Opportunities and progress.

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Opportunities and Progress John H. Litchfield Department of Food Science and Technology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1007; email: litchfi[email protected]

Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 2014. 5:23–37

Keywords

The Annual Review of Food Science and Technology is online at http://food.annualreviews.org

microbial food flavors and proteins, food industry wastes, food process automation, food safety, food packaging, food science and technology education

This article’s doi: 10.1146/annurev-food-030713-092422 c 2014 by Annual Reviews. Copyright All rights reserved

Abstract In this review, I cover my professional experiences in food science and technology and related areas of applied and industrial microbiology over the span of my career. It emphasizes opportunities and technological problems that I encountered together with my progress in follow-up development of products and processes.

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INTRODUCTION


How did I become involved in the fields of food science and technology and related areas of applied and industrial microbiology? To answer this question, I describe my educational experiences from early years through undergraduate education at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and graduate education at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Over my professional career, what were the projects in these fields where I had opportunities to make progress in solving technological problems? In answering this question, I review selected projects conducted for industrial organizations and government agencies. Emphasis is on problems to be solved and outcomes. Not all of these projects were successful; however, I learned from each of them. The majority of the projects described subsequently involved my work at Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio, for more than 33 years full time and an additional 20 years part time (for a history of the Institute see Boehm & Groner 1981). Many food scientists and technologists establish their expertise by working in a single field such as animal products, fruits and vegetables, food ingredients, food safety, or food packaging, for example, but I like variety in my work. Consequently, I chose to work at a research institute where application of my technical background to a variety of projects in my general field was the mode of operation. Many of the projects that I conducted under contracts were proprietary to industrial clients or were subject to US government security restrictions. Reviews and book chapters cited in this article give an indication of my research and development activities in these project areas. Typical projects at Battelle involved team efforts with a very talented group of scientists, engineers, technical economic/market specialists, statisticians, and technical information specialists, along with skilled laboratory technicians. It was a privilege to manage many of these teams or to participate in them as a key collaborator.

EARLY YEARS I was born in Scituate, Massachusetts, on February 13, 1929. My father, Frank A. Litchfield, was a railroad freight traffic agent, and my mother, Alma H. Litchfield, was an executive secretary to bank and financial executives in Boston until the Great Depression. I attended the public schools of Scituate. I became interested in science in elementary school. Mathematics, science, and history were my favorite subjects. I was very fortunate to have outstanding high school science and mathematics teachers. My chemistry teacher, Errol Wilcox, was a chemistry graduate from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, Massachusetts. He excited my interest in pursuing this subject. My high school junior and senior year mathematics teacher, Ella Vinal, was a mathematics and physics graduate of Clark University in Worcester. Her thesis project was supervised by Robert Goddard, the rocket pioneer.

FOOD TECHNOLOGY AT THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY After graduating from high school, I entered MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1946. MIT had a common first-year course program with no major specified. At the end of the academic year, each department held an open house, where freshmen could visit laboratories, see demonstrations, and meet with faculty advisors for advice in selecting a major field. In the course of visiting the various departments, I went to the Department of Food Technology’s open house. I saw demonstrations of freeze-drying and other ongoing research projects. 24

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Little did I know at that time that I would be conducting the freeze-drying demonstration at the department’s open house during my senior year. I spoke with Ernest E. Lockhart, the faculty advisor, who pointed out that food technology students became employed soon after graduation. I was hooked. I have never regretted taking this major course. Three faculty members presented courses that had a major influence on my subsequent career. Ernest E. Lockhart taught the one-year chemistry of food course that was required for food technology majors. He also taught a graduate-level course on flavor evaluation, which I took as a senior-year elective. He was an excellent instructor who prepared me well for my first food industry position in quality control. I took a course on industrial microbiology taught by Cecil G. Dunn, who was a pioneer in this field (Prescott & Dunn 1959). He was an excellent teacher, and the lectures and laboratory sessions on important food and industrial fermentation were outstanding. This experience led me to emphasize applied and industrial microbiology in my graduate work at the University of Illinois. Bernard E. Proctor, director of the Samuel Cate Prescott Laboratory of Food Technology and a student of Samuel Cate Prescott’s, was a founding member of the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) (Goldblith 1993, 2004). His senior-year processing course on the technology of food products prepared me for my future work in food processing. Proctor supervised my bachelor’s thesis project on bacterial spoilage of refrigerated, eviscerated haddock involving correlation of bacterial counts with trimethylamine values as an indicator of spoilage (Litchfield 1950). This project gave me the background in planning and conducting independent laboratory research that helped me later on in my subsequent graduate research at the University of Illinois.

