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J Med Biogr OnlineFirst, published on January 27, 2014 as doi:10.1177/0967772013506805
Original Article
Karl Friedrich Meyer (1884–1974): His ambitions, approach and achievements
Journal of Medical Biography 0(0) 1–5 ! The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0967772013506805 jmb.sagepub.com
Urs Gessner
Abstract Karl Meyer was one of the outstanding scientists in the areas of medical and veterinary microbiology, infectious diseases, pathology, epidemiology, ecology, academic education and public health during the first half of the 20th century. He was an exceptional scientist with an enormous drive to deepen knowledge and understanding, in the interest of the people, to improve diagnosis and treatment of many zoonoses including prevention and improvement in health laws. This paper presents a survey of the extraordinarily wide-ranging achievements of Meyer and his systems approach.
Keywords Epidemiology, public health, medical microbiology, zoonoses
Introduction Friedrich Meyer was born on 19 May 1884 and became one of the most prodigious scientists in the areas of infectious diseases in man and animals including the ecology of their pathogens, diagnosis and pathology, epidemiology and prevention of zoonotic diseases. Moreover, he was instrumental in improving industrial hygiene and in institutionalizing public health training programmes. Meyer was also a brilliant teacher. He consulted with many government agencies and the World Health Organisation. Some called him the ‘Pasteur of the 20th century’; others noted ‘Meyer would have won a Nobel Prize if he hadn’t worked on so many areas of discovery that nobody could keep track of all that he was doing’ (Figure 1).
made it possible for Meyer to go to Munich to work with other leading scientists of the time (Friedrich von Mueller, 1858–1941, and others) and thereafter, Meyer could continue his own research and work towards a degree in Veterinary Medicine at the University of Berne with scientists including Theodor Langhans (1839–1915) and Wilhelm Kolle (1868–1935). Meyer received a doctorate of veterinary medicine in 1909 from the University of Zurich and later, in 1924, he enjoyed sabbatical leave from the University of California in Zurich and obtained a PhD in Bacteriology from the University of Zurich. His scientific career allowed him to travel in South Africa and the United States.
South Africa, 1908–1910 Early life and education Meyer was born in Basel, Switzerland, to Theodor Meyer (1852–1934), an international cigar merchant and Sophie ne´e Lichtenhahn (1857–1936), a teacher. Meyer began his studies in 1902 at the University of Basel and soon moved to the University of Zurich, Switzerland, where he concentrated on biology, zoology and biochemistry. He was greatly fostered by Heinrich Zangger (1874–1957), Professor of Comparative Anatomy and later, the first Professor of Medical Law in Zurich. Meyer was allowed to work on projects of his own choice. He was deeply impressed by Zangger’s knowledge and social consciousness. Zangger later
Meyer found his first employment in South Africa. The Transvaal Department of Agriculture in the (then) Union of South Africa had just established a large institute devoted to research in public health and farm animal diseases, the latter being important for agriculture and the economy of the country. The first Director
Retired, Interdisciplinary Research Centre for Health, St Gallen, Switzerland Corresponding author: Urs Gessner, Friedhofallee 14, Romanshorn CH-8590, Switzerland. Email: [email protected]
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Journal of Medical Biography 0(0) Meyer and Theiler both were very strong personalities who did not get along too well. Shortly after returning to Switzerland, Meyer was offered the position of Assistant Professor at the Veterinary School of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.
Pennsylvania, USA, 1910–1913
Figure 1. Karl Friedrich Meyer (1884–1974), in 1954 ‘The Pasteur of the 20th century’. Picture from an internal typescript dated 1976 and owned by the Library, University of California, San Francisco.
of the institute was another Swiss veterinarian, Arnold Theiler (1867–1936, father of the Nobel prize winner Max Theiler, 1899–1972), famous for having successfully combated the so-called rinderpest, African horse sickness and many other viral and bacterial infections of livestock. Officially, Theiler employed Meyer as pathologist. In this function, he autopsied hundreds of animals and developed outstanding dexterity in doing this, and in analysing the results that later he taught and ‘hammered home’ to hundreds of students in California. The story goes that once he bet colleagues that he could do a complete autopsy of an elephant, dressed in his tuxedo, without any drop of blood on his shirt. In addition, Meyer had to work on vaccines, one against rabies, another to protect cattle against pleuro-pneumonia, a disease at that time with devastating economic consequences for the farmers. In these studies, he discovered a hitherto unknown variety of the germ (now known as a mycoplasma) that caused the disease. Moreover, he was able to answer an important question as to the lifecycle of the parasite causing African East Coast fever.
