6.7%), care management (n = 8, 7.6%), or home health care (n = 6, 5.7%). In addition, most social workers were employed in urban areas in Ontario (n = 78, 75%).


CLIENT CHARACTERISTICS Participants were clearly focused in gerontology, as clients aged 65 to 84 were reported to comprise most or all of the caseloads for 73.8% (n = 76) of study participants, and 52.1% (n = 50) reported that seniors 85 years and older comprised most or all of their caseloads. The most common biopsychosocial concerns among older clients were chronic health conditions (n = 75, 72.8%), medical complexity (n = 57, 55.4%), the need for assistance with independent activities of daily living (n = 52, 50.4%), the need for assistance with activities of daily living (n = 42, 40.8%), and Alzheimer’s disease or other dementias (n = 39, 37.9%). These categories were indicated by the frequency with which the participants reported that most or all of their clients had such conditions. INDIVIDUAL, INTERPERSONAL,

AND J OB

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

Descriptive statistics for variables contained within the theoretical model are reported in Table 1. The mean score for job satisfaction fell above the neutral neither-nor point of three on the 5-point scale (3.79, SD = 0.63). Examining the distribution of job satisfaction scores, 95 participants (91.3%) had mean job satisfaction scores at or above the neutral neither-nor level of 3.0, and only 9 (8.7%) social workers had job satisfaction score falling on the lower end of the scale (< 3.0). Among job design characteristics, role clarity was rated most highly (M = 4.13, SD = .67) and routinization, a negatively valenced construct, was rated the lowest (M = 2.21, SD = .68). Among interpersonal characteristics, coworker support (M = 4.01, SD = .69) was rated more highly than supervisory support (M = 3.78, SD = .87). Last, positive affect (M = 3.73, SD = .69) had the highest score among individual characteristics; negative affect, also negatively valenced, received the lowest score (M = 2.33, SD = 8.6)

Bivariate Correlations Pearson correlations were calculated to examine associations between scores for job satisfaction and the three sets of independent variables. Job satisfaction scores were significantly correlated with (a) social workers’ individual characteristics such as negative affect (r = −.35, p < .001), positive affect (r = .32, p < .001), and work experience (r = .21, p = .04); (b) jobrelated characteristics such as routinization (r = −.36, p < .001), perceived


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autonomy (r = .29, p < .01), promotional chances (r = .26, p = .01), distributive justice (r = .25, p = .01), and resource inadequacy (r = −.22, p = .03); and (c) interpersonal characteristics including supervisor support (r = .28, p < .01) and client acuity (r = −.23, p = .02). Table 2 contains the full set of intercorrelations among the independent variables.


Multiple Regression Analysis An analysis of missing data was performed on both independent and dependent variables prior to conducting the regression analysis. Missing scores were < 5% for these items and determined to be missing completely at random (Little’s MCAR test p > .05). Expectation-maximization was applied to provide estimates of these missing scores (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Job satisfaction was then regressed on the individual, interpersonal, and job-design characteristics that were significantly correlated in the previous bivariate analyses (see Table 3). All variables were entered hierarchically with individual characteristics entered on Step 1, interpersonal characteristics entered on Step 2, and the job-design characteristics entered on Step 3. One 104 cases entered the analysis. The final model was significant, F = 5.47(10, 93), p < .001, and explained 37% of the variance in job satisfaction (adjusted R2 = .30). Each step in the regression was also significant, Step 1, F = 7.57(3, 100), p < .001; Step 2, F = 4.02(2, 98), p = .02; Step 3, F = 3.65(5, 93), p < .01. Three predictors, positive affect (β = .21, p = .03), promotional chances (β = .21, p = .05), and client acuity (β = −.18, p = .04) achieved statistical significance at p < .05 in the final model, with effects in the hypothesized directions. Assumptions for normality, linearity, and equal variance were met (Osborne & Waters, 2002; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).

