This article was downloaded by: [ECU Libraries] On: 22 April 2015, At: 15:06 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of the American College of Nutrition Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uacn20
Nutrient intake, body fat, and lipid profiles of competitive male and female bodybuilders. a
a
a
T L Bazzarre , S M Kleiner & M D Litchford a
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina, Greensboro 27412-5001. Published online: 02 Sep 2013.
To cite this article: T L Bazzarre, S M Kleiner & M D Litchford (1990) Nutrient intake, body fat, and lipid profiles of competitive male and female bodybuilders., Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 9:2, 136-142, DOI: 10.1080/07315724.1990.10720362 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07315724.1990.10720362
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Nutrient Intake, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders Terry L. Bazzarre, PhD, FACSM, FACN, Susan M. Kleiner, PhD, RD, Member ACN, and Mary D. Litchford, PhD, RD
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 15:06 22 April 2015
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Greensboro (T. L. B., M. D. L.), and Duke University Medical Center, Sarah W. Stedman Center for Nutritional Studies (S. M. K.) The purpose of this research was to measure nutrient intake, body fat, [estimated from seven skinfolds: chest, axilla, triceps, subscapular, abdominal, suprailiac, and thigh (Jackson and Pollock, 1985)], total cholesterol (TC), HDLcholesterol (HDL-C), HDL2-C, and HDL3-C of 19 male and 8 female bodybuilders competing in the National Physique Committee's USA Bodybuilding Championships (Raleigh, NC, April 1988). Casual blood samples and anthropométrie data were collected 18 hours prior to competition, whereas 7-day diet records were completed 1 week prior to competition. Only 11 males and 2 females provided blood samples. Competitors were not tested for steroid use. These data are unique because the measurements were collected on site at the competition. Data are presented as means and standard deviations. Estimated body fat for males (6.0 ± 1.8%) and females (9.8 ± 1.5%) was quite low. Blood lipids (mg%) for males (TC = 187 ± 11, HDL-C = 37 ± 6, HDL2-C = 13 ± 4, and HDL3-C = 24 ± 4) were not indicative of increased coronary heart disease (CHD) risk. Data for the 2 females (TC = 190, 205; HDL-C = 56, 56; HDL2-C = 22, 8; and HDL3-C = 34,48) could only be evaluated on an individual basis. Body fat was significantly correlated with HDL-C (r = 0.63; p = 0.04) and HDL3-C (r = 0.65; p = 0.03), but not TC nor HDL2-C. Of the dietary variables, only saturated fat was significantly correlated with HDL2-C (r = 0.60; p = 0.05). Competition diets reflect moderate decrements in kilocalories (kcal) intake for males (2015 ± 1060) and females (2260 + 2660). Percent kcal from protein (males: 34 ± 12, females: 37 ± 16) were high while fat intakes (percent kcal) were unusually low (males: 14 ±9, females: 13 + 9).
INTRODUCTION Since 1984 several studies [1-7] regarding the lipid profiles of bodybuilders and power-lifters have been published in the scientific literature (Table 1). While most of these studies have been cross-sectional evalua tions of relatively small populations [2-4,6] (n < 12 bodybuilders) Kleiner et al [1] conducted a 6-month lon gitudinal evaluation of 18 steroid-using and 17 nonsteroid-using bodybuilders. Warber et al [8] conducted a 30-week case study comparing the effects of endurance training vs strength training on blood lipids of a 30-yearold hyperlipidemic male subject following an 8-week, diet-controlled, detraining period. Except for the report by Elliot et al [7] at a "natural" regional bodybuilding contest, no research cited in our review of the literature examined the lipid profiles of non-drug-tested competi tive bodybuilders at the time of a national competition. The purpose of the present research was to measure the
presence of associations between diet and anthropométrie variables and blood lipids (total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, HDL2-cholesterol, and HDL3-cholesterol) of bodybuilders at the time of com petition.
DESIGN AND METHODS Following approval by the Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and the National Physique Committee, written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A packet of research materials was mailed to everyone on the list of registrants. The packet included: a letter of introduction; a complete explanation of the study; the schedule for data collection; instructions for the comple tion of a 7-day food record during the week prior to competition; a nutritional practices questionnaire; and a
Funded by the American College of Nutrition Young Investigator Award to S. M. K., sponsored by Procter and Gamble, and the RESHAPE Program at UNCG. Address reprint requests to Dr. Terry L. Bazzarre, Department of Nutrition. University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro 27412-5001.
Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 9, No. 2, 136-142 (1990) © 1990 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
CCC 0731 -5724/90/020136-07$04.00
z
0
3
TI
0
rr
0
2; 0
2 n >
5 males (strength training) On steroids Off steroids
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
Elliot et al, 1987 [7]
Bazzarre et al, 1989 [present study] 19 male bodybuilders 8 female bodybuilders
16 male bodybuilders 15 female bodybuilders
9 females strength-trained 9 female runners 9 female controls
9 strength-trained SU 13 strength-trained NSU 12 untrained controls (NSU)
NR = not reported.
28 28
25 27
36 27 34
31 32 34
29 31 31
29
30 26
Age of subjects (years)
6.0 b 9.8
7.2 a 14.4
BMI =21.7 BMI = 20.0 BMI = 24.3
-
12.0 a 14.0 13.0
-
13.1 a 13.8
% Body fat
sample.
N o significant correlations observed between any lipid and any of the nutrient variables evaluated.
i n d i v i d u a l data reported since only 2 of 8 females provided a blood
d
C
P e r c e n t body fat estimated from skinfold measurements.
"Percent body fat determined by densitometric procedures.
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
8 male bodybuilders 8 male power-lifters 8 male runners
12 power-lifters 3 females 9 males
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
35 males 18 steroid users (SU) 17 non-steroid users
Sample size/gender
Longitudinal
Morgan et al, 1986 [6]
Costili et al, 1984 [5]
Hurley et al, 1984 [4]
Peterson and Fahey 1984 [3]
Cohen et al, 1986 [2]
Kleiner et al, 1989 [1]
Investigators
Study design
7-day diet records
None
3-day weighed diet record"1
None
Combination: 24-hr recall Diet history
None
None
Combination: 3-day diet records and food frequencies
Dietary methodology
2015 2260
-
1549 1888 2132
NRC NR NR
-
-
5739
Energy intake (kcal)
187 190,205
158 166
180 182 183
218 204 210
172 195 170
223 200
216 291
214 178
TC (mg%)
37 56,56
45 55
56 72 58
17 45 46
55 38 47
16 52
31 24
16 46
HDL-C (mg%)
Table 1. Lipid Profiles, Dietary Intake, and Anthropométrie Data of Male and Female Bodybuilders Reported in the Literature
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 15:06 22 April 2015
13 22,8
-
-
-
12 6 14
-
0 2
2 16
HDL2 (mg%)
24 34,48
-
-
-
-
-
31 22
17 32
HDL3 (mg%)
0.20 0.29,0.27 e
0.28 0.33
0.31 0.39 0.32
0.08 0.22 0.22
0.32 0.19 0.28
0.07 0.26
0.14 0.08
0.07 0.26
HDL-C/ TC
t
CO O
Hi
I
•S"
ex.
3
00
b
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 15:06 22 April 2015
Diet, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of
Bodybuilders
training history questionnaire. On-site data were collected during the weigh-in period the evening before and the morning of the cham pionship event. Additional data collected on-site in cluded a demographic and medical history questionnaire, anthropométrie measures, blood pressure and heart rate measures, and optional blood and urine tests. (No subject agreed to partake in the 24-hr urine testing.) The data from the completed self-administered questionnaires and the 7-day food records were reviewed with each subject. Height and weight were measured according to the pro cedures described by Simko et al [9]. Seven skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, anterior thigh, pectoral, and axilla) were used to estimate percent body fat using the equation of Jackson and Pollock [10]. Blood Collection and Biochemical Analyses. Two 10-ml vacutainers of blood were drawn from the antecubital vein of each subject for laboratory analyses. Total cholesterol using the Lieberman-Buchard color reagent was measured according to the procedures of Ness et al [11]. HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) was measured using the same color reagent following heparin-manganese precipitation [12]; and the HDL2-C and HDL3-C subfractions were measured using the precipitation pro cedures outlined by Lewis et al [13]. Dietary data analyses were conducted using the Nutranal 3.1 Nutrient Analysis System (S.N. Services, Denver, CO). All statistical analyses were conducted on a VAX/VMS Computer using the SAS Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Correlation analyses were computed using Pearson correlation coef ficients. Statistical significance was established at the p < 0.05 confidence interval. Descriptive data are ex pressed as the mean and standard deviation for each vari able.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Demographic and anthropométrie characteristics (means and standard deviations) of 19 male and 8 female competitive bodybuilders are presented in Table 2. These subjects represented 22% of all male competitors and 18% of all female competitors. In comparison to other populations of elite athletes such as tennis players, skiers, ice-skaters, and gymnasts, the males and females (28 ± 4 years) were slightly older, however, these ath letes were younger than "Mr. Olympia" caliber titleholders, who are frequently in their early to midthirties. The males and females trained 8.2 ± 4.6 and 3.4 ± 1.4 years, respectively (Table 2). Males were engaged in competitive bodybuilding for 5.6 ± 3 . 1 , years while females averaged 3.0 ± 1.1 years. Males and females