CANNED VEGETABLE PRODUCTS After graduation from MIT in 1950, my first job in the food field was chief chemist at Searle Food Corporation in Hollywood, Florida. At that time, only the large food companies knew about and employed food technology graduates. Most positions specified “chemist,” “bacteriologist” or “engineer.” I was able to be accepted as a chemist owing to my food chemistry background obtained at MIT. The company was a new venture established by Arthur Vining Davis, one of the founders of Aluminum Company of America. His goal was to develop higher-valued processed vegetable products for marketing over a longer portion of the year than the existing seasonal fresh market produce business in South Florida. The Searle brothers who had experience in the canned food products industry managed the company. The main plant in Hollywood had recently been constructed and put into operation for thermal processing of canned green beans grown in the region. The company also had two tomato processing plants south of Miami, Florida, and two seasonal tomato processing plants in Indiana. My assignment was to establish the quality control program for the company. Consequently, I had a great opportunity to work closely with plant and marketing managers. The main objective was to meet the requirements of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) canned vegetable product grade standards and those of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Standards of identity were required in contracts with the US Army’s Atlanta General Depot’s procurement center, a major customer at that time. The marketing staff decided to develop canned bean products, including pork and beans in tomato sauce and kidney beans. Using trade literature sources of recipes, the plant manager and I made laboratory quantities of the canned bean products, which were sufficiently promising to justify a scale-up to the plant production scale. I worked with can manufacturers and plant www.annualreviews.org • Opportunities and Progress

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management to establish safe thermal processes for these low-acid canned foods. This was accomplished, and the products were sold commercially through brokers. An additional problem at the Hollywood plant was treating the cannery wastes. My work in this area is covered in the section Food Industry Wastes Treatment and By-Product Utilization, below.

FEEDING THE TROOPS AND PROTECTING THEIR FOOD


On graduation from the MIT ROTC program, I received an Army Reserve commission as second lieutenant, Quartermaster Corps. I was called to active duty owing to the Korean War and left my position at Searle Food Corporation. I attended the four-month Advanced Food Service Officer course at Fort Lee, Virginia. It was a practical laboratory and food service operations program taught mostly by experienced civilian instructors. The instruction included the operation of central bakeries and central meat-cutting and fat-rendering plants established, at that time, at major army posts. On completion of the course, my first assignment was to supervise the pastry bakery; central meat-cutting, fat-rendering plant at Camp Atterbury, Indiana; and the training of soldiers in these military occupational specialties. This was an excellent opportunity for me to gain plant operation management experience. I was able to make improvements in the training program and operations. I was transferred to the US Army Europe and my principal assignment as a first lieutenant was food advisor for the Berlin Command. This position required overall supervision of food service operations and assuring that appropriate sanitation practices were followed. As food advisor, I was chair of the master menu planning board, consisting of the commissary officer and the dietician at the station hospital. All supplies were delivered by either air or armed convoys owing to frequent harassment of ground transportation by the Soviet Union military forces. As a result, the Berlin Command had authorization to prepare a separate master menu from that used by the US Army Europe, as long as the nutritional requirements for troops were met. We met monthly to determine the ration components that would become available according to projected delivery schedules. This information was used to develop appropriate menus. Another problem arose. When I arrived in Berlin, I was informed that an infantry battalion of some 800 troops had been afflicted several weeks previously with an immobilizing food poisoning outbreak. I never learned what organism was involved. My main task was to develop and conduct a retraining program on safe food preparation for all food service personnel assigned to the Berlin Command. For assistants, I had a master sergeant and a sergeant first class who had and provided extensive food service training and had served previously as food service instructors. We conducted classes in safe food preparation and handling procedures to prevent such outbreaks in the future. On completing the training, I published a bulletin on the safe cooking procedures for preparing the turkeys for the upcoming Thanksgiving dinners. There were no further foodborne illness problems during the remainder of my service in Berlin. This was not the end of my involvement in feeding the troops. After my release from active duty, I continued to serve as an Army Reserve Quartermaster officer. I had tours of duty at the former Quartermaster Food & Container Institute for the Armed Forces in Chicago. I participated in projects in sensory science related to ration development under the direction of David R. Peryam, the pioneer in developing the hedonic scale method. Subsequently, I served in the Life Sciences Division, Office of the Chief of Research and Development, Department of the Army, in Arlington, VA. I was involved in reviewing research on ration development and biodegradation of military materials. This work involved early development of the meals-ready-to-eat (MRE) operational ration at the US Army Natick Laboratories in Natick, MA. I retired as a lieutenant colonel after 22 years of service. 26