Meyer had to teach pathology and comparative pathology at the School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania. He soon got into arguments with the Dean over his rough dealing with insufficiently prepared students – criticism that was well founded, however. Then, the faculty promoted Meyer to full Professor and put him in charge of the diagnostic section of the Laboratory and Experimental Farm, Pennsylvania Livestock Sanitary Board. There, Meyer worked on glanders. He also helped to elucidate the transmission of bacteria of the Brucella type that caused a contagious abortion disease of cattle. He also found evidence of the viral origin of equine encephalitis. During this time, he also published on biliary fever in dogs, epizootic abortion in mares and others. Meyer never just stayed in the laboratory. He wanted to put his expertise to practical use for the benefit of the people. He soon consulted with the Milk Commission and worked on guidelines to secure high milk quality. Meyer married Mary Elizabeth Lindsay (1883–1958) on 16 July 1913. The two had one daughter, Charlotte, born in 1918 (Mrs Bartley P Cardon).
California, USA, 1914–1974 In 1914, Meyer moved to the University of California, San Francisco and Berkeley, where he worked for the rest of his life. He was appointed as Professor of Bacteriology and Protozoology and began teaching at the Berkeley Medical School. In 1915, he devoted himself to medical research at the George Williams Hooper Foundation Institute for Medical Research, University of California (whose first director was George Whipple, 1878–1976). At first, Meyer was acting Director but soon he succeeded Whipple as Director of the Hooper Institute, but he never interrupted his teaching activities. Meyer became an American citizen in 1922. His personality, his enormous knowledge combined with his energy and extraordinary ‘bulldozer-like’ drive were just what was needed to break new ground in the many areas where health problems needed to be solved. He contributed significantly to the understanding, treatment and prevention of many infectious and other diseases. His contributions and achievements were founded on his holistic, ecological approach – Meyer
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himself used the concept of ‘ecology’ in the title of several of his publications. He was a generalist1,2,3 and, in other words, he always focused simultaneously on the interplay and interdependencies of the factors involved, namely the disease agent (biology, habitat, hosts, transmission to man, infectiousness, etc.), the disease in man and animals (diagnosis, therapies, pathology), the epidemiology, public health, and education and training. In 1958, Meyer’s wife died and in 1960 he married again, this time to Marion Grace Lewis (1916–1998).
Brucellosis Meyer and his colleagues contributed significantly to the understanding of the broad spectrum of the disease forms of brucellosis. He suggested classing the various species of bacteria into one genus, named Brucella, to honour the microbiologist and pathologist who discovered this, Sir David Bruce (1855–1931). Together with Sanford Elberg (1913–2011), Meyer also worked on vaccination, tests and treatments for the diseases. As a member of the San Francisco State Milk Commission, he helped develop the industrial food processing standards needed to upgrade hygiene in the milk industry.
3
that this also causes encephalitis in humans. His approaches led to the discovery of similar kinds causing other types of encephalitis and other microbiologists found related types of viruses in other animals than horses. In the early 1930s, thousands of horses in California suffered and died from Western equine encephalitis. Meyer proved that it was of viral origin. He and his colleagues at the Hooper later demonstrated on the basis of epidemiological analyses that mosquitoes pick up the virus from chicken and migratory birds and transfer it to man and horses. The disease is common near irrigated fields where mosquitoes abound and therefore Meyer called encephalitis a man-made disease. Subsequently, a vaccine for horses was developed. Nevertheless, effective mosquito control was the key to minimizing this problem.
Yellow fever During World War II, a vaccine against yellow fever was used in the United States Armed Forces that unexpectedly produced adverse reactions including jaundice. Meyer stepped in, discovered mistakes in its production and helped produce a safe and effective vaccine.
Botulism Meyer started his work on botulism during the First World War when home canning of foodstuffs became popular and sterilization techniques still were insufficient. Clostridium botulinum was found on vegetables including olives, beans and asparagus, as well as in fruit and fish. Around 1920, the entire canning industry in California, whose business in canned food then amounted to almost a billion dollars, was in jeopardy because many, throughout the country, died due to lack of proper sterilization in the canneries. Meyer then convinced the National Canners Association to fund research and the development of safe industrial methods. Owing to Meyer, a research institute was founded, financed by the canning industries, and directed by him from 1926 to 1930. Meyer conducted epidemiological studies and consulted with the industries until his death. A canning research laboratory existed in the Hooper until the 1980s. Meyer also deserves the credit for developing safe canning procedures, for realizing effective control over industrial hygiene, and for the prevention of botulism.