138
averaged 8.5 ± 6.0 and 5.4 ± 3.0 competitions, respec tively. The average number of competitions won was 3.4 ± 2.4 for males and 3.2 ± 1.5 for females. Of the 27 study participants, 12 males and 8 females competed in the finals, which included 60 males and 44 females. Two females and one male won their division. Heights and weights of the male and female bodybuilders were variable, reflecting the distribution of the competitors among their respective weight classes. Comparatively, the mean height (cm) of females (166 + 8) was only slightly less than that of males (170 ± 8), whereas the mean weight of females was about 23 kg less than that of males. Using the sum of skinfolds (mm) and estimates of body fat, both female and male bodybuilders were quite lean, reflecting the intense training required to reach competitive form. In comparison to other studies, per cent body fat of the males (6.0 ± 1.8) was almost 4% lower than mean percent body fat reported by Spitler et al (1980) on 10 male bodybuilders [14], but similar to the 7.2% reported by Elliot et al [7] on 16 male bodybuilders. The percent body fat of the 8 females (9.8 ± 1.5%) was lower than that reported for females in any of the other studies cited. Using seven skinfold sites to estimate percent of body fat [10], mean percent body fat of 15 competitive female "natural" bodybuilders evaluated by Elliot [7] was 13.5 ± 1.9%, which was about 4% higher than the 8 females evaluated in the present study. Females in the former study were compet ing at a regional contest, whereas females in the latter study were competing in a national competition. The low body fat levels among the female bodybuilders are com parable to values reported for world-class female en durance athletes. None of the measures of adiposity was significantly associated with total cholesterol. The estimates of per cent body fat using the equation of Jackson and Pollock [10] were significantly associated with HDL-C (r = 0.63, p = 0.64) and HDL3-C (r = 0.65; p = 0.03). Measures of dietary intake among male and female bodybuilders reflect wide variability among individual subjects, suggesting a range of different food habits and dietary regimens (Table 3). The mean intake of kcal was quite low for males (2015 ± 1060) relative to the large muscle mass of these competitive bodybuilders, but con sistent with an apparent effort to reduce body mass. The females consumed 2260 ± 2660 kcal, suggesting a wider range of energy intake among females than males. Mor gan et al [6] reported an energy intake of 1549 + 426 kcal for 9 females engaged in a strength training pro gram. Hurley et al [4] collected dietary data but did not report any findings. The male bodybuilders consumed about 1400-2300 kcal less per day than collegiate ath-
VOL. 9, NO. 2
Diet, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of Bodybuilders Table 2. Demographic and Anthropométrie Characteristics of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders (Means and Standard Deviations)
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 15:06 22 April 2015
Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg) Sum of skinfolds (mm)a Estimates % body fatb Hemoglobin (g%) Hematocrit (%) Years weight training Years bodybuilding Number of competitions Number of competitions won
Males (n = 19)
Females (n = 8)
28.0 ± 4 69.6 ±7.5 80.1 ±11.7 39.1 ± 12.9 6.0 ±1.8 21.0 ±1.0 50.0 ±3.0 8.2 ± 4.6 5.6 ±3.1 8.5 ± 6.0 3.4 ± 2.4e
28.0 ± 4 165.6 ± 7.5 57.4 ± 9.2 34.9 ± 8.3 9.8 ±1.5 20.0 ±1.0 45.0 ± 2.0 3.4 ±1.4 3.0 ±1.1 5.4 ± 3.0 3.2±1.5 d
"Seven skinfolds: chest, axilla, triceps, subscapula, abdominal, suprailiac, and thigh. b Estimated using the formula of Jackson and Pollock [10]. c n = 15. °n = 62. Table 3. Daily Nutrient Intake Based on 7-Day Food Records of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders (Means and Standard Deviations) Males (n = 19)
Nutrient kcal Protein (g) Fat(g) Carbohydrate (g) Cholesterol (mg) Fiber (g) Vitamin A (IU) Vitamin C (mg) Iron (mg) Zinc (mg) Calcium (mg) %kcal: Fat Carbohydrate Protein SFA PEA
letes reported by Short and Short [15]. The energy intake of male collegiate athletes ranged from 965 kcal for wrestlers to 6149 kcal for football players, whereas the energy intake for female athletes ranged from 1812 kcal for volleyball players to 3988 kcal for swimmers [15].