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FOOD TECHNOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA-CHAMPAIGN I entered graduate work in the Department of Food Technology at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, in 1953 on my release from active duty. Z. John Ordal was my advisor throughout my graduate program. He was a wonderful mentor, who worked closely with his students. Frequently, he stopped by the laboratory in the evening to answer any questions. For my MS program, I conducted, under Ordal’s supervision, research on the new Stuart AOAC first action use-dilution method for evaluating germicides. This topic interested me because of my previous experience with the food industry and food service cleaners and sanitizers. The Economics Laboratory (now ECOLAB) in St. Paul, MN, furnished quaternary ammonium compound–based detergent sanitizers for evaluation in comparison with commercial phenolic and cresylic germicides. My results revealed that the Stuart procedure required greater concentrations of the commercial germicides for disinfection of Staphylococcus aureus, but equivalent results were obtained with Salmonella Choleraesuis as compared with the AOAC Official Methods of Analysis using Salmonella Typhi as the test organism (Litchfield & Ordal 1955). Ultimately, the Stuart method was adopted with modifications as an official Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) method. In view of my interest in industrial microbiology from my previous studies at MIT, I decided, at Ordal’s suggestion, to do my PhD research on the growth and metabolism of the oxidative yeast Rhodotorula gracilis NRRL Y-1091 (now reclassified as Rhodosporidium toruloides). This organism was investigated in Sweden during World War II as a potential food yeast. Previous research had revealed that this yeast produces a high level of fat (Steinberg & Ordal 1954a,b). Research continued on factors affecting its growth and yields in an aerated, agitated, and pH- and temperature-controlled fermenter (Spotholz et al. 1956). In the final phase of the project, I investigated the oxidative metabolism of R. gracilis. The organism grew aerobically on glucose and xylose as substrates and did not grow anaerobically to produce the classic anaerobic fermentation products ethanol or lactic acid. I found that it had the enzymatic activities of the hexose monophosphate and pentose phosphate pathways, and the Krebs tricarboxylic (citric) acid cycle pathway for aerobic growth (Litchfield & Ordal 1958).

CURED MEAT PRODUCTS After completing my PhD research, I joined the Canned and Cured Meats Division at Swift & Co.’s, Chicago, IL, research laboratories. My main projects were on enhancing the flavor of cured meats using a microbial starter culture and electrostatic smoking of meats, along with short-term problems. I gained experience in scaling up laboratory processes for cured meats to pilot-plantscale operations.

FOOD ENGINEERING AT THE ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY While working at Swift & Co., I had the opportunity to teach evening courses as a special instructor in the Department of Food Engineering at the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in Chicago under Milton E. Parker, head of the Department of Food Engineering. He was an undergraduate classmate of B.E. Proctor at MIT and a founding member of IFT. His books on food plant sanitation and on food engineering were used as undergraduate textbooks at IIT (Parker 1948, Parker et al. 1952/1954). www.annualreviews.org • Opportunities and Progress

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My first teaching assignment was to conduct the graduate-level packaging course in the evening division. It was organized as a seminar-type program, and I was able to obtain guest speakers who were specialists in various packaging materials and methods. The class members were scientists and engineers employed in Chicago-area food companies. Also, I taught the public health aspects of the food engineering course on food plant sanitation. Parker received favorable student comments, and as a result, I was appointed as a full-time assistant professor of food engineering starting in the 1957 fall semester. Over a three-year period, I taught both undergraduate and graduate courses in the food engineering program. Quality control managers in the Chicago-area food industry assisted me in presenting a graduate course in food quality control. Also, I arranged for David R. Peryam of the Quartermaster Food & Container Institute for the Armed Forces to teach the graduate course on food acceptability techniques. Parker had an ongoing research project on cold sterilization of liquid foods using mercury resonance UV radiation. Milk was treated successfully in the first phase of the project (Albrecht et al. 1955). I took over the supervision of the phase II research by an MS student using apple juice, which also showed effective results (Mack et al. 1959). On the basis of our teaching food plant sanitation and our consulting work, Parker and I agreed that his book on food sanitation needed to be revised owing to major advances in the field since its publication. I worked on the revision, which was published after I left IIT to join the staff of Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio (Parker & Litchfield 1962). Milton Parker was also an outstanding mentor for me in my professional development. He had an extensive consulting practice and he enabled me to obtain consulting assignments that advanced my career. He taught me how to serve and relate to clients, which became important considerations in my subsequent contract research projects at Battelle.