DISCUSSION Support of the Theoretical Model and Hypotheses Each hypothesis received partial support. Regarding the first hypothesis, individual characteristics such as negative affect, positive affect, and work experience were significantly related to job satisfaction in the bivariate analyses in the directions expected; however, only positive affect continued to have a significant effect in the hierarchical regression analysis. In comparison, positive affect was the only variable that was not significantly related to job satisfaction in a study of nursing home social service directors that utilized a similar version of the Price theoretical model (Simons & Jankowski, 2008). In short, positive affect appears to be an important protective characteristic in the workplace among Ontario’s social workers in aging.

560

∗

p < .05.

∗∗

p < .01.

1. Job satisfaction 2. Positive affect 3. Negative affect 4. Involvement 5. Practice experience 6. Autonomy 7. Distributive justice 8. Promotional chances 9. Routinization 10. Resource inadequacy 11. Role clarity 12. Role conflict 13. Workload 14. Supervisor support 15. Coworker support 16. Client acuity

.32∗∗ −.35∗∗ .07 .21∗ .29∗∗ .25∗∗ .26∗∗ −.36∗∗ −.22∗ .11 −.18 −.18 .28∗∗ .08 −.23∗

−

1 − −.42∗∗ −.41∗∗ .08 .11 .03 −.02 −.03 −.10 .20∗ .03 −.23∗ .09 −.10 −.04

2

− .38∗∗ −.13 −.20∗ −.11 .07 .20∗ .18 −.18 .32∗∗ .26∗∗ −.31∗∗ −.12 .13

3

− −.05 −.04 .12 .33∗∗ −.09 .06 −.22∗ .17 .24∗ −.04 −.11 −.03

4

TABLE 2 Inter-correlations for theoretical model variables

− .28∗∗ −.06 −.25∗ −.27∗∗ −.02 .26∗∗ −.21∗ −.27∗∗ .14 .13 −.14

5

.22∗ .12 −.35∗∗ −.16 .49∗∗ −.46∗∗ −.25∗ .27∗∗ .20∗ −.11

−

6

.40∗∗ −.16 −.30∗∗ .27∗∗ −.31∗∗ −.24∗ .24∗ .17 −.16

−

7

− −.38∗∗ −.12 .03 −.12 −.02 .23∗ .19 .13

8

.01 −.21∗ .37∗∗ .11 −.29∗∗ −.25∗ .02

−

9

− −.33∗∗ .34∗∗ .29∗∗ −.31∗∗ −.27∗∗ .12

10


12

13

14

15

16

− −.66∗∗ − −.13 .24∗ − .24∗ −.38∗∗ −.38∗∗ − .43∗∗ −.50∗∗ −.08 .33∗∗ − −.05 .09 .26∗∗ −.05 .04 −

11

561

Job Satisfaction Among Social Workers TABLE 3 Multiple regression analysis of social workers’ job satisfaction


B Individual Positive Affect Negative Affect Experience Interpersonal Client acuity Supervisor support Job design Autonomy Rewards Promotional chances Resource inadequacy Routinization

.18 −.18 .11

SE B

β

.09 .20∗ .07 −.25∗∗ .06 .17

B

SE B

β

B

SE B

β

.19 −.13 .08

.09 .21∗ .08 −.17 .06 .12

.19 −.12 .09

.08 .21∗ .07 −.16 .06 .13

−.24 .14

.12 −.18∗ .07 .19∗

−.24 .03

.12 −.18∗ .07 .04

.06 .04 .18 −.16 −.07

.09 .06 .07 .06 .09 .21∗ .10 −.17 .07 −.08

R 2 = .37. Adj R 2 = .30. Step 1 R 2 = .19 (F = 7.57∗∗∗ ); Step 2 R 2 = .06 (F = 4.02∗ ), Step 3 (F = 3.65∗∗ ) R 2 = .12. ∗ p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01. ∗∗∗ p < .001.

