Perspective Received: 17 July 2013
Revised: 3 January 2014
Accepted article published: 10 January 2014
Published online in Wiley Online Library: 27 May 2014
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.6571
Middle East food safety perspectives Atef W Idrissa* and Mohammad S El-Habbabb Abstract Food safety and quality assurance are increasingly a major issue with the globalisation of agricultural trade, on the one hand, and intensification of agriculture, on the other. Consumer protection has become a priority in policy-making amongst the large economies of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries following a number of food safety incidents. To enhance food safety, it is necessary to establish markets underpinned by knowledge and resources, including analysis of international rejections of food products from MENA countries, international laboratory accreditation, improved reporting systems and traceability, continued development and validation of analytical methods, and more work on correlating sensory evaluation with analytical results. MENA countries should develop a national strategy for food safety based on a holistic approach that extends from farm-to-fork and involves all the relevant stakeholders. Accordingly, food safety should be a regional programme, raising awareness among policy- and decision-makers of the importance of food safety and quality for consumer protection, food trade and economic development. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry Keywords: food safety; capacity building; MENA; laboratory accreditation; trade agreements; consumer protection
INTRODUCTION
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Food safety and quality control are increasingly a major issue with the globalisation of agricultural trade, on one side, and intensification of agriculture on the other. Membership of World Trade Organization (WTO) by so many Middle East and North African (MENA) countries has made the adoption of certain minimum sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) standards compulsory. Certification regulations such as GLOBALGAP, HACCP, good hygiene practices (GHP) and good manufacturing practices (GMP) are now essential elements of business, not only internationally but also regionally and nationally. FAO and WHO have sponsored Codex Alimentarius, which has developed international food standards, regulations for food additives, pesticides residues and veterinary drugs in foods, food labelling and related codes of practice to protect consumer health and enable foods to move more freely in international commerce; in fact, Lebanon has a law that dates from 1968 where Codex specifications were mandated when relevant LIBNOR specifications were not available. Codex standards, codes and guidelines and related FAO and WHO recommendations are recognised by WTO to have resolved food quality and safety disputes between countries, despite the fact this regional Codex committee is only in its seventh round. The ratification of EuroMed treaties is reshaping the region; bilateral country-by-country free trade agreements (FTAs) have been signed bringing European Union (EU) money to address SPS measures and technical barriers to trade, particularly in Tunisia, Morocco and Lebanon. Different US free-trade zone treaties were also ratified with the Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) and other MENA countries bringing new food safety paradigms to Jordan, and introducing FDA-style agenciys in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Consumer protection has become a priority in policy making among the large MENA economies following serious and repeated food safety incidents such as contamination by aflatoxin, J Sci Food Agric 2014; 94: 1922–1927
adulteration by using Sudan red, and most recently, the presence of Escherichia coli in different vegetables. Thus, legal requirements for quality assurance systems and food control along the entire food chain, from seed, agricultural production, food processing and distribution to consumers’ tables, are increasingly significant. The emerging policy trends focus on promoting adoption of quality and safety assurance systems (QSAS) to reduce the incidence of several food hazards. QSAS has shifted emphasis from end-product inspection and testing to prevention or control of hazards at all stages in food production. Adoption of QSAS can aid inspection by regulatory authorities and promote international trade by increasing consumer confidence in food safety.1 Laboratory testing and third party auditing systems are needed to enable small farmers to address even the basics of water and soil testing. Such quality control could enable countries to participate in high-value markets, depending on their ability to act in the legal framework and related regulation mechanisms and affect food control systems, laboratory infrastructure systems and related physical business and service environments. An effective food safety management system requires clear inspection policies and procedures that are applied by inspectors who are trained not only to apply procedures but also to act as advisors to the food industry. In some MENA countries, food inspectors generally have (1) low professional status that is not commensurate with their responsibilities, (2) a lack of logistical support to carry out inspections (transport, inspection equipment, etc.), and (3) multiple responsibilities (price control, inspection of
∗
Correspondence to: Atef Wafic Idriss, Lions Bldg. # 301, 126 Sourati Street, P.O. Box 113-6382, Beirut, Lebanon. E-mail: [email protected]
a Lions Bldg # 301, 126 Sourati Street, P.O. Box 113-6382, Beirut, Lebanon b Head of Research Team, The Economics of Date Palm Chair, King Faisal University, Hufof–Saudi Arabia,
www.soci.org
© 2014 Society of Chemical Industry
Middle East food safety perspectives
www.soci.org
non-food consumer items, weights and measures, environmental hygiene, etc.). In order to overcome these restrictions and problems, and avail all the requirements for effective quality assurance, MENA governments must actively upgrade inspection systems, in quality and quantity, to meet national and international needs and strengthen public–private partnerships among laboratories to better utilise scarce resources, and help public institutions provide the necessary laboratory infrastructure to ensure safe food. This is occurring in Lebanon where the Ministry of Economy is providing support in funding packages for eligible laboratories addressing infrastructure development requirements and training in prerequisite ISO programmes. Moreover, there is a requirement for establishing markets and needs for testing services, including analysis of MENA food product rejections, management assistance for international laboratory accreditation, improved reporting systems, better systems for traceability, continued development and validation of analytical methods, and work on correlating sensory evaluation with analytical results.
OVERVIEW OF MENA AGRIBUSINESS, AND AGRO-INDUSTRY STRATEGIES AND POLICIES
J Sci Food Agric 2014; 94: 1922–1927
• Generate demand for and add value to primary agricultural production, and create employment and income throughout the processing and distribution chain. • Occupy a dominant position in manufacturing (in low income countries, agro-industries can represent as much as half the manufacturing sector). • Contribute to total manufacturing: approx. 61% in agriculture-based countries, 42% in countries in transformation and 37% in urbanised developing countries. Agro-industries have a central role in employment generation, characterised particularly by the marked presence of women in the workforce, and non-traditional sectors (e.g. vegetables, fruit and fish products), which are the most dynamic in terms of exports from developing countries, are characterised by higher levels of female employment (50–90%).