MICROBIAL FOOD FLAVORING AND PROTEIN PRODUCTS On joining the Battelle staff in Columbus, Ohio, I began research on a series of projects on microbial food flavoring and microbial protein (single-cell protein, SCP) products, extending more than 20 years. These projects involved developing laboratory and small pilot-plant-scale submerged fermentation processes and a scale-up to commercial production. Development of a submerged culture production process for morel mushroom (Morchcella spp.) mycelium was the first of my projects in this field. Previous research at Battelle established the feasibility of producing morel mycelium (Robinson & Davidson 1959). Morchcella species were grown successfully in 10-L laboratory fermenters with controlled temperature, pH, and aeration using glucose and maltose as substrates. One of these species, M. hortensis (Szuecs 1958), also utilized lactose, indicating that it might be useful in utilizing lactose in cheese whey (Litchfield et al. 1963a). M. hortensis was grown on cheese whey and on corn and pumpkin canning wastes as substrates yielding cell products containing 32–35% protein (Litchfield & Overbeck 1965). Emphasis in this work was on producing a morel mushroom flavoring product (Litchfield 1967a,d,e; 1970b). The process was scaled up in a 2,000-gallon fermenter at Producers Creamery’s Lebanon, Missouri, plant (Klis 1963). A patent assigned to this company describes the process (Heinemann 1963). The dried morel mushroom powder, produced on a commercial scale, was analyzed for amino acid composition of the protein and B-vitamin content (Litchfield et al. 1963b, Litchfield 1964). These nutrient composition data were similar to those obtained with other microorganisms. Although the process was successful, the morel product encountered price competition from imported dried mushroom products and was produced commercially on only an intermittent basis.

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My work on morel mushroom mycelium led to further proprietary industrial projects on microbial protein (SCP) processes and products from algae, bacteria, yeast, and higher fungi for use in food or animal feed (Lipinsky & Litchfield 1970, 1974; Lipinsky et al. 1969). Several of these projects involved producing bacteria, yeasts, and molds as SCP from a variety of substrates, including carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, methanol, and ethanol (Litchfield 1968, 1977c, 1983a, 1986). Functional properties of these products were evaluated for potential applications as food ingredients, including protein concentrates and fibers from extrusion of algae and yeasts (Litchfield 1977b, 1991). Commercial-scale processes for SCP production for animal feed applications from hydrocarbons, methanol, and ethanol were ultimately abandoned owing to rapid increases in the prices of these substrates during the 1970s and 1980s. Our economic and market analyses revealed that to be economically viable, SCP products had to compete with conventional protein products used in animal feeds such as soybean meal and fish meal on price and feed performance bases (Lipinsky & Litchfield 1974; Litchfield 1977a,b, 1983c, 1986). Various reviews summarize the various microbial processes evaluated for SCP production (see, e.g., Litchfield 1983b,c, 1989). In the 1960s, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) initiated research on life-support systems for extended space exploration missions. Previous work at Battelle involved the development of a rotating electrolysis cell for generating breathable oxygen from wastewater in a zero-gravity space system travel environment. The question arose of what to do with the hydrogen generated. To address this problem, NASA established research projects at Battelle and elsewhere on using the hydrogen-fixing bacterium Hydrogenomonas eutropha (now classified as Ralstonia eutropha) to produce a food protein product. This organism utilizes hydrogen and carbon dioxide as energy and carbon sources, respectively, for aerobic growth with oxygen, and urea or ammonium salts as a nitrogen source. I was co-principal investigator of the Battelle contract. We designed, constructed, and testoperated a 4-L (2-L working volume) continuous culture fermenter with pH, temperature, agitation, and nutrient medium feed-rate controls (Foster & Litchfield 1964). The results obtained with the Hydrogenomonas process compared favorably with those with algae growth systems for space life-support systems (Litchfield 1967b). An atmosphere of 80% hydrogen, 10% carbon dioxide, and 10% oxygen with ammonium or urea nitrogen sources gave dense growth (Foster & Litchfield 1967, 1968, 1969). A 56-L (30-L working volume) continuous fermenter was constructed and used to produce biomass for NASA to evaluate in animal feeding studies (Litchfield 1972). The unit was then shipped to NASA’s Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, CA. Feeding studies at the University of California, Berkeley, revealed good growth with rats; however, problems in feeding primates indicated a possible presence of an endotoxin in the cells, which would necessitate further purification steps.