Females (n = 8)
2015 ±1060 169 ±94 40 ±51 243 ± 121 513 ±582 18± 12 9646 ±13928 261± 420 16±9 11±6 605 ± 586
2260 ± 2660 162 ±93 33 ±41 332 ± 525 462 ±631 13 ±7 2320 ±3392 81 ±47 24 ±40 9±5 293 ± 231
15 ±9 50 ±13 34 ±12 4±4 8±5
13 ±9 49 ±18 37 ±16 3±4 8±4
Mean protein was more than 300% of the Recom mended Dietary Allowances [16] and represented 34 ± 12% of total kcal for males and 37 + 16% for females. The intake of eggs, egg whites (usually 4-12 per day), poultry, and fish contributed primarily to the high protein
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION
139
Diet, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of Bodybuilders Table 4. Total and HDL-Cholesterol Subfractions of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders (Means and Standard Deviations)
Total-cholesterol (mg%) HDL-choIesterol (mg%) HDL2-cholesterol (mg%) HDL3-cholesterol (mg%) HDL-C:TC ratio
Males (n=ll)
Females (n = 2)a
187+ 11
190, 205
37 ± 6
56,56
13±4
22,8
24 ± 4
34,48
0.20 ± 0.03
0.29, 0.27
individual values are reported since only two female bodybuilders volunteered to have blood drawn.
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Table 5. National Cholesterol Education Program Guidelines for Total and HDL-Cholesterol
Total cholesterol (mg%) Percent of competitive bodybuilders HDL-cholesterol (mg%) Percent of competitive bodybuilders
Desirable
Borderline high risk
240 0
Journal of the American College of Nutrition Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uacn20
Nutrient intake, body fat, and lipid profiles of competitive male and female bodybuilders. a
a
a
T L Bazzarre , S M Kleiner & M D Litchford a
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina, Greensboro 27412-5001. Published online: 02 Sep 2013.
To cite this article: T L Bazzarre, S M Kleiner & M D Litchford (1990) Nutrient intake, body fat, and lipid profiles of competitive male and female bodybuilders., Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 9:2, 136-142, DOI: 10.1080/07315724.1990.10720362 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07315724.1990.10720362
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Nutrient Intake, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders Terry L. Bazzarre, PhD, FACSM, FACN, Susan M. Kleiner, PhD, RD, Member ACN, and Mary D. Litchford, PhD, RD
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 15:06 22 April 2015
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Greensboro (T. L. B., M. D. L.), and Duke University Medical Center, Sarah W. Stedman Center for Nutritional Studies (S. M. K.) The purpose of this research was to measure nutrient intake, body fat, [estimated from seven skinfolds: chest, axilla, triceps, subscapular, abdominal, suprailiac, and thigh (Jackson and Pollock, 1985)], total cholesterol (TC), HDLcholesterol (HDL-C), HDL2-C, and HDL3-C of 19 male and 8 female bodybuilders competing in the National Physique Committee's USA Bodybuilding Championships (Raleigh, NC, April 1988). Casual blood samples and anthropométrie data were collected 18 hours prior to competition, whereas 7-day diet records were completed 1 week prior to competition. Only 11 males and 2 females provided blood samples. Competitors were not tested for steroid use. These data are unique because the measurements were collected on site at the competition. Data are presented as means and standard deviations. Estimated body fat for males (6.0 ± 1.8%) and females (9.8 ± 1.5%) was quite low. Blood lipids (mg%) for males (TC = 187 ± 11, HDL-C = 37 ± 6, HDL2-C = 13 ± 4, and HDL3-C = 24 ± 4) were not indicative of increased coronary heart disease (CHD) risk. Data for the 2 females (TC = 190, 205; HDL-C = 56, 56; HDL2-C = 22, 8; and HDL3-C = 34,48) could only be evaluated on an individual basis. Body fat was significantly correlated with HDL-C (r = 0.63; p = 0.04) and HDL3-C (r = 0.65; p = 0.03), but not TC nor HDL2-C. Of the dietary variables, only saturated fat was significantly correlated with HDL2-C (r = 0.60; p = 0.05). Competition diets reflect moderate decrements in kilocalories (kcal) intake for males (2015 ± 1060) and females (2260 + 2660). Percent kcal from protein (males: 34 ± 12, females: 37 ± 16) were high while fat intakes (percent kcal) were unusually low (males: 14 ±9, females: 13 + 9).