IMPACTS OF DIFFERENT TRADE AGREEMENTS ON FOOD SAFETY INITIATIVES Along with growing urbanisation, and the associated increase in levels of dissemination and education, health concerns are increasingly important in consumer preferences. Recognition, awareness and attitudes toward health issues have influenced consumer behaviour, leading to different patterns of food purchase. There are at least three categories of change driving growing attention to food safety: (1) links between food safety and public health; (2) changes in the global food system are altering the incidence and nature of food safety risks including increased reliance on food preparation outside the home, increased trade in fresh and minimally processed foods, and, with increasing affluence, consumer demands for better safety and quality; and (3) publicly regulated food safety standards are becoming stricter in industrialised nations with new standards being created and existing standards strengthened. Rapid globalisation of food has increased the potential for food to become contaminated, and has exposed critical gaps in national and international capacity to assure adequate levels of food safety and quality. Food safety concerns are frequently cited as justification for legislation and regulatory frameworks
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The goal for countries in this region is to secure sustained agricultural growth, reduce poverty, and improve food security. Steadily rising income levels and rapid urbanisation have brought about a shift in dietary preference toward more value-added and protein-rich foods. Consequently, the average per capita consumption of processed products has increased. Some MENA countries have established food ‘hotspots’ such as agro-industrial parks; these countries include Egypt, Jordan, Iran, Palestine, Turkey and UAE. Egypt and Jordan have tailored agro-industrial programmes to their socio-economic situation and resource endowments; they are implementing agro-industrial development programmes to climb up the value chain ladder using food ‘hotspots’ such as agro-industrial technopoles, special economic zones (with an agribusiness component), and agro-based clusters. Other countries with meagre agricultural land and water resources, such as GCC members, are combining such schemes with major overseas investments to ensure the steady supply of agricultural raw material. For instance, Saudi Arabia is promoting private and public agribusiness investments, both locally and internationally in places as varied as Ethiopia, Turkey, Ukraine and the Philippines, supported by an agricultural development fund of about US$ 5.3 billion.2 The halal (‘lawful’ or ‘allowed’) food market is characterised by rapid growth due to a large Muslim population, which is estimated at 1.8–2.0 billion, globally. Currently, the halal food market accounts for up to 12% of global agro-food trade with an estimated market size of US$ 640 billion. Taking into account disposable income, the GCC region is the world’s largest importer of halal products, especially meat. The six member countries import close to 1 million tonnes of halal poultry and more than 200 000 tonnes of halal beef. Valued at USD 38.4 billion in 2004, the GCC halal market grew to USD 43.8 billion in 2009. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are among the largest markets within the region, importing products from Brazil, EU and the US. Accounting for 63% of imports, Saudi Arabia is the largest food and beverages market whilst Egypt is increasingly prominent as a key market among North African nations.3
Although not unique, halal is one parameter that may influence consumer behaviour and affect purchasing, but socio-economic trends in the region have led the World Bank Group (WBG) to address Food Security in the MENA region with a new focus on population growth, job creation, employment and rural urban migration (see the Appendix). The potential for MENA agro-industrial development is linked to the relative abundance of agricultural raw materials and low-cost labour. Note that, from the point of view of development strategy, one of the most important features of any industry is the degree to which it is able to generate demand for the products of other industries. This phenomenon is known as ‘linkage’. An industry may encourage investment both in subsequent stages of production by ‘forward linkage’ and in earlier stages through ‘backward linkage’. The most suitable industries are indeed those that make relatively intensive use of the abundant raw materials and unskilled labour, and have less emphasis on scarce capital and skilled labour. The importance of agro-industries could be summarised as follows:4
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A W Idriss and M S El-Habbab
as well as barriers to free trade and other measures curtailing international trade. Food safety can be a ‘non-tariff’ barrier to trade for several reasons: differences in how food is grown and prepared lead to variation in incidences among countries. Therefore, countries may have differing standards even when risks are similar. Producers incur increased costs arising from higher or varying standards in different markets. There are also costs associated with monitoring imports and certification for exporters. When countries disagree about food safety regulations, several outcomes can occur. Countries can ban less-regulated foreign foods. If foreign producers cannot provide safe food as cheaply as domestic farms, this could benefit consumers. However, if foreign firms can provide food that is cheap and safe, consumers may be disadvantaged from a ban. If firms decide a foreign market is sufficiently high, they may adopt costlier food safety regulations. If improved regulations spread throughout the industry, food safety will similarly benefit more widely. Finally, countries can negotiate ways to a compromise, if costs incurred benefit development or maintaining of trading. Food safety and agricultural health standards can impede trade, especially for developing countries, through explicit bans on imports or higher costs of compliance with more stringent standards, diminishing competitiveness. In certain circumstances, however, proliferating and increasingly stringent food safety and agricultural health standards can be a basis for competitive repositioning and enhanced export performance of developing countries. Key to this is the ability of developing countries to upgrade capacity and make the necessary adjustments in infrastructure and operation of supply chains. In an attempt to re-balance much of the dialogue in this area, the nature of the new standards and the related capacity requirements is explored below as well as the impact on trade. In addition to the traditional approach using quantitative measures of changes in trade, which are related to the evolution of standards, a number of illustrative case studies are presented that relate losses or gains in trade to food safety and agricultural health requirements within the context of wider supply chain challenges. As WTO members, developing countries are responsible for implementing obligations outlined in each agreement. They must ensure that standards they formulate and implement are consistent with the WTO-SPS Agreement, in particular the principle of national treatment, which requires that SPS measures be applied to domestic food just as they are to imported products. They must also be able to support measures that do not conform to relevant international norms with appropriate risk assessment. Many developing countries lack the capacity to do any of these things. Furthermore, developed countries often find it difficult to comply with transparency obligations, and most developing countries find it difficult to assert their rights under the SPS Agreement. In general, SPS measures within the WTO differ across countries. Differences in tastes, diets, income and perceptions influence tolerance of risk. Climate and available technology (e.g. refrigeration, irradiation) affect the incidence of food safety and agricultural health hazards. Standards reflect the feasibility of implementation, which is influenced by legal and industry structures as well as technical, scientific, administrative, and financial resources. Some food safety risks tend to be greater in developing countries because of weaknesses in physical infrastructure and the higher incidence of certain infectious diseases. Tropical and sub-tropical climates also
may be more conducive to the spread of some pests and diseases that pose a risk to health. MAGHREB countries (i.e. Morocco, Mauritania, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) tend to focus on EU/EFSA modules and GCC countries concentrate on US/FDA priorities, whilst under-developed MENA countries labour with diverging UN-based initiatives. The Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA) has been rendered ineffective with differing concerns, priorities and poorly harmonised regional platforms; local priorities over-ride regional concerns, which hinder intra-regional trade. The least developed economies in the region have suffered from these practices – particularly modern agriculture, which is capital intensive – as well as from global warming.