CONTINUOUS BREWING At Battelle, there were opportunities to obtain internal support to develop concepts on new technologies that could attract contract research. About the same time that I was beginning the research on morel mushroom production, I identified continuous brewing as an emerging technology of potential interest for further development. Two papers presented an overview of continuous brewing processes (Litchfield & Nack 1960, 1961). We did not receive any inquiries on continuous brewing; however, representatives of John I. Haas Co. in Yakima, WA, a major grower of hops, noticed these papers and mentioned their interest in new hop products for potential use in both conventional and, potentially, continuous brewing processes. They funded a project to separate

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lupulin granules from the hop bracts to yield a product having high humulone and isohumulone bitter acid contents. This product would be an alternative to those made by solvent extraction of these compounds, which had the problem of removing solvent residues. An apparatus was developed to effect this separation, starting with dried, baled hops (Brison & Litchfield 1968). Analyses revealed that the bitter acid content of the lupulin product was not affected. The equipment was shipped to Yakima, WA, in time for trials with hops from the fall harvest. Sufficient quantities of the lupulin product were prepared for brewing trials at a US and a Canadian brewery. The results of taste panels at these breweries revealed that there were no significant differences between beers made with conventional hops and those made with the lupulin product.


FOOD INDUSTRY WASTE TREATMENT AND BY-PRODUCT UTILIZATION Food industry waste treatment and by-product utilization projects extended over a major portion of my career. Wastes included those from canned vegetable, dairy, meat, fish, and poultry processing operations. Both technical and economic factors in food industry waste treatment and utilization were covered in these projects (Burch et al. 1963). During my work at Searle Food Corporation, canned vegetable processing waste treatment became necessary to reduce biochemical oxygen demand and suspended solids contents of these wastes to acceptable levels for discharge into municipal wastewater treatment systems. I worked with the engineering staff of Infilco, a supplier of industrial waste treatment systems, in the startup and further operation of a continuous flow, chemical precipitation treatment system (InfilcoDegremont, Richmond, VA). The best results were obtained with aluminum sulfate combined with calcium hydroxide in the pH 6.0–7.0 range, followed by final effluent chlorination, which met Florida State Board of Health requirements. Rendering has been used to recover fat from meat and poultry processing by-products. The National Renderers Association (NRA) supported a project at Battelle to develop improved processes for recovering protein from rendering plant raw materials and products. Liquid cyclone separation with carbon tetrachloride was evaluated for separating protein from fat and bone in meat scrap. A 75% protein product was recovered. This method was abandoned because of possible toxic compounds being formed from carbon tetrachloride (Criswell et al. 1964b). Additional studies on the acid hydrolysis of the meat scrap product with sulfuric acid and neutralization with calcium oxide (lime) revealed that a 90% protein product could be obtained, but the tryptophan content was destroyed. However, fungal protease hydrolysis of the ground, heated meat scrap followed by centrifugation and drying yielded a 70% protein, 70% water-soluble product indicating that it had potential use in a partially digested starter ration for weanling pigs (Criswell et al. 1964a). The fungal proteolytic enzyme hydrolysis process was operated on a pilot-plant scale in an 825-gallon jacketed, agitated reactor. The results revealed that a 74% protein, 7% fat, and 6% ash product could be produced at an economically competitive cost. Analysis of the dried product revealed an acceptable balance of essential amino acids for animal nutrition. Salmonella was not detected in the final product, and total plate, coliform, and Staphylococcus aureus counts were within the acceptable limits for rendering plant products (Connelly et al. 1966). The enzyme hydrolysis process was made available to the industry by the NRA without payment of licensing fees. The EPA promulgated effluent limitations guidelines under P.L. 92–500 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act). The affected industries raised considerable objections to these guidelines. Consequently, the US Congress established the National Commission on 30