Equine encephalitis Meyer also contributed significantly to the understanding of arbovirus diseases. He was the first to isolate the virus causing equine encephalitis and later it was shown
Plague Meyer conducted many investigations on the nature of the Bacillus causing plague, on the important function of the different fleas carrying the bacillus, the epidemiology of the many wild rodents infested by fleas, the influence of the location of their habitats, and its climate and vegetation. His extensive work led him finally to define general ecological conditions for outbreaks of plague epidemics. This was one of Meyer’s important contributions. Moreover, Meyer and his scientists at the Hooper developed an effective vaccine. It was actually manufactured at the Hooper when the United States Army needed vaccines to protect the troops in countries where plague was likely to occur. The results were excellent and epidemics were not seen. Meyer went on to develop optimal, effective therapies using antibiotics – another of his contributions.
Psittacosis Psittacosis belongs to a group of infectious diseases transmitted from birds to man, the so-called ornithoses. He isolated the agent of psittacosis, one variety of Chlamydia bacteria, and later also defined antigens. It was shown that several birds other than parakeets carried the agents. In addition, in the early 1930s, Meyer fought for an embargo on the export of parakeets to
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Journal of Medical Biography 0(0)
stop propagation of the disease. As a result, with support from leading politicians, an interstate embargo was put on parakeet-exports. Meyer was also instrumental for actions to liberate the majority of aviaries of infested birds in California. To this goal, the Hooper became a centre for testing thousands of birds and selecting those free of bacteria with the result that germs and disease largely disappeared from local commerce. With the advent of antibiotics, the disease can be treated successfully. Meyer, together with colleagues, developed a system of preventive measures and treatment for imported birds, thus minimizing psittacosis in imported pet birds. The incidence of psittacosis declined notably owing to Meyer’s many discoveries in this area.
Mussel poisoning Under Meyer’s guidance, methods of testing mussels for high concentrations of a very powerful poison were developed at the Hooper. The paralytic poison is produced by dinoflagellates in shellfish. Dinoflagellates, found in seawater, are important components of the marine food chain. Some species of dinoflagellate, however, may produce poisons that kill many fish and may be lethal to man too. The California State Department of Health decided (in 1929) to monitor mussels closely and to publicize a ban on harvesting shellfish when the annual appearance of the poison is detected.
in San Francisco were infected and later, after Meyer’s interventions, the dog epidemic disappeared.
Other achievements Meyer also worked on the effects of air pollution and lead on farm animals, as well as on typhoid fever after a spaghetti casserole served at a church dinner poisoned some hundred persons. He also explored influenza and its epidemiology and looked into malaria, tetanus, viral hepatitis, anthrax, poliomyelitis, dysentery, pseudotuberculosis, common cold and dental bacteriology.1–3 Meyer was also active against the anti-vivisectionist movement. To boot, many scientists thought Meyer’s outlining and discussion of the basic concept of ‘latent infection’ was a very significant and wide-ranging contribution. Similarly, his early conception of the huge ‘reservoir of microbes in the animal kingdom’, bearing risks to humans, was important too.5 Meyer’s extraordinary series of publications and papers presented at conferences and his talks on radio were important in advancing the state of the art. He published more than 800 articles in books and scientific journals, of which some 200 were written after his official retirement, while continuing his work as Honorary Director of the Hooper Institute and Honorary Professor. He always served on the editorial board of several professional journals and hence, he kept in close contact and co-operated with many other leading medical microbiologists, medical doctors, leaders and agencies in public health.6,7
Teaching Valley fever Valley fever, or coccidioidomycosis, is caused by airborne, fungal particles dwelling in the soil in certain parts of the South Western United States and Northern Mexico. Infection is caused, in about half of the people exposed, by inhalation of the fungal particles known as arthroconidia, a form of spore. The disease is not transmitted from person to person. Meyer investigated and described the epidemiology of the disease and isolated the fungal particles.