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POLICIES AND STRATEGIES RECOMMENDED IN SOME COUNTRIES OF THE REGION TO FOSTER THEIR FOOD SAFETY SYSTEMS Many countries in the region are facing a challenge to respond appropriately to the demands of citizens for safe, nutritious food, on the one hand, and WTO requirements to eliminate technical barriers to trade on the other. In general, most MENA countries have limited capacity to plan and implement policies that affect food safety and trade or international agreements, and to take advantage of subsequent trade opportunities. Several countries face difficulties in meeting interactional safety and quality standards because of their weak capacity in scientific research, testing, conformity and equivalence. As a result, a major challenge in the region is to raise SPS and technical barriers to trade standards of exports, to reach internationally recognised levels, as well as higher standards set by developed countries. “The United Arab Emirates (UAE)7 and the other Gulf countries are working together to harmonize their standards since standards ensure a high level of quality, safety, reliability, and efficiency in the products and services they all use,” yet MENA countries need to harmonise national food safety criteria with international standards, which is a complex task. As a result, they are obliged to demonstrate equivalence of national SPS requirements with those of developed countries, which hinders access to developed markets and increases costs for exporters. The form and level of international standards is sometimes inappropriate and/or unachievable for countries in the region because current procedures, through which international standards are established, do not consider adequately the needs of developing countries or special circumstances. MENA has several countries that, in the last decade, have worked to develop entirely new systems for the regulation and oversight of food safety. Many of the systems have had financial support from organisations such as US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the World Bank, which regard food safety as key in agricultural development and economic sustainability. Food safety regulatory institutions in the region include: Jordanian Food and Drug Authority (JFDA); Food Safety Agency Project (FSAP, Egypt); Agence nationale de contrôle sanitaire et environnemental des produits (ANCSEP, Tunisia); Office national de sécurité sanitaire des produits (ONSSA, Morocco); Ministry of Health (Abu Dhabi); and Saudi Food Drug Authority (Saudi Arabia). According to WHO and FAO studies, foodborne diseases are generally perceived as mild and self-limiting, and constitute a fact of life in this region. If used at all, medication is bought over
© 2014 Society of Chemical Industry
J Sci Food Agric 2014; 94: 1922–1927
Middle East food safety perspectives
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Governmental Co-ordination
MoET Quality Unit Quality Project
Legal Political/ Strategic infrastructure
Standardization Strategic infrastructure
Metrology Strategic infrastructure
Accreditation Strategic infrastructure
Market Surveillance
Figure 1. The QUALEB mandate in Lebanon.
the counter while disease episodes go unreported. Diseases such as diarrhoea and cholera are frequently viewed as waterborne rather than water- and foodborne. Medical intervention is often sought too late when diseases have become severely debilitating or life threatening, and only drastic treatments may be effective. Improvement is clearly needed in the identification and diagnosis of foodborne illness.5 An Egyptian ministerial decree was issued to establish the Food Safety Authority (FSA), the objective of which is to modernise, strengthen and maintain food inspection services, etc., but, to date, this decree has not been approved by either the President or Military council, and food safety laws and regulation are issued by different ministries including health, agriculture, and industry, trade and supply economics. The Ministry of Health (MOHP) was responsible for implementing food safety laws 281/94 and l0/1966 as well as others, for example, in the area of food additives. MOHP is an active participant of the Egyptian Organization for Standardization (EOS), which complies with Codex and ISO standards. The MOHP food safety and control department also enforces Egyptian national food regulations. Such administration is necessary to ensure effective supervision and control, and follow-up action as needed. In Lebanon an EU-funded project established a quality project entitled QUALEB8 with an overall mission ‘to provide extensive support and advice to strengthen Quality Management, Capabilities and Infrastructure in Lebanon, amongst which was the creation of Lebanon’s Food safety Authority (LSFA).’ QUALEB is supported and mentored by the EU, and its mandate is shown in Fig. 1. QUALEB was also mandated to support local manufacturers in the development of a quality approach in order to improve the Quality and Safety of Lebanese products and services for consumers’ welfare and to encourage Lebanese export opportunities. QUALEB’s activities are endorsed by a national Quality Advisory Committee, composed of major stakeholders and key players from different fields within both private and public sectors, including:
J Sci Food Agric 2014; 94: 1922–1927
Lebanese Accreditation Institute (COLIBAC) Private and public sector laboratories Federation of Chambers of Commerce, Industry & Agriculture Association of Lebanese Industrialists (ALI) Syndicate of Lebanese Food Industries
The setting up of a Lebanese Food Safety Authority on the basis of a (draft) Law on Food Safety was prepared. The LFSA will, in principle, be able to fulfil its legally defined roles and responsibilities in the fields of risk assessment, risk communication, crisis management and the coordination and implementation of risk management with regard to food. ‘Unfortunately the draft Food Safety Law that was prepared and passed by the Lebanese Government to Parliament, has not been ratified … and discussion of Food Safety Law in Parliament stopped due to political disagreement.’
PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPING SUB-REGIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICIES AND STRATEGIES Strategies that should be adopted for the agro-food industry in the MENA countries are: • Empowering producers and agro-processors through strengthening of professional associations and cooperatives, enhancing access to information, reinforcing links among producers and processors, promoting clusters, and facilitating access to financial support • Establishing and maintaining partnership among agricultural producers, processors, transporters and traders is key for the development of agriculture in MENA countries as well as the promotion of agribusiness. Partnerships between public and private sectors are instrumental, and one of the most important tools for promoting agribusiness and regional value chain development in the MENA region. More policy focus should be given to promoting links between small-scale producers and high value agricultural commodity chains. • Promoting access to efficient logistics by developing information networks, and assisting producers and cooperatives in acquiring enhanced infrastructures
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• All/concerned ministries • Lebanese Standardization Institute (LIBNOR)
• • • • •
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A W Idriss and M S El-Habbab
• Increasing production by promoting mechanisation, reinforcing expansion and providing practical training • Enhancing productivity through developing skilled and motivated workers, improving efficiency and adopting a regional integrated strategy to realise economies of scale, and improving competitiveness through technology- and knowledge-transfer, promoting and improving product quality, diversification (adaptation to different consumers and markets) and supporting research, development and innovation for traditional and ethnic foods • Promoting regional approaches in agribusiness and agro-industry development. In this regard, individual MENA countries have an obligation and important role in creating a stable environment underpinning agribusiness including free trade of goods and services within and between countries in the region • MENA counties should bring together stakeholders from the food supply chain to ensure there is a farm-to-fork policy for research and development of innovative products as well as the development of sustainable production and processing methods
This should be carried out via seminars, workshops and communication campaigns targeted at stakeholders (e.g. government officials, food industry, media and consumer associations). Build a public–private shared vision with full participation from research as well as the collaboration of agro-economic regional stakeholders, focus identify and address health and food safety priorities. Adopt a preventive approach from intent to consume through agricultural and environmental sustainable development initiatives, within a regional common agricultural policy, and coordinated by a Pan-Arab Food Safety Institute. Uphold quality and related TQM, ISO and HACCP principles through genuine win–win public–private partnerships. Confront the challenges of poverty, desertification, global warming and other environmental challenges while considering other global concerns and the actions of the global agri-food chain, and empower Arab SMEs with appropriate technologies and capacity building. Modernise, strengthen and maintain the capacity of food inspection services by enhancing national scientific and technical expertise, building national capacities to identify and prioritise food safety issues, enhancing the capacity to plan and carry out data collection (surveillance, assessment of exposure) and undertake risk assessment on food safety hazards, and developing scientific and technical capacity to prevent, control and manage trans-boundary risks to human, animal and plant health.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions • Surveys determining the requirements for establishing markets and testing services, including analysis of international rejections of food products from MENA countries, management assistance for international laboratory accreditation, improved reporting systems, better systems for traceability, continued development and validation of analytical methods and more work on correlating sensory evaluation with analytical results, are essential. • The halal food market currently accounts for as much as 12% of the global agro-food trade with an estimated market size of US$ 640 billion. Given higher disposable incomes, the GCC region is the world’s largest importer of halal products, especially meat. Accordingly, the near-east countries should invest in this sector and substitute halal food imports and enhance its export potential. • There is a need to develop a national strategy for food safety based on a holistic approach, which extends from farm-to-fork and involves all relevant stakeholders (e.g. government officials, food industry, the media and consumer associations). • It is essential to improve infrastructure and provide modern equipment, instruments and technology to support application of modern techniques and processes in food analysis, improving capacity to conform with basic analytical quality assurance requirements and ensure quality assurance systems meet international standards, have at least one national food control laboratory accredited according to international standards to provide exporters with valid export certificates, and train laboratory personnel in modem analytical techniques. Recommendations
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• Food safety should be implemented and maintained through a regional programme raising awareness among policy and decision-makers of the importance of food safety and quality for consumer protection, food trade, and economic development.
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•
•
• •
•
REFERENCES 1 World Health Organization, Food Safety-Report by the Secretariat. Geneva, WHO (2001). 2 Galvez E, The Rise of Agri-food Techno poles in The Middle East and North Africa Region. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome (2010). 3 Bloominvest Bank-Sal, Food and Beverage Industry in the MENA Region. Bloominvest Bank-Sal, Lebanon (2011). 4 FAO, Improving Competitiveness and Development Impact. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome (2008). 5 The Center for Science in the Public Interest, Global & Local Food Safety Around the World. CSPI, Washington, DC (2005). 6 The World Bank, Agriculture & Rural Development. World Bank, Washington DC (2008). 7 Richard S and Dar R, Standardization and Classification in the UAE. Tillman, Hadley, Yerrick & Hibbert LLP, New York (2003). 8 Qualeb-Quality Program, Sustaining Quality, Final Report. MoET, Lebanon (2009).
APPENDIX: THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF THE RURAL SECTOR IN MENA COUNTIRES Information for this appendix is taken from Reference 6. Food security Half of all food in MENA countries is imported. High food prices and international market volatility mean domestic agriculture has taken on strategic importance in food-producing countries of the region. Non-food producing countries, such as the GCC, are seeking to secure land in third-party countries (Sudan, Australia, etc.) to ensure some of their food needs. Poverty Seventy % of poor people in MENA countries live in rural areas. Chronic rural poverty is not generalised in the region with the exception of Yemen. Instead, it is concentrated among certain social groups, such as households headed by women, landless and farm labourers, and in defined regions including upper Egypt, two
© 2014 Society of Chemical Industry
J Sci Food Agric 2014; 94: 1922–1927
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specific areas in Iraq, the mountains and steppes plains of Morocco or north-west Tunisia. This gives MENA governments the opportunity to adopt clearly targeted rural and social development programmes as instruments for eliminating poverty. Unemployment The region’s leaders see urban youth unemployment as a priority political challenge. Unemployment across MENA is 13%, and may be as high as 22%, compared with 6% for middle-income countries. While rural underdevelopment is fuelling migration to cities, the urban sector is unable to create sufficient jobs to absorb the increasing labour force. Growth and liberalisation The agriculture of MENA countries has the potential to become highly competitive for export and domestic markets, helping to diversify sources of employment. MENA countries have an advantage in producing fruit and vegetables but only if domestic institutions and regulation allow efficient market chains. Across the region, the modern horticulture sector is becoming a key force for market-oriented reforms. In Egypt’s West Delta, for example, export farmers are driving creation of a full cost recovery irrigation scheme.
Water Good water resource management depends on good agricultural irrigation policies. Across the MENA region, 67% of water withdrawals are from renewable resources compared with 8% for the developing world overall. Most (85%) of MENA water use is irrigation. Water security depends on how agriculture uses water. More water-efficient agricultural practices save water that can be used elsewhere. Climate change, bringing an expected 20% reduction in rainfall, makes efficient agricultural water use even more critical. Population growth, rural urban migration and rural employment High population growth has led to a higher dependency ratio simply because the proportion of young people relatively unreached and the pressure/burden on limited water resources. This paradox was created because rural poverty has been transposed from rural areas to urban suburbs. Intra-regional labour mobility has intensified impacting agricultural development. Rural wages have increased, helped to some extent from abroad, but unemployment has also increased with the development of rural poverty (e.g. Algeria, Egypt, Jordan and Sudan).