INTRODUCTION Since 1984 several studies [1-7] regarding the lipid profiles of bodybuilders and power-lifters have been published in the scientific literature (Table 1). While most of these studies have been cross-sectional evalua tions of relatively small populations [2-4,6] (n < 12 bodybuilders) Kleiner et al [1] conducted a 6-month lon gitudinal evaluation of 18 steroid-using and 17 nonsteroid-using bodybuilders. Warber et al [8] conducted a 30-week case study comparing the effects of endurance training vs strength training on blood lipids of a 30-yearold hyperlipidemic male subject following an 8-week, diet-controlled, detraining period. Except for the report by Elliot et al [7] at a "natural" regional bodybuilding contest, no research cited in our review of the literature examined the lipid profiles of non-drug-tested competi tive bodybuilders at the time of a national competition. The purpose of the present research was to measure the
presence of associations between diet and anthropométrie variables and blood lipids (total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, HDL2-cholesterol, and HDL3-cholesterol) of bodybuilders at the time of com petition.
DESIGN AND METHODS Following approval by the Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and the National Physique Committee, written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A packet of research materials was mailed to everyone on the list of registrants. The packet included: a letter of introduction; a complete explanation of the study; the schedule for data collection; instructions for the comple tion of a 7-day food record during the week prior to competition; a nutritional practices questionnaire; and a
Funded by the American College of Nutrition Young Investigator Award to S. M. K., sponsored by Procter and Gamble, and the RESHAPE Program at UNCG. Address reprint requests to Dr. Terry L. Bazzarre, Department of Nutrition. University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro 27412-5001.
Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 9, No. 2, 136-142 (1990) © 1990 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
CCC 0731 -5724/90/020136-07$04.00
z
0
3
TI
0
rr
0
2; 0
2 n >
5 males (strength training) On steroids Off steroids
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
Elliot et al, 1987 [7]
Bazzarre et al, 1989 [present study] 19 male bodybuilders 8 female bodybuilders
16 male bodybuilders 15 female bodybuilders
9 females strength-trained 9 female runners 9 female controls
9 strength-trained SU 13 strength-trained NSU 12 untrained controls (NSU)
NR = not reported.
28 28
25 27
36 27 34
31 32 34
29 31 31
29
30 26
Age of subjects (years)
6.0 b 9.8
7.2 a 14.4
BMI =21.7 BMI = 20.0 BMI = 24.3
-
12.0 a 14.0 13.0
-
13.1 a 13.8
% Body fat
sample.
N o significant correlations observed between any lipid and any of the nutrient variables evaluated.
i n d i v i d u a l data reported since only 2 of 8 females provided a blood
d
C
P e r c e n t body fat estimated from skinfold measurements.
"Percent body fat determined by densitometric procedures.
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
8 male bodybuilders 8 male power-lifters 8 male runners
12 power-lifters 3 females 9 males
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
35 males 18 steroid users (SU) 17 non-steroid users
Sample size/gender
Longitudinal
Morgan et al, 1986 [6]
Costili et al, 1984 [5]
Hurley et al, 1984 [4]
Peterson and Fahey 1984 [3]
Cohen et al, 1986 [2]
Kleiner et al, 1989 [1]
Investigators
Study design
7-day diet records
None
3-day weighed diet record"1
None
Combination: 24-hr recall Diet history
None
None
Combination: 3-day diet records and food frequencies
Dietary methodology
2015 2260
-
1549 1888 2132
NRC NR NR
-
-
5739
Energy intake (kcal)
187 190,205
158 166
180 182 183
218 204 210
172 195 170
223 200
216 291
214 178
TC (mg%)
37 56,56
45 55
56 72 58
17 45 46
55 38 47
16 52
31 24
16 46
HDL-C (mg%)
Table 1. Lipid Profiles, Dietary Intake, and Anthropométrie Data of Male and Female Bodybuilders Reported in the Literature
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 15:06 22 April 2015
13 22,8
-
-
-
12 6 14
-
0 2
2 16
HDL2 (mg%)
24 34,48
-
-
-
-
-
31 22
17 32
HDL3 (mg%)
0.20 0.29,0.27 e
0.28 0.33
0.31 0.39 0.32
0.08 0.22 0.22
0.32 0.19 0.28
0.07 0.26
0.14 0.08
0.07 0.26
HDL-C/ TC
t
CO O
Hi
I
•S"
ex.