Leptospirosis Leptospirosis, another zoonotic disease caused by a type of spirochaete, may be transmitted to humans upon exposure to water contaminated with the urine of infected animals including cattle, pigs, horses, dogs, rodents and other wild animals. Meyer’s many investigations contributed greatly to the understanding of the disease. He developed a diagnostic test and methods of vaccination. Meyer found about half of all dogs
In 1914, Meyer began teaching courses in medical bacteriology at the Berkeley Medical School. His lectures were brilliant, dynamic and captivating, and demanded a great deal from all students. He was known for always lecturing well beyond the allotted time but no one complained. He combined his lectures with intensive practical laboratory work. One of his co-workers later wrote: During the 30 s he embarked on a period of major experimentation in teaching techniques which utilized films he had prepared, lantern slides and ‘living demonstrations’ of the material he was discussing. He showed the instrumentation developed by the great figures in bacteriology and the kinds of experiments they had carried out to answer the great questions in microbiology. As he spoke, a series of lecture demonstrations was performed and material was distributed throughout the class by his lecture assistant, a veritable Sorcerer’s Apprentice. The room would be alive with a clatter of tubes and Petri dishes moving around from hand to hand, replicated sufficiently so that no student waited long for the particular material to examine;
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meanwhile, Dr Meyer would be advising what to look for, referring to huge wall charts he or his demonstrator had prepared. Then, suddenly calling for the slides, the room would be darkened with a crash as the shades over the light wells moved into place after he pressed the famous hidden button, and an array of slides, illustrating the highlights of the topic, practically from the dawn of man, would be shown. As one student once wryly remarked during an extra evening session, ‘Ye Gods! It’s midnight and KF is only up to the 16th century!3
That was the way he wanted it. It was unconventional but in the end most effective and useful. His lectures were soon famous and attracted great numbers of students including some from outside of medicine. Many a former student who had taken his courses remembered his teaching for the rest of his life. Some of Meyer’s colourful descriptions were unforgettable and became legendary. For example, he would describe different lung lesions as ‘looking like raspberry jelly’ or as ‘having the consistency of cream cheese’.1 Starting in 1915, Meyer began his work at the Hooper and commuted three or four times a week to teach at Berkeley. At San Francisco, he first held an appointment as Professor of Tropical Medicine. In 1924, the Medical School at San Francisco then appointed him to the Chair of Bacteriology and in 1948 to the Chair of Experimental Pathology. Here, he organized the new Department of Bacteriology as he did at Berkeley and he also organized and acted as Director of Public Health Curricula. Karl Friedrich Meyer died on 27 April 1974 and is buried in San Francisco.
Epilogue Meyer influenced more microbiological and epidemiological domains than any other scientist of his time, being driven by his deep-seated concern for the welfare of the people. He always went beyond the scientific research in order to implement practical measures of preventing and combating disease. Among others, he was responsible for improving the laws regulating hygiene in the food industries and in public health and he also deserves credit for establishing training programmes in Public Health in California and the Western States of the United States. He was famous as an excellent and inspiring though very demanding teacher. Some remember him as a ‘ferocious taskmaster’ directing his co-workers at the Hooper.1
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Meyer was honoured for his outstanding work by many honorary degrees, awards, medals, fellowships, honorary memberships and honorary chairmanships of scientific associations. Nine American and European universities bestowed honorary doctorates on him.2 With his boundless zest for an active life, Meyer had widely ranging interests including the history of biology. He also was an accomplished photographer and fascinated by radio in its early days. Another interest was philately where he concentrated on disinfected mail and he published many articles and a book of 300 odd pages that for several decades formed the standard source on disinfected mail. Meyer’s obituary published by the University of California stated Science and friends alike will miss his rugged personality, his directness, his genius, his bonhomie, his love of good company, good conversation and good wine, and his graciousness. Those who knew him at close hand rejoiced his friendship. His lifelong devoted support was a priceless boon to those who had worked with him – the ‘hand on the shoulder’ for many years.
Acknowledgements It is a pleasure to acknowledge the indispensable help and guidance by Dres. Julius Schachter, Fritz Sulzer and Hans Schmid (Personal Communications).4
References 1. Schachter, Julius. Karl F Meyer, the Scientist Dedicated to Service, Bull. Schweiz. Akad. Med. Wiss 1977; 33: 187–199. 2. Sabin Albert D. Karl Friedrich Meyer, May 19, 1884– April 27, 1974. Biographical Memoirs 1980; 42: 268–332. 3. Elberg, Sanford S. Recollections of Karl F Meyer. Appendix II in ref. [1], pp.371–379 and Obituary: Karl Friedrich Meyer. ASM News 1974, 40: 733–737. 4. Cavanaugh, Dan C. Karl Friedrich Meyer (1884–1974). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 1974; 10: 488–490. 5. Steele, JH. Karl Friedrich Meyer. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1974; 129: S404–S411. 6. Karl F Meyer; Medical Research and Public Health. An Interview Conducted by E. T. Daniel in 1961 and 1962, with recollections by S. S. Elberg, J. Schachter, L. E. Foster, J. H. Steele. Typescript, p.439. The Regents of the University of California, Oakland CA, 1976. 7. Gessner, Urs. Karl Friedrich Meyer, 1884–1974. Review of the Swiss American Historical Society 2010; 46: 64–81.
Author biography Urs Gessner is retired from the Interdisciplinary Research Centre for Health, St Gallen, Switzerland where he worked in Health Systems Research. Earlier he was on the faculty of the Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore, USA.