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J Sci Food Agric 2014; 94: 1922–1927
© 2014 Society of Chemical Industry
wileyonlinelibrary.com/jsfa
Revised: 3 January 2014
Accepted article published: 10 January 2014
Published online in Wiley Online Library: 27 May 2014
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.6571
Middle East food safety perspectives Atef W Idrissa* and Mohammad S El-Habbabb Abstract Food safety and quality assurance are increasingly a major issue with the globalisation of agricultural trade, on the one hand, and intensification of agriculture, on the other. Consumer protection has become a priority in policy-making amongst the large economies of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries following a number of food safety incidents. To enhance food safety, it is necessary to establish markets underpinned by knowledge and resources, including analysis of international rejections of food products from MENA countries, international laboratory accreditation, improved reporting systems and traceability, continued development and validation of analytical methods, and more work on correlating sensory evaluation with analytical results. MENA countries should develop a national strategy for food safety based on a holistic approach that extends from farm-to-fork and involves all the relevant stakeholders. Accordingly, food safety should be a regional programme, raising awareness among policy- and decision-makers of the importance of food safety and quality for consumer protection, food trade and economic development. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry Keywords: food safety; capacity building; MENA; laboratory accreditation; trade agreements; consumer protection
INTRODUCTION
1922
Food safety and quality control are increasingly a major issue with the globalisation of agricultural trade, on one side, and intensification of agriculture on the other. Membership of World Trade Organization (WTO) by so many Middle East and North African (MENA) countries has made the adoption of certain minimum sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) standards compulsory. Certification regulations such as GLOBALGAP, HACCP, good hygiene practices (GHP) and good manufacturing practices (GMP) are now essential elements of business, not only internationally but also regionally and nationally. FAO and WHO have sponsored Codex Alimentarius, which has developed international food standards, regulations for food additives, pesticides residues and veterinary drugs in foods, food labelling and related codes of practice to protect consumer health and enable foods to move more freely in international commerce; in fact, Lebanon has a law that dates from 1968 where Codex specifications were mandated when relevant LIBNOR specifications were not available. Codex standards, codes and guidelines and related FAO and WHO recommendations are recognised by WTO to have resolved food quality and safety disputes between countries, despite the fact this regional Codex committee is only in its seventh round. The ratification of EuroMed treaties is reshaping the region; bilateral country-by-country free trade agreements (FTAs) have been signed bringing European Union (EU) money to address SPS measures and technical barriers to trade, particularly in Tunisia, Morocco and Lebanon. Different US free-trade zone treaties were also ratified with the Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) and other MENA countries bringing new food safety paradigms to Jordan, and introducing FDA-style agenciys in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Consumer protection has become a priority in policy making among the large MENA economies following serious and repeated food safety incidents such as contamination by aflatoxin, J Sci Food Agric 2014; 94: 1922–1927
adulteration by using Sudan red, and most recently, the presence of Escherichia coli in different vegetables. Thus, legal requirements for quality assurance systems and food control along the entire food chain, from seed, agricultural production, food processing and distribution to consumers’ tables, are increasingly significant. The emerging policy trends focus on promoting adoption of quality and safety assurance systems (QSAS) to reduce the incidence of several food hazards. QSAS has shifted emphasis from end-product inspection and testing to prevention or control of hazards at all stages in food production. Adoption of QSAS can aid inspection by regulatory authorities and promote international trade by increasing consumer confidence in food safety.1 Laboratory testing and third party auditing systems are needed to enable small farmers to address even the basics of water and soil testing. Such quality control could enable countries to participate in high-value markets, depending on their ability to act in the legal framework and related regulation mechanisms and affect food control systems, laboratory infrastructure systems and related physical business and service environments. An effective food safety management system requires clear inspection policies and procedures that are applied by inspectors who are trained not only to apply procedures but also to act as advisors to the food industry. In some MENA countries, food inspectors generally have (1) low professional status that is not commensurate with their responsibilities, (2) a lack of logistical support to carry out inspections (transport, inspection equipment, etc.), and (3) multiple responsibilities (price control, inspection of
∗
Correspondence to: Atef Wafic Idriss, Lions Bldg. # 301, 126 Sourati Street, P.O. Box 113-6382, Beirut, Lebanon. E-mail: [email protected]
a Lions Bldg # 301, 126 Sourati Street, P.O. Box 113-6382, Beirut, Lebanon b Head of Research Team, The Economics of Date Palm Chair, King Faisal University, Hufof–Saudi Arabia,
www.soci.org
© 2014 Society of Chemical Industry
Middle East food safety perspectives
www.soci.org
non-food consumer items, weights and measures, environmental hygiene, etc.). In order to overcome these restrictions and problems, and avail all the requirements for effective quality assurance, MENA governments must actively upgrade inspection systems, in quality and quantity, to meet national and international needs and strengthen public–private partnerships among laboratories to better utilise scarce resources, and help public institutions provide the necessary laboratory infrastructure to ensure safe food. This is occurring in Lebanon where the Ministry of Economy is providing support in funding packages for eligible laboratories addressing infrastructure development requirements and training in prerequisite ISO programmes. Moreover, there is a requirement for establishing markets and needs for testing services, including analysis of MENA food product rejections, management assistance for international laboratory accreditation, improved reporting systems, better systems for traceability, continued development and validation of analytical methods, and work on correlating sensory evaluation with analytical results.
OVERVIEW OF MENA AGRIBUSINESS, AND AGRO-INDUSTRY STRATEGIES AND POLICIES
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• Generate demand for and add value to primary agricultural production, and create employment and income throughout the processing and distribution chain. • Occupy a dominant position in manufacturing (in low income countries, agro-industries can represent as much as half the manufacturing sector). • Contribute to total manufacturing: approx. 61% in agriculture-based countries, 42% in countries in transformation and 37% in urbanised developing countries. Agro-industries have a central role in employment generation, characterised particularly by the marked presence of women in the workforce, and non-traditional sectors (e.g. vegetables, fruit and fish products), which are the most dynamic in terms of exports from developing countries, are characterised by higher levels of female employment (50–90%).