Regarding the second hypothesis, interpersonal characteristics, including supervisor support and client acuity, were statistically significant in bivariate analyses, but only client acuity was significant in multivariate analysis. Although previous research has provided inconsistent evidence regarding the role of client acuity among workers in the mental health field (Acker, 1999; Schulz et al., 1995), the results of this study suggest that case mix for gerontological social workers’ may influence their job satisfaction, with greater complexity associated with greater dissatisfaction. The exact mechanisms underlying this relationship were not investigated in this study, although further research is warranted given the often highly complex nature of social workers’ clientele. Last, several job-related characteristics including routinization, perceived autonomy, promotional chances, distributive justice, and resource inadequacy were significantly correlated with job satisfaction in the bivariate analysis in the directions predicted; however, only one of these variables, promotional chances, was significant in the regression analysis. Previous research by the primary author detected several more significant relationships utilizing a very similar version of this model (Simons & Jankowski, 2008); however, this study includes a more highly professionalized, experienced, and well-compensated group of social workers than the earlier study. Despite this, the model explains a reasonable proportion of the variance in job satisfaction (37%) and, as a well-established theoretical model of turnover, should continue to be tested in social work research as an example of a theory that emphasizes structural characteristics and presents an alternative to theories that emphasize psychological determinants such as burnout. A larger and more heterogeneous sample of social workers would

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allow for future tests of this model that could also include additional proximal indicators of turnover (i.e., organizational commitment, intent to stay, and job-search behavior).


Generalizability of the Sample The mean level of job satisfaction in this study (3.79) fell between 3 and 4 on the 5-point Likert scale (3 = neutral to 4 = agree), suggesting neither great satisfaction nor dissatisfaction among study participants with their jobs. It is somewhat higher than what was measured among US nursing home social service directors using the same scale (N = 3.53, SD = .79, Simons & Jankowski, 2008). Employment Ontario (2013) reported demographic characteristics of the general population of Ontario social workers using National Household Survey data, which provides a means for comparing our sample to a general population of social workers employed in Ontario around the same time as our study. For instance, Employment Ontario reported that 83% of social workers were women, with more than half coming from urbanized areas of Ontario such as Toronto (42%), Hamilton and the Niagara Peninsula (11%), Ottawa (9%), and other smaller cities in Ontario. Likewise, nearly threequarters (74%) were employed in health and social service settings. In our study, 89% of the participants were women, 75% were located in urban areas, and practically all were employed in health care and social service roles, as this was our targeted research population. The average income for full-time social workers was $60,608, as reported by Employment Ontario, but the vast majority in our sample had incomes that were at least this amount; however, income should be compared by educational level, a characteristic of the social work workforce that was not reported at the provincial or national level to the best of our knowledge during this time period. Similar to this study, in which the mean of age of participants was 47, CIHI (2013) reported that more than half of Ontario’s social work labor force is over the age of 45. Current comparative statistics relative to race, ethnicity, educational level (BSW or MSW), and specialization in aging are difficult to ascertain, as there are a lack of recent comprehensive reports or published studies to draw from relative to these characteristics of the social work workforce in Ontario and all of Canada.

Implications for Gerontological Social Work Practice and Administration With little previous research and lack of knowledge related to social work in aging in Canada, this study has important implications for the retention and training of gerontological social workers, particularly for those who are