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J Med Biogr OnlineFirst, published on January 27, 2014 as doi:10.1177/0967772013506805
Original Article
Karl Friedrich Meyer (1884–1974): His ambitions, approach and achievements
Journal of Medical Biography 0(0) 1–5 ! The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0967772013506805 jmb.sagepub.com
Urs Gessner
Abstract Karl Meyer was one of the outstanding scientists in the areas of medical and veterinary microbiology, infectious diseases, pathology, epidemiology, ecology, academic education and public health during the first half of the 20th century. He was an exceptional scientist with an enormous drive to deepen knowledge and understanding, in the interest of the people, to improve diagnosis and treatment of many zoonoses including prevention and improvement in health laws. This paper presents a survey of the extraordinarily wide-ranging achievements of Meyer and his systems approach.
Keywords Epidemiology, public health, medical microbiology, zoonoses
Introduction Friedrich Meyer was born on 19 May 1884 and became one of the most prodigious scientists in the areas of infectious diseases in man and animals including the ecology of their pathogens, diagnosis and pathology, epidemiology and prevention of zoonotic diseases. Moreover, he was instrumental in improving industrial hygiene and in institutionalizing public health training programmes. Meyer was also a brilliant teacher. He consulted with many government agencies and the World Health Organisation. Some called him the ‘Pasteur of the 20th century’; others noted ‘Meyer would have won a Nobel Prize if he hadn’t worked on so many areas of discovery that nobody could keep track of all that he was doing’ (Figure 1).
made it possible for Meyer to go to Munich to work with other leading scientists of the time (Friedrich von Mueller, 1858–1941, and others) and thereafter, Meyer could continue his own research and work towards a degree in Veterinary Medicine at the University of Berne with scientists including Theodor Langhans (1839–1915) and Wilhelm Kolle (1868–1935). Meyer received a doctorate of veterinary medicine in 1909 from the University of Zurich and later, in 1924, he enjoyed sabbatical leave from the University of California in Zurich and obtained a PhD in Bacteriology from the University of Zurich. His scientific career allowed him to travel in South Africa and the United States.
South Africa, 1908–1910 Early life and education Meyer was born in Basel, Switzerland, to Theodor Meyer (1852–1934), an international cigar merchant and Sophie ne´e Lichtenhahn (1857–1936), a teacher. Meyer began his studies in 1902 at the University of Basel and soon moved to the University of Zurich, Switzerland, where he concentrated on biology, zoology and biochemistry. He was greatly fostered by Heinrich Zangger (1874–1957), Professor of Comparative Anatomy and later, the first Professor of Medical Law in Zurich. Meyer was allowed to work on projects of his own choice. He was deeply impressed by Zangger’s knowledge and social consciousness. Zangger later
Meyer found his first employment in South Africa. The Transvaal Department of Agriculture in the (then) Union of South Africa had just established a large institute devoted to research in public health and farm animal diseases, the latter being important for agriculture and the economy of the country. The first Director
Retired, Interdisciplinary Research Centre for Health, St Gallen, Switzerland Corresponding author: Urs Gessner, Friedhofallee 14, Romanshorn CH-8590, Switzerland. Email: [email protected]
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Journal of Medical Biography 0(0) Meyer and Theiler both were very strong personalities who did not get along too well. Shortly after returning to Switzerland, Meyer was offered the position of Assistant Professor at the Veterinary School of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.
Pennsylvania, USA, 1910–1913
Figure 1. Karl Friedrich Meyer (1884–1974), in 1954 ‘The Pasteur of the 20th century’. Picture from an internal typescript dated 1976 and owned by the Library, University of California, San Francisco.
of the institute was another Swiss veterinarian, Arnold Theiler (1867–1936, father of the Nobel prize winner Max Theiler, 1899–1972), famous for having successfully combated the so-called rinderpest, African horse sickness and many other viral and bacterial infections of livestock. Officially, Theiler employed Meyer as pathologist. In this function, he autopsied hundreds of animals and developed outstanding dexterity in doing this, and in analysing the results that later he taught and ‘hammered home’ to hundreds of students in California. The story goes that once he bet colleagues that he could do a complete autopsy of an elephant, dressed in his tuxedo, without any drop of blood on his shirt. In addition, Meyer had to work on vaccines, one against rabies, another to protect cattle against pleuro-pneumonia, a disease at that time with devastating economic consequences for the farmers. In these studies, he discovered a hitherto unknown variety of the germ (now known as a mycoplasma) that caused the disease. Moreover, he was able to answer an important question as to the lifecycle of the parasite causing African East Coast fever.