IMPACTS OF DIFFERENT TRADE AGREEMENTS ON FOOD SAFETY INITIATIVES Along with growing urbanisation, and the associated increase in levels of dissemination and education, health concerns are increasingly important in consumer preferences. Recognition, awareness and attitudes toward health issues have influenced consumer behaviour, leading to different patterns of food purchase. There are at least three categories of change driving growing attention to food safety: (1) links between food safety and public health; (2) changes in the global food system are altering the incidence and nature of food safety risks including increased reliance on food preparation outside the home, increased trade in fresh and minimally processed foods, and, with increasing affluence, consumer demands for better safety and quality; and (3) publicly regulated food safety standards are becoming stricter in industrialised nations with new standards being created and existing standards strengthened. Rapid globalisation of food has increased the potential for food to become contaminated, and has exposed critical gaps in national and international capacity to assure adequate levels of food safety and quality. Food safety concerns are frequently cited as justification for legislation and regulatory frameworks
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The goal for countries in this region is to secure sustained agricultural growth, reduce poverty, and improve food security. Steadily rising income levels and rapid urbanisation have brought about a shift in dietary preference toward more value-added and protein-rich foods. Consequently, the average per capita consumption of processed products has increased. Some MENA countries have established food ‘hotspots’ such as agro-industrial parks; these countries include Egypt, Jordan, Iran, Palestine, Turkey and UAE. Egypt and Jordan have tailored agro-industrial programmes to their socio-economic situation and resource endowments; they are implementing agro-industrial development programmes to climb up the value chain ladder using food ‘hotspots’ such as agro-industrial technopoles, special economic zones (with an agribusiness component), and agro-based clusters. Other countries with meagre agricultural land and water resources, such as GCC members, are combining such schemes with major overseas investments to ensure the steady supply of agricultural raw material. For instance, Saudi Arabia is promoting private and public agribusiness investments, both locally and internationally in places as varied as Ethiopia, Turkey, Ukraine and the Philippines, supported by an agricultural development fund of about US$ 5.3 billion.2 The halal (‘lawful’ or ‘allowed’) food market is characterised by rapid growth due to a large Muslim population, which is estimated at 1.8–2.0 billion, globally. Currently, the halal food market accounts for up to 12% of global agro-food trade with an estimated market size of US$ 640 billion. Taking into account disposable income, the GCC region is the world’s largest importer of halal products, especially meat. The six member countries import close to 1 million tonnes of halal poultry and more than 200 000 tonnes of halal beef. Valued at USD 38.4 billion in 2004, the GCC halal market grew to USD 43.8 billion in 2009. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are among the largest markets within the region, importing products from Brazil, EU and the US. Accounting for 63% of imports, Saudi Arabia is the largest food and beverages market whilst Egypt is increasingly prominent as a key market among North African nations.3
Although not unique, halal is one parameter that may influence consumer behaviour and affect purchasing, but socio-economic trends in the region have led the World Bank Group (WBG) to address Food Security in the MENA region with a new focus on population growth, job creation, employment and rural urban migration (see the Appendix). The potential for MENA agro-industrial development is linked to the relative abundance of agricultural raw materials and low-cost labour. Note that, from the point of view of development strategy, one of the most important features of any industry is the degree to which it is able to generate demand for the products of other industries. This phenomenon is known as ‘linkage’. An industry may encourage investment both in subsequent stages of production by ‘forward linkage’ and in earlier stages through ‘backward linkage’. The most suitable industries are indeed those that make relatively intensive use of the abundant raw materials and unskilled labour, and have less emphasis on scarce capital and skilled labour. The importance of agro-industries could be summarised as follows:4
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as well as barriers to free trade and other measures curtailing international trade. Food safety can be a ‘non-tariff’ barrier to trade for several reasons: differences in how food is grown and prepared lead to variation in incidences among countries. Therefore, countries may have differing standards even when risks are similar. Producers incur increased costs arising from higher or varying standards in different markets. There are also costs associated with monitoring imports and certification for exporters. When countries disagree about food safety regulations, several outcomes can occur. Countries can ban less-regulated foreign foods. If foreign producers cannot provide safe food as cheaply as domestic farms, this could benefit consumers. However, if foreign firms can provide food that is cheap and safe, consumers may be disadvantaged from a ban. If firms decide a foreign market is sufficiently high, they may adopt costlier food safety regulations. If improved regulations spread throughout the industry, food safety will similarly benefit more widely. Finally, countries can negotiate ways to a compromise, if costs incurred benefit development or maintaining of trading. Food safety and agricultural health standards can impede trade, especially for developing countries, through explicit bans on imports or higher costs of compliance with more stringent standards, diminishing competitiveness. In certain circumstances, however, proliferating and increasingly stringent food safety and agricultural health standards can be a basis for competitive repositioning and enhanced export performance of developing countries. Key to this is the ability of developing countries to upgrade capacity and make the necessary adjustments in infrastructure and operation of supply chains. In an attempt to re-balance much of the dialogue in this area, the nature of the new standards and the related capacity requirements is explored below as well as the impact on trade. In addition to the traditional approach using quantitative measures of changes in trade, which are related to the evolution of standards, a number of illustrative case studies are presented that relate losses or gains in trade to food safety and agricultural health requirements within the context of wider supply chain challenges. As WTO members, developing countries are responsible for implementing obligations outlined in each agreement. They must ensure that standards they formulate and implement are consistent with the WTO-SPS Agreement, in particular the principle of national treatment, which requires that SPS measures be applied to domestic food just as they are to imported products. They must also be able to support measures that do not conform to relevant international norms with appropriate risk assessment. Many developing countries lack the capacity to do any of these things. Furthermore, developed countries often find it difficult to comply with transparency obligations, and most developing countries find it difficult to assert their rights under the SPS Agreement. In general, SPS measures within the WTO differ across countries. Differences in tastes, diets, income and perceptions influence tolerance of risk. Climate and available technology (e.g. refrigeration, irradiation) affect the incidence of food safety and agricultural health hazards. Standards reflect the feasibility of implementation, which is influenced by legal and industry structures as well as technical, scientific, administrative, and financial resources. Some food safety risks tend to be greater in developing countries because of weaknesses in physical infrastructure and the higher incidence of certain infectious diseases. Tropical and sub-tropical climates also
may be more conducive to the spread of some pests and diseases that pose a risk to health. MAGHREB countries (i.e. Morocco, Mauritania, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) tend to focus on EU/EFSA modules and GCC countries concentrate on US/FDA priorities, whilst under-developed MENA countries labour with diverging UN-based initiatives. The Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA) has been rendered ineffective with differing concerns, priorities and poorly harmonised regional platforms; local priorities over-ride regional concerns, which hinder intra-regional trade. The least developed economies in the region have suffered from these practices – particularly modern agriculture, which is capital intensive – as well as from global warming.