3
00
b
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 15:06 22 April 2015
Diet, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of
Bodybuilders
training history questionnaire. On-site data were collected during the weigh-in period the evening before and the morning of the cham pionship event. Additional data collected on-site in cluded a demographic and medical history questionnaire, anthropométrie measures, blood pressure and heart rate measures, and optional blood and urine tests. (No subject agreed to partake in the 24-hr urine testing.) The data from the completed self-administered questionnaires and the 7-day food records were reviewed with each subject. Height and weight were measured according to the pro cedures described by Simko et al [9]. Seven skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, anterior thigh, pectoral, and axilla) were used to estimate percent body fat using the equation of Jackson and Pollock [10]. Blood Collection and Biochemical Analyses. Two 10-ml vacutainers of blood were drawn from the antecubital vein of each subject for laboratory analyses. Total cholesterol using the Lieberman-Buchard color reagent was measured according to the procedures of Ness et al [11]. HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) was measured using the same color reagent following heparin-manganese precipitation [12]; and the HDL2-C and HDL3-C subfractions were measured using the precipitation pro cedures outlined by Lewis et al [13]. Dietary data analyses were conducted using the Nutranal 3.1 Nutrient Analysis System (S.N. Services, Denver, CO). All statistical analyses were conducted on a VAX/VMS Computer using the SAS Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Correlation analyses were computed using Pearson correlation coef ficients. Statistical significance was established at the p < 0.05 confidence interval. Descriptive data are ex pressed as the mean and standard deviation for each vari able.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Demographic and anthropométrie characteristics (means and standard deviations) of 19 male and 8 female competitive bodybuilders are presented in Table 2. These subjects represented 22% of all male competitors and 18% of all female competitors. In comparison to other populations of elite athletes such as tennis players, skiers, ice-skaters, and gymnasts, the males and females (28 ± 4 years) were slightly older, however, these ath letes were younger than "Mr. Olympia" caliber titleholders, who are frequently in their early to midthirties. The males and females trained 8.2 ± 4.6 and 3.4 ± 1.4 years, respectively (Table 2). Males were engaged in competitive bodybuilding for 5.6 ± 3 . 1 , years while females averaged 3.0 ± 1.1 years. Males and females
138
averaged 8.5 ± 6.0 and 5.4 ± 3.0 competitions, respec tively. The average number of competitions won was 3.4 ± 2.4 for males and 3.2 ± 1.5 for females. Of the 27 study participants, 12 males and 8 females competed in the finals, which included 60 males and 44 females. Two females and one male won their division. Heights and weights of the male and female bodybuilders were variable, reflecting the distribution of the competitors among their respective weight classes. Comparatively, the mean height (cm) of females (166 + 8) was only slightly less than that of males (170 ± 8), whereas the mean weight of females was about 23 kg less than that of males. Using the sum of skinfolds (mm) and estimates of body fat, both female and male bodybuilders were quite lean, reflecting the intense training required to reach competitive form. In comparison to other studies, per cent body fat of the males (6.0 ± 1.8) was almost 4% lower than mean percent body fat reported by Spitler et al (1980) on 10 male bodybuilders [14], but similar to the 7.2% reported by Elliot et al [7] on 16 male bodybuilders. The percent body fat of the 8 females (9.8 ± 1.5%) was lower than that reported for females in any of the other studies cited. Using seven skinfold sites to estimate percent of body fat [10], mean percent body fat of 15 competitive female "natural" bodybuilders evaluated by Elliot [7] was 13.5 ± 1.9%, which was about 4% higher than the 8 females evaluated in the present study. Females