Meyer had to teach pathology and comparative pathology at the School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania. He soon got into arguments with the Dean over his rough dealing with insufficiently prepared students – criticism that was well founded, however. Then, the faculty promoted Meyer to full Professor and put him in charge of the diagnostic section of the Laboratory and Experimental Farm, Pennsylvania Livestock Sanitary Board. There, Meyer worked on glanders. He also helped to elucidate the transmission of bacteria of the Brucella type that caused a contagious abortion disease of cattle. He also found evidence of the viral origin of equine encephalitis. During this time, he also published on biliary fever in dogs, epizootic abortion in mares and others. Meyer never just stayed in the laboratory. He wanted to put his expertise to practical use for the benefit of the people. He soon consulted with the Milk Commission and worked on guidelines to secure high milk quality. Meyer married Mary Elizabeth Lindsay (1883–1958) on 16 July 1913. The two had one daughter, Charlotte, born in 1918 (Mrs Bartley P Cardon).
California, USA, 1914–1974 In 1914, Meyer moved to the University of California, San Francisco and Berkeley, where he worked for the rest of his life. He was appointed as Professor of Bacteriology and Protozoology and began teaching at the Berkeley Medical School. In 1915, he devoted himself to medical research at the George Williams Hooper Foundation Institute for Medical Research, University of California (whose first director was George Whipple, 1878–1976). At first, Meyer was acting Director but soon he succeeded Whipple as Director of the Hooper Institute, but he never interrupted his teaching activities. Meyer became an American citizen in 1922. His personality, his enormous knowledge combined with his energy and extraordinary ‘bulldozer-like’ drive were just what was needed to break new ground in the many areas where health problems needed to be solved. He contributed significantly to the understanding, treatment and prevention of many infectious and other diseases. His contributions and achievements were founded on his holistic, ecological approach – Meyer
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himself used the concept of ‘ecology’ in the title of several of his publications. He was a generalist1,2,3 and, in other words, he always focused simultaneously on the interplay and interdependencies of the factors involved, namely the disease agent (biology, habitat, hosts, transmission to man, infectiousness, etc.), the disease in man and animals (diagnosis, therapies, pathology), the epidemiology, public health, and education and training. In 1958, Meyer’s wife died and in 1960 he married again, this time to Marion Grace Lewis (1916–1998).
Brucellosis Meyer and his colleagues contributed significantly to the understanding of the broad spectrum of the disease forms of brucellosis. He suggested classing the various species of bacteria into one genus, named Brucella, to honour the microbiologist and pathologist who discovered this, Sir David Bruce (1855–1931). Together with Sanford Elberg (1913–2011), Meyer also worked on vaccination, tests and treatments for the diseases. As a member of the San Francisco State Milk Commission, he helped develop the industrial food processing standards needed to upgrade hygiene in the milk industry.
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that this also causes encephalitis in humans. His approaches led to the discovery of similar kinds causing other types of encephalitis and other microbiologists found related types of viruses in other animals than horses. In the early 1930s, thousands of horses in California suffered and died from Western equine encephalitis. Meyer proved that it was of viral origin. He and his colleagues at the Hooper later demonstrated on the basis of epidemiological analyses that mosquitoes pick up the virus from chicken and migratory birds and transfer it to man and horses. The disease is common near irrigated fields where mosquitoes abound and therefore Meyer called encephalitis a man-made disease. Subsequently, a vaccine for horses was developed. Nevertheless, effective mosquito control was the key to minimizing this problem.
Yellow fever During World War II, a vaccine against yellow fever was used in the United States Armed Forces that unexpectedly produced adverse reactions including jaundice. Meyer stepped in, discovered mistakes in its production and helped produce a safe and effective vaccine.
Botulism Meyer started his work on botulism during the First World War when home canning of foodstuffs became popular and sterilization techniques still were insufficient. Clostridium botulinum was found on vegetables including olives, beans and asparagus, as well as in fruit and fish. Around 1920, the entire canning industry in California, whose business in canned food then amounted to almost a billion dollars, was in jeopardy because many, throughout the country, died due to lack of proper sterilization in the canneries. Meyer then convinced the National Canners Association to fund research and the development of safe industrial methods. Owing to Meyer, a research institute was founded, financed by the canning industries, and directed by him from 1926 to 1930. Meyer conducted epidemiological studies and consulted with the industries until his death. A canning research laboratory existed in the Hooper until the 1980s. Meyer also deserves the credit for developing safe canning procedures, for realizing effective control over industrial hygiene, and for the prevention of botulism.