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well qualified and experienced. First, this study identified positive affect, an indicator of mood or well-being, as a protective factor in relationship to gerontological social workers’ job satisfaction. Given the modifiable nature of mood state, this suggests the need for programs, services, and managerial approaches that can support employee well-being overall. For example, one recent study found that positive leadership within a Canadian nursing home was significantly associated with employees’ organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and positive affect (Kelloway, Weigand, McKee, & Das, 2013). Another promising related area of research is the study of psychological capital, a multidimensional construct that includes self-efficacy, resilience, optimism, and perseverance/hope. Research has indicated that employees’ psychological capital can be enhanced through leadership strategies, a supportive organizational climate, and training (Luthans, Avey, & Patera, 2008; Luthans, Norman, Avolio, & Avey, 2008; Woolley, Caza, & Levy, 2011). Second, the importance of providing promotional opportunities for social workers in health and aging settings is reaffirmed through this research. As providers of psychosocial services in medical facilities, it is important to value the role of the social worker within the context of the interdisciplinary team while recognizing strengths in leadership beyond contributions to clinical care. The alternative is that there may be limited upward mobility for highly experienced gerontological social workers employed in health care environments. Social workers who perceive limited promotional opportunities may also be more apt to quit their employment (Ellett, Ellis, Westbrook, & Dews, 2007; Strolin et al., 2006). This is a potentially undesirable professional state of affairs due to the increased need for experienced social workers with expertise in aging (Ray et al., 2014). In Ontario, opportunities for mobility, particularly in hospital settings, should be evaluated within the context of program management, which has, since the late 1990s, resulted in the elimination of traditional clinical departments and a movement toward integrated health care environments organized by service units (Globerman, White, & McDonald, 2002; Globerman, White, Mullings, & MacKenzie Davies, 2004). Last, employers should explore relationships between decreased job satisfaction and the complexity of social workers’ caseloads as the exact mechanisms of this relationship are not well understood and may possibly vary by agency or organization. The complexity of client issues may involve the multiplicity and the severity of needs, or both characteristics (Rankin & Regan, 2004); therefore, social workers face challenges of meeting multiple and severe client needs and bridging existing health and social services within the context of the interprofessional care setting. Strategies may be pursued to address the challenges gerontological social workers experience related to client complexity such as providing additional training in late life health and mental health concerns; reducing caseloads or supplementing staffing when the level of client need outstrips social workers’ present staffing

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levels; and providing opportunities for peer support and clinical supervision as it relates to specific clients and cases.


Implications for Social Work Education and Research The findings also offer implications for training of social workers in Canada and elsewhere. Principally, the results suggest the need for greater training in working with clients, including the oldest old, who have complex biopsychosocial needs. In this study, fewer than one-third of participants had specialized in aging as part of their social work training, suggesting the need for increasing the numbers of students enrolled in gerontology specializations, as well as emphasizing gerontology training within the generalist and health curricula. Although it is important to provide students exposure to healthy older adults as well as those with disabilities and health concerns as a part of field education and classroom curricula (Scharlach, Damron-Rodriguez, Robinson, & Feldman, 2000), it is more likely the case, as evidenced by this study, that graduating students will be employed in health and social care settings in which psychosocial needs are closely linked with medical and disability issues that often occur in later life. In that case, social work education program should support beginning social workers in building their skills, knowledge, and competencies to address health and mental health needs among the oldest old in order to improve their satisfaction with this area of practice and to retain this workforce long-term. Future research and, in particular, longitudinal studies are needed focusing on gerontological social workers’ experiences with their employment and factors influencing their job satisfaction, occupational commitment, and turnover utilizing larger, random samples. Greater exploration of the interplay between client acuity and social workers’ affective responses to their work would make an important contribution to the existing literature on social work job satisfaction and turnover as research in this area is lacking. Likewise, additional research regarding factors influencing gerontological social workers general well-being while on the job would lend itself to developing and sustaining organizational changes that encourage positive affective responses to work. Last, research is needed to better understand professional trajectories among both experienced and less experienced gerontological social workers including factors that present as facilitating factors and barriers to promotional opportunities.

Study Limitations & Strengths The study has some limitations. First, the convenience sampling procedure and highly professionalized sample of social workers limits the generalizability of our findings; however, representative samples of social workers are difficult to ascertain in Ontario, and similar studies in the



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United States have relied on comparable sampling strategies (e.g., Arrington & Whitaker, 2008). Second, the largely cross-sectional nature of the study puts limits on making causal inferences. A purely longitudinal design and a larger, less homogenous sample would have been more optimal. Last, the measure of client acuity was investigator developed and, therefore, not a validated measure. The development of such a measure, which could be applied across a variety of settings for use in research and evaluation, would be a valuable contribution to the field of gerontological social work. Still, the study has a number of strengths. For example, this was among the first studies of gerontological social workers in Canada. It shed light on professional characteristics of this important workforce and their job experiences. Another strength stems from the use of a well-established theoretical model (Price, 2001), one that has been tested through numerous studies dating back to the 1970s. Finally, the study provided a mechanism for gerontological social workers in Ontario to express their opinions related to their workplace conditions and experiences.

FUNDING This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (Standard Research Grant # 410-2009-2395).

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