in the former study were compet ing at a regional contest, whereas females in the latter study were competing in a national competition. The low body fat levels among the female bodybuilders are com parable to values reported for world-class female en durance athletes. None of the measures of adiposity was significantly associated with total cholesterol. The estimates of per cent body fat using the equation of Jackson and Pollock [10] were significantly associated with HDL-C (r = 0.63, p = 0.64) and HDL3-C (r = 0.65; p = 0.03). Measures of dietary intake among male and female bodybuilders reflect wide variability among individual subjects, suggesting a range of different food habits and dietary regimens (Table 3). The mean intake of kcal was quite low for males (2015 ± 1060) relative to the large muscle mass of these competitive bodybuilders, but con sistent with an apparent effort to reduce body mass. The females consumed 2260 ± 2660 kcal, suggesting a wider range of energy intake among females than males. Mor gan et al [6] reported an energy intake of 1549 + 426 kcal for 9 females engaged in a strength training pro gram. Hurley et al [4] collected dietary data but did not report any findings. The male bodybuilders consumed about 1400-2300 kcal less per day than collegiate ath-
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Diet, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of Bodybuilders Table 2. Demographic and Anthropométrie Characteristics of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders (Means and Standard Deviations)
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Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg) Sum of skinfolds (mm)a Estimates % body fatb Hemoglobin (g%) Hematocrit (%) Years weight training Years bodybuilding Number of competitions Number of competitions won
Males (n = 19)
Females (n = 8)
28.0 ± 4 69.6 ±7.5 80.1 ±11.7 39.1 ± 12.9 6.0 ±1.8 21.0 ±1.0 50.0 ±3.0 8.2 ± 4.6 5.6 ±3.1 8.5 ± 6.0 3.4 ± 2.4e
28.0 ± 4 165.6 ± 7.5 57.4 ± 9.2 34.9 ± 8.3 9.8 ±1.5 20.0 ±1.0 45.0 ± 2.0 3.4 ±1.4 3.0 ±1.1 5.4 ± 3.0 3.2±1.5 d
"Seven skinfolds: chest, axilla, triceps, subscapula, abdominal, suprailiac, and thigh. b Estimated using the formula of Jackson and Pollock [10]. c n = 15. °n = 62. Table 3. Daily Nutrient Intake Based on 7-Day Food Records of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders (Means and Standard Deviations) Males (n = 19)
Nutrient kcal Protein (g) Fat(g) Carbohydrate (g) Cholesterol (mg) Fiber (g) Vitamin A (IU) Vitamin C (mg) Iron (mg) Zinc (mg) Calcium (mg) %kcal: Fat Carbohydrate Protein SFA PEA
letes reported by Short and Short [15]. The energy intake of male collegiate athletes ranged from 965 kcal for wrestlers to 6149 kcal for football players, whereas the energy intake for female athletes ranged from 1812 kcal for volleyball players to 3988 kcal for swimmers [15].
Females (n = 8)
2015 ±1060 169 ±94 40 ±51 243 ± 121 513 ±582 18± 12 9646 ±13928 261± 420 16±9 11±6 605 ± 586
2260 ± 2660 162 ±93 33 ±41 332 ± 525 462 ±631 13 ±7 2320 ±3392 81 ±47 24 ±40 9±5 293 ± 231
15 ±9 50 ±13 34 ±12 4±4 8±5
13 ±9 49 ±18 37 ±16 3±4 8±4
Mean protein was more than 300% of the Recom mended Dietary Allowances [16] and represented 34 ± 12% of total kcal for males and 37 + 16% for females. The intake of eggs, egg whites (usually 4-12 per day), poultry, and fish contributed primarily to the high protein
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Diet, Body Fat, and Lipid Profiles of Bodybuilders Table 4. Total and HDL-Cholesterol Subfractions of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders (Means and Standard Deviations)
Total-cholesterol (mg%) HDL-choIesterol (mg%) HDL2-cholesterol (mg%) HDL3-cholesterol (mg%) HDL-C:TC ratio
Males (n=ll)
Females (n = 2)a
187+ 11
190, 205
37 ± 6
56,56
13±4
22,8
24 ± 4
34,48
0.20 ± 0.03
0.29, 0.27
individual values are reported since only two female bodybuilders volunteered to have blood drawn.
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Table 5. National Cholesterol Education Program Guidelines for Total and HDL-Cholesterol
Total cholesterol (mg%) Percent of competitive bodybuilders HDL-cholesterol (mg%) Percent of competitive bodybuilders
Desirable
Borderline high risk
240 0