Equine encephalitis Meyer also contributed significantly to the understanding of arbovirus diseases. He was the first to isolate the virus causing equine encephalitis and later it was shown
Plague Meyer conducted many investigations on the nature of the Bacillus causing plague, on the important function of the different fleas carrying the bacillus, the epidemiology of the many wild rodents infested by fleas, the influence of the location of their habitats, and its climate and vegetation. His extensive work led him finally to define general ecological conditions for outbreaks of plague epidemics. This was one of Meyer’s important contributions. Moreover, Meyer and his scientists at the Hooper developed an effective vaccine. It was actually manufactured at the Hooper when the United States Army needed vaccines to protect the troops in countries where plague was likely to occur. The results were excellent and epidemics were not seen. Meyer went on to develop optimal, effective therapies using antibiotics – another of his contributions.
Psittacosis Psittacosis belongs to a group of infectious diseases transmitted from birds to man, the so-called ornithoses. He isolated the agent of psittacosis, one variety of Chlamydia bacteria, and later also defined antigens. It was shown that several birds other than parakeets carried the agents. In addition, in the early 1930s, Meyer fought for an embargo on the export of parakeets to
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stop propagation of the disease. As a result, with support from leading politicians, an interstate embargo was put on parakeet-exports. Meyer was also instrumental for actions to liberate the majority of aviaries of infested birds in California. To this goal, the Hooper became a centre for testing thousands of birds and selecting those free of bacteria with the result that germs and disease largely disappeared from local commerce. With the advent of antibiotics, the disease can be treated successfully. Meyer, together with colleagues, developed a system of preventive measures and treatment for imported birds, thus minimizing psittacosis in imported pet birds. The incidence of psittacosis declined notably owing to Meyer’s many discoveries in this area.
Mussel poisoning Under Meyer’s guidance, methods of testing mussels for high concentrations of a very powerful poison were developed at the Hooper. The paralytic poison is produced by dinoflagellates in shellfish. Dinoflagellates, found in seawater, are important components of the marine food chain. Some species of dinoflagellate, however, may produce poisons that kill many fish and may be lethal to man too. The California State Department of Health decided (in 1929) to monitor mussels closely and to publicize a ban on harvesting shellfish when the annual appearance of the poison is detected.
in San Francisco were infected and later, after Meyer’s interventions, the dog epidemic disappeared.
Other achievements Meyer also worked on the effects of air pollution and lead on farm animals, as well as on typhoid fever after a spaghetti casserole served at a church dinner poisoned some hundred persons. He also explored influenza and its epidemiology and looked into malaria, tetanus, viral hepatitis, anthrax, poliomyelitis, dysentery, pseudotuberculosis, common cold and dental bacteriology.1–3 Meyer was also active against the anti-vivisectionist movement. To boot, many scientists thought Meyer’s outlining and discussion of the basic concept of ‘latent infection’ was a very significant and wide-ranging contribution. Similarly, his early conception of the huge ‘reservoir of microbes in the animal kingdom’, bearing risks to humans, was important too.5 Meyer’s extraordinary series of publications and papers presented at conferences and his talks on radio were important in advancing the state of the art. He published more than 800 articles in books and scientific journals, of which some 200 were written after his official retirement, while continuing his work as Honorary Director of the Hooper Institute and Honorary Professor. He always served on the editorial board of several professional journals and hence, he kept in close contact and co-operated with many other leading medical microbiologists, medical doctors, leaders and agencies in public health.6,7
Teaching Valley fever Valley fever, or coccidioidomycosis, is caused by airborne, fungal particles dwelling in the soil in certain parts of the South Western United States and Northern Mexico. Infection is caused, in about half of the people exposed, by inhalation of the fungal particles known as arthroconidia, a form of spore. The disease is not transmitted from person to person. Meyer investigated and described the epidemiology of the disease and isolated the fungal particles.