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POLICIES AND STRATEGIES RECOMMENDED IN SOME COUNTRIES OF THE REGION TO FOSTER THEIR FOOD SAFETY SYSTEMS Many countries in the region are facing a challenge to respond appropriately to the demands of citizens for safe, nutritious food, on the one hand, and WTO requirements to eliminate technical barriers to trade on the other. In general, most MENA countries have limited capacity to plan and implement policies that affect food safety and trade or international agreements, and to take advantage of subsequent trade opportunities. Several countries face difficulties in meeting interactional safety and quality standards because of their weak capacity in scientific research, testing, conformity and equivalence. As a result, a major challenge in the region is to raise SPS and technical barriers to trade standards of exports, to reach internationally recognised levels, as well as higher standards set by developed countries. “The United Arab Emirates (UAE)7 and the other Gulf countries are working together to harmonize their standards since standards ensure a high level of quality, safety, reliability, and efficiency in the products and services they all use,” yet MENA countries need to harmonise national food safety criteria with international standards, which is a complex task. As a result, they are obliged to demonstrate equivalence of national SPS requirements with those of developed countries, which hinders access to developed markets and increases costs for exporters. The form and level of international standards is sometimes inappropriate and/or unachievable for countries in the region because current procedures, through which international standards are established, do not consider adequately the needs of developing countries or special circumstances. MENA has several countries that, in the last decade, have worked to develop entirely new systems for the regulation and oversight of food safety. Many of the systems have had financial support from organisations such as US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the World Bank, which regard food safety as key in agricultural development and economic sustainability. Food safety regulatory institutions in the region include: Jordanian Food and Drug Authority (JFDA); Food Safety Agency Project (FSAP, Egypt); Agence nationale de contrôle sanitaire et environnemental des produits (ANCSEP, Tunisia); Office national de sécurité sanitaire des produits (ONSSA, Morocco); Ministry of Health (Abu Dhabi); and Saudi Food Drug Authority (Saudi Arabia). According to WHO and FAO studies, foodborne diseases are generally perceived as mild and self-limiting, and constitute a fact of life in this region. If used at all, medication is bought over
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Governmental Co-ordination
MoET Quality Unit Quality Project
Legal Political/ Strategic infrastructure
Standardization Strategic infrastructure
Metrology Strategic infrastructure
Accreditation Strategic infrastructure
Market Surveillance
Figure 1. The QUALEB mandate in Lebanon.
the counter while disease episodes go unreported. Diseases such as diarrhoea and cholera are frequently viewed as waterborne rather than water- and foodborne. Medical intervention is often sought too late when diseases have become severely debilitating or life threatening, and only drastic treatments may be effective. Improvement is clearly needed in the identification and diagnosis of foodborne illness.5 An Egyptian ministerial decree was issued to establish the Food Safety Authority (FSA), the objective of which is to modernise, strengthen and maintain food inspection services, etc., but, to date, this decree has not been approved by either the President or Military council, and food safety laws and regulation are issued by different ministries including health, agriculture, and industry, trade and supply economics. The Ministry of Health (MOHP) was responsible for implementing food safety laws 281/94 and l0/1966 as well as others, for example, in the area of food additives. MOHP is an active participant of the Egyptian Organization for Standardization (EOS), which complies with Codex and ISO standards. The MOHP food safety and control department also enforces Egyptian national food regulations. Such administration is necessary to ensure effective supervision and control, and follow-up action as needed. In Lebanon an EU-funded project established a quality project entitled QUALEB8 with an overall mission ‘to provide extensive support and advice to strengthen Quality Management, Capabilities and Infrastructure in Lebanon, amongst which was the creation of Lebanon’s Food safety Authority (LSFA).’ QUALEB is supported and mentored by the EU, and its mandate is shown in Fig. 1. QUALEB was also mandated to support local manufacturers in the development of a quality approach in order to improve the Quality and Safety of Lebanese products and services for consumers’ welfare and to encourage Lebanese export opportunities. QUALEB’s activities are endorsed by a national Quality Advisory Committee, composed of major stakeholders and key players from different fields within both private and public sectors, including:
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Lebanese Accreditation Institute (COLIBAC) Private and public sector laboratories Federation of Chambers of Commerce, Industry & Agriculture Association of Lebanese Industrialists (ALI) Syndicate of Lebanese Food Industries
The setting up of a Lebanese Food Safety Authority on the basis of a (draft) Law on Food Safety was prepared. The LFSA will, in principle, be able to fulfil its legally defined roles and responsibilities in the fields of risk assessment, risk communication, crisis management and the coordination and implementation of risk management with regard to food. ‘Unfortunately the draft Food Safety Law that was prepared and passed by the Lebanese Government to Parliament, has not been ratified … and discussion of Food Safety Law in Parliament stopped due to political disagreement.’
PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPING SUB-REGIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICIES AND STRATEGIES Strategies that should be adopted for the agro-food industry in the MENA countries are: • Empowering producers and agro-processors through strengthening of professional associations and cooperatives, enhancing access to information, reinforcing links among producers and processors, promoting clusters, and facilitating access to financial support • Establishing and maintaining partnership among agricultural producers, processors, transporters and traders is key for the development of agriculture in MENA countries as well as the promotion of agribusiness. Partnerships between public and private sectors are instrumental, and one of the most important tools for promoting agribusiness and regional value chain development in the MENA region. More policy focus should be given to promoting links between small-scale producers and high value agricultural commodity chains. • Promoting access to efficient logistics by developing information networks, and assisting producers and cooperatives in acquiring enhanced infrastructures
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• All/concerned ministries • Lebanese Standardization Institute (LIBNOR)
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• Increasing production by promoting mechanisation, reinforcing expansion and providing practical training • Enhancing productivity through developing skilled and motivated workers, improving efficiency and adopting a regional integrated strategy to realise economies of scale, and improving competitiveness through technology- and knowledge-transfer, promoting and improving product quality, diversification (adaptation to different consumers and markets) and supporting research, development and innovation for traditional and ethnic foods • Promoting regional approaches in agribusiness and agro-industry development. In this regard, individual MENA countries have an obligation and important role in creating a stable environment underpinning agribusiness including free trade of goods and services within and between countries in the region • MENA counties should bring together stakeholders from the food supply chain to ensure there is a farm-to-fork policy for research and development of innovative products as well as the development of sustainable production and processing methods
This should be carried out via seminars, workshops and communication campaigns targeted at stakeholders (e.g. government officials, food industry, media and consumer associations). Build a public–private shared vision with full participation from research as well as the collaboration of agro-economic regional stakeholders, focus identify and address health and food safety priorities. Adopt a preventive approach from intent to consume through agricultural and environmental sustainable development initiatives, within a regional common agricultural policy, and coordinated by a Pan-Arab Food Safety Institute. Uphold quality and related TQM, ISO and HACCP principles through genuine win–win public–private partnerships. Confront the challenges of poverty, desertification, global warming and other environmental challenges while considering other global concerns and the actions of the global agri-food chain, and empower Arab SMEs with appropriate technologies and capacity building. Modernise, strengthen and maintain the capacity of food inspection services by enhancing national scientific and technical expertise, building national capacities to identify and prioritise food safety issues, enhancing the capacity to plan and carry out data collection (surveillance, assessment of exposure) and undertake risk assessment on food safety hazards, and developing scientific and technical capacity to prevent, control and manage trans-boundary risks to human, animal and plant health.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions • Surveys determining the requirements for establishing markets and testing services, including analysis of international rejections of food products from MENA countries, management assistance for international laboratory accreditation, improved reporting systems, better systems for traceability, continued development and validation of analytical methods and more work on correlating sensory evaluation with analytical results, are essential. • The halal food market currently accounts for as much as 12% of the global agro-food trade with an estimated market size of US$ 640 billion. Given higher disposable incomes, the GCC region is the world’s largest importer of halal products, especially meat. Accordingly, the near-east countries should invest in this sector and substitute halal food imports and enhance its export potential. • There is a need to develop a national strategy for food safety based on a holistic approach, which extends from farm-to-fork and involves all relevant stakeholders (e.g. government officials, food industry, the media and consumer associations). • It is essential to improve infrastructure and provide modern equipment, instruments and technology to support application of modern techniques and processes in food analysis, improving capacity to conform with basic analytical quality assurance requirements and ensure quality assurance systems meet international standards, have at least one national food control laboratory accredited according to international standards to provide exporters with valid export certificates, and train laboratory personnel in modem analytical techniques. Recommendations
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• Food safety should be implemented and maintained through a regional programme raising awareness among policy and decision-makers of the importance of food safety and quality for consumer protection, food trade, and economic development.
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REFERENCES 1 World Health Organization, Food Safety-Report by the Secretariat. Geneva, WHO (2001). 2 Galvez E, The Rise of Agri-food Techno poles in The Middle East and North Africa Region. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome (2010). 3 Bloominvest Bank-Sal, Food and Beverage Industry in the MENA Region. Bloominvest Bank-Sal, Lebanon (2011). 4 FAO, Improving Competitiveness and Development Impact. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome (2008). 5 The Center for Science in the Public Interest, Global & Local Food Safety Around the World. CSPI, Washington, DC (2005). 6 The World Bank, Agriculture & Rural Development. World Bank, Washington DC (2008). 7 Richard S and Dar R, Standardization and Classification in the UAE. Tillman, Hadley, Yerrick & Hibbert LLP, New York (2003). 8 Qualeb-Quality Program, Sustaining Quality, Final Report. MoET, Lebanon (2009).
APPENDIX: THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF THE RURAL SECTOR IN MENA COUNTIRES Information for this appendix is taken from Reference 6. Food security Half of all food in MENA countries is imported. High food prices and international market volatility mean domestic agriculture has taken on strategic importance in food-producing countries of the region. Non-food producing countries, such as the GCC, are seeking to secure land in third-party countries (Sudan, Australia, etc.) to ensure some of their food needs. Poverty Seventy % of poor people in MENA countries live in rural areas. Chronic rural poverty is not generalised in the region with the exception of Yemen. Instead, it is concentrated among certain social groups, such as households headed by women, landless and farm labourers, and in defined regions including upper Egypt, two
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specific areas in Iraq, the mountains and steppes plains of Morocco or north-west Tunisia. This gives MENA governments the opportunity to adopt clearly targeted rural and social development programmes as instruments for eliminating poverty. Unemployment The region’s leaders see urban youth unemployment as a priority political challenge. Unemployment across MENA is 13%, and may be as high as 22%, compared with 6% for middle-income countries. While rural underdevelopment is fuelling migration to cities, the urban sector is unable to create sufficient jobs to absorb the increasing labour force. Growth and liberalisation The agriculture of MENA countries has the potential to become highly competitive for export and domestic markets, helping to diversify sources of employment. MENA countries have an advantage in producing fruit and vegetables but only if domestic institutions and regulation allow efficient market chains. Across the region, the modern horticulture sector is becoming a key force for market-oriented reforms. In Egypt’s West Delta, for example, export farmers are driving creation of a full cost recovery irrigation scheme.
Water Good water resource management depends on good agricultural irrigation policies. Across the MENA region, 67% of water withdrawals are from renewable resources compared with 8% for the developing world overall. Most (85%) of MENA water use is irrigation. Water security depends on how agriculture uses water. More water-efficient agricultural practices save water that can be used elsewhere. Climate change, bringing an expected 20% reduction in rainfall, makes efficient agricultural water use even more critical. Population growth, rural urban migration and rural employment High population growth has led to a higher dependency ratio simply because the proportion of young people relatively unreached and the pressure/burden on limited water resources. This paradox was created because rural poverty has been transposed from rural areas to urban suburbs. Intra-regional labour mobility has intensified impacting agricultural development. Rural wages have increased, helped to some extent from abroad, but unemployment has also increased with the development of rural poverty (e.g. Algeria, Egypt, Jordan and Sudan).
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