Leptospirosis Leptospirosis, another zoonotic disease caused by a type of spirochaete, may be transmitted to humans upon exposure to water contaminated with the urine of infected animals including cattle, pigs, horses, dogs, rodents and other wild animals. Meyer’s many investigations contributed greatly to the understanding of the disease. He developed a diagnostic test and methods of vaccination. Meyer found about half of all dogs
In 1914, Meyer began teaching courses in medical bacteriology at the Berkeley Medical School. His lectures were brilliant, dynamic and captivating, and demanded a great deal from all students. He was known for always lecturing well beyond the allotted time but no one complained. He combined his lectures with intensive practical laboratory work. One of his co-workers later wrote: During the 30 s he embarked on a period of major experimentation in teaching techniques which utilized films he had prepared, lantern slides and ‘living demonstrations’ of the material he was discussing. He showed the instrumentation developed by the great figures in bacteriology and the kinds of experiments they had carried out to answer the great questions in microbiology. As he spoke, a series of lecture demonstrations was performed and material was distributed throughout the class by his lecture assistant, a veritable Sorcerer’s Apprentice. The room would be alive with a clatter of tubes and Petri dishes moving around from hand to hand, replicated sufficiently so that no student waited long for the particular material to examine;
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Gessner
Karl Friedrich Meyer (1884–1974)
meanwhile, Dr Meyer would be advising what to look for, referring to huge wall charts he or his demonstrator had prepared. Then, suddenly calling for the slides, the room would be darkened with a crash as the shades over the light wells moved into place after he pressed the famous hidden button, and an array of slides, illustrating the highlights of the topic, practically from the dawn of man, would be shown. As one student once wryly remarked during an extra evening session, ‘Ye Gods! It’s midnight and KF is only up to the 16th century!3
That was the way he wanted it. It was unconventional but in the end most effective and useful. His lectures were soon famous and attracted great numbers of students including some from outside of medicine. Many a former student who had taken his courses remembered his teaching for the rest of his life. Some of Meyer’s colourful descriptions were unforgettable and became legendary. For example, he would describe different lung lesions as ‘looking like raspberry jelly’ or as ‘having the consistency of cream cheese’.1 Starting in 1915, Meyer began his work at the Hooper and commuted three or four times a week to teach at Berkeley. At San Francisco, he first held an appointment as Professor of Tropical Medicine. In 1924, the Medical School at San Francisco then appointed him to the Chair of Bacteriology and in 1948 to the Chair of Experimental Pathology. Here, he organized the new Department of Bacteriology as he did at Berkeley and he also organized and acted as Director of Public Health Curricula. Karl Friedrich Meyer died on 27 April 1974 and is buried in San Francisco.
Epilogue Meyer influenced more microbiological and epidemiological domains than any other scientist of his time, being driven by his deep-seated concern for the welfare of the people. He always went beyond the scientific research in order to implement practical measures of preventing and combating disease. Among others, he was responsible for improving the laws regulating hygiene in the food industries and in public health and he also deserves credit for establishing training programmes in Public Health in California and the Western States of the United States. He was famous as an excellent and inspiring though very demanding teacher. Some remember him as a ‘ferocious taskmaster’ directing his co-workers at the Hooper.1
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Meyer was honoured for his outstanding work by many honorary degrees, awards, medals, fellowships, honorary memberships and honorary chairmanships of scientific associations. Nine American and European universities bestowed honorary doctorates on him.2 With his boundless zest for an active life, Meyer had widely ranging interests including the history of biology. He also was an accomplished photographer and fascinated by radio in its early days. Another interest was philately where he concentrated on disinfected mail and he published many articles and a book of 300 odd pages that for several decades formed the standard source on disinfected mail. Meyer’s obituary published by the University of California stated Science and friends alike will miss his rugged personality, his directness, his genius, his bonhomie, his love of good company, good conversation and good wine, and his graciousness. Those who knew him at close hand rejoiced his friendship. His lifelong devoted support was a priceless boon to those who had worked with him – the ‘hand on the shoulder’ for many years.
Acknowledgements It is a pleasure to acknowledge the indispensable help and guidance by Dres. Julius Schachter, Fritz Sulzer and Hans Schmid (Personal Communications).4
References 1. Schachter, Julius. Karl F Meyer, the Scientist Dedicated to Service, Bull. Schweiz. Akad. Med. Wiss 1977; 33: 187–199. 2. Sabin Albert D. Karl Friedrich Meyer, May 19, 1884– April 27, 1974. Biographical Memoirs 1980; 42: 268–332. 3. Elberg, Sanford S. Recollections of Karl F Meyer. Appendix II in ref. [1], pp.371–379 and Obituary: Karl Friedrich Meyer. ASM News 1974, 40: 733–737. 4. Cavanaugh, Dan C. Karl Friedrich Meyer (1884–1974). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 1974; 10: 488–490. 5. Steele, JH. Karl Friedrich Meyer. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1974; 129: S404–S411. 6. Karl F Meyer; Medical Research and Public Health. An Interview Conducted by E. T. Daniel in 1961 and 1962, with recollections by S. S. Elberg, J. Schachter, L. E. Foster, J. H. Steele. Typescript, p.439. The Regents of the University of California, Oakland CA, 1976. 7. Gessner, Urs. Karl Friedrich Meyer, 1884–1974. Review of the Swiss American Historical Society 2010; 46: 64–81.
Author biography Urs Gessner is retired from the Interdisciplinary Research Centre for Health, St Gallen, Switzerland where he worked in Health Systems Research. Earlier he was on the faculty of the Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore, USA.
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