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Water Quality to conduct a detailed analysis of the costs of implementation and the capabilities of available technologies to comply with this legislation. Battelle was awarded a contract to analyze costs and available technologies for 38 industries affected by the EPA guidelines. I had the opportunity to serve as project leader for the analysis of a group of food industries, including fish hatcheries and farms, meat, poultry products and rendering, canned and preserved seafood (Litchfield 1975a,b,c,d), and a miscellaneous group of food industries such as bakery products, confectionery, beverages, and malt beverages (Litchfield & McComis 1975). Engineers at Burgess and Niple, Ltd. in Columbus, Ohio, who had experience in the design and cost analysis of industrial wastewater treatment systems assisted in this project. Information on waste characteristics, treatment processes, and water supply for each industry was obtained. This information base was used to develop costs for a model plant in each industry category, on the basis of available technologies. To my surprise, I learned that the report on waste treatment for the rendering industry was introduced as evidence against the EPA guidelines in a federal court case against the EPA filed by the NRA. The analysis of the rendering industry in our report revealed flaws in the process and cost bases used by the EPA for developing the guidelines. The NRA won the case, and the EPA withdrew the guidelines. This is the only project in my entire career that was validated by a federal court judgment. Some projects involving food industry waste treatment were proprietary to industrial organizations. The technologies involved are described in various reviews (see, e.g., Litchfield 1970a, 1971, 1974; McComis & Litchfield 1988, 1989).

ANTICARIES CONFECTIONERIES AND ORAL HEALTH PRODUCTS The Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company had an existing line of sugar-free chewing gum products containing sorbitol and mannitol (and later, xylitol). Wrigley established a project at Battelle to develop additional anticaries additives to chewing gum. Aldehydes are an important class of compounds in natural flavors used in confectionery products. The scientific and patent literature indicated that aldehydes and phosphorus compounds such as phosphonates had antimicrobial effects. However, there were no reports on the inhibitory effects of these classes of compounds against lactic acid bacteria associated with dental caries. Numerous aldehydes and phosphorus compounds were evaluated for inhibition of Lactobacillus casei and Streptococcus spp. These bacteria were chosen as models of lactic acid bacteria associated with dental caries formation. The results of these inhibition assays revealed that certain phosphonates, and aldehydes such as pyruvaldehyde (methylglyoxal) and dialdehyde starches were sufficiently promising to warrant further evaluation in caries-susceptible strains of rats and hamsters. Faculty at the Ohio State University College of Dentistry helped to develop these animal assays (Rosen et al. 1963). The most promising compounds identified in rat and hamster evaluations were formulated into chewing gum for extractability studies using sterile artificial and human saliva. Patents assigned to Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company present details of this work (Litchfield & Vely 1971; 1972a,b; 1973). In addition, these compounds were evaluated in oral health product formulations, including lozenges, mouthwash, tooth powder and toothpaste, described in patents assigned to Wrigley (Litchfield & Vely 1977a,b). The patent applications for these oral health patents were declared by the US Patent and Trademark Office to be in interference with a patent application filed by Colgate Palmolive. The Wrigley patents were allowed to issue as a result of a judgment by the US Court of Customs and Appeals (now the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit). www.annualreviews.org • Opportunities and Progress

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FOOD SAFETY


Food safety considerations were important in many of my projects. I mentioned previously determining safe food processes for low-acid canned vegetable products, establishing safe food preparation procedures, and developing a meat rendering product having no detectable levels of Salmonella. In the late 1960s/early 1970s period, I was principal investigator at Battelle on a USDA-funded project to evaluate the development of chlortetracycline resistance in the enteric microorganisms of chickens and pigs fed prophylactic and therapeutic levels of this antibiotic. The results clearly revealed statistically significant increases in chlortetracycline-resistant enteric bacteria over those in control animals housed separately. In addition, chlortetracycline resistance was transferred from a resistant Escherichia coli strain isolated from chickens to a sensitive strain of Salmonella Typhimurium in gnotobiotic (germ-free) mice. These results were presented in a seminar in Beltsville, MD, which was attended by USDA and FDA representatives, and were published the following year (Margard et al. 1971). Although both groups stated that the results were important and recommended further work, no funding became available. Although numerous studies since then have revealed the importance of antibiotic-resistant pathogens in the environment, the FDA has taken action to limit their use in animal agriculture only in the past several years. At Battelle, during the 1980s, I was principal investigator in projects relating to protection of military food supply and food service operations from microbiological, chemical, and radiological hazards. The reports on these projects are subject to national security restrictions and are available only to government agencies through the Defense Technical Information Center at Fort Belvoir, VA.

FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY AUTOMATION Opportunities for automation in the food processing industry include laboratory quality assurance for food quality and safety, pilot-plant operation and full-scale production. In 1988, Battelle staff members conducted a multiclient study on advanced automation for the food processing industry, consisting of a group of companies representing the food industry and manufacturers of automation equipment. Investigations of the state of automation in a wide range of food industries involved field interviews in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Mechanical and systems engineering team members covered the equipment and automation aspects of the project, which was led by a systems engineer. A similar team composed of personnel from Battelle’s Frankfurt, Germany, and Geneva, Switzerland, laboratories was formed for conducting the European study. A consulting firm in Japan was awarded a contract for the Japanese industry study. I was responsible for the food technology aspects of the US project and reviewing the results from the European and Japanese projects. The industries covered were bakery, beverage, cereal, confectionery, dairy, and pasta products; fruit and vegetable processing; grain milling; and the meat, poultry, and seafood industries. The tools for the automation of food, water, and air quality determinations included process sensors and sensors for laboratory instruments. Materials handling and controlling systems automation took into consideration network architecture and automation control. Also, process development and control included process planning and optimization and statistical process control. The project reports addressed the impacts of automation on the food processing industry and its suppliers. Automation was being implemented to an increasing extent in many of the food industries in the United States, Europe, and Japan. However, there were many opportunities for further development of automation technologies in these industries (Taussig et al. 1988). 32

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This project gave me an opportunity to work with Battelle’s European laboratories’ engineers on a food industry–wide study. The results were well accepted by clients for their use in further internal implementation.


FOOD PACKAGING Food packaging materials and methods have been important considerations in many of my food research projects over the years. I mentioned previously my teaching packaging at IIT. My involvement in packaging, including organizing and planning packaging research and development programs, continued at Battelle (Litchfield 1967c). Also, I was a team member in several Battelle multiclient programs on packaging materials, including fresh produce packaging, conducted for member companies. From the late 1980s to the early 1990s, Battelle’s polymer scientists and technologists conducted a Battelle-funded research project on biodegradable polymers based on lactic acid. Packaging films were attractive potential products. I was responsible for leading the research to establish the biodegradability of the polymers based on the polylactide dimer. Biodegradability of polylactic acid (PLA) polymer films was demonstrated in laboratory-scale flask studies of carbon dioxide evolution from pieces embedded in a sterile soil medium over a 360-day period. This degradation also occurred during exposure of various lactide polymer films in compost-soil burial beds. No visible pieces remained after 90–100 days of exposure. A 90/10 weight ratio of L-lactide/DL-lactide copolymer was effectively biodegraded in all of the evaluations. Details of this research are presented in patents assigned to Cargill-Dow Polymers, who purchased the rights to the Battelle technology (Bigg et al. 2001, 2004). In addition, I evaluated microbiological processes for producing L-, DL-, and D-lactic acids as starting materials for PLA synthesis (Litchfield 1996, 2009). Cargill now produces PLA products at its Blair, Nebraska, operations. These products are used commercially in several food packaging applications.

FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION Educational activities in food science and technology have been an important part of my career. I participated in the first IFT conference on food technology education at the Allerton House, University of Illinois, in 1958. This conference developed the first IFT model undergraduate curriculum in the field that was distinctly different from the commodity approach used at many universities. It was grounded on the concept of a science-, engineering-, and food processing–based curriculum that originated at MIT. Subsequently, I participated in the second education conference at Michigan State University in 1961. The results of this conference revealed that the model undergraduate curriculum approach was being adopted by universities to an increasing extent. The IFT review of food science and technology undergraduate programs is currently well established. It was an opportunity and privilege for me to be involved and to provide input in the early phases of this effort. My involvement with food science and technology education continued at the Ohio State University in Columbus, OH. In 1975, I was appointed by the chair of the Department of Food Science to serve as chair of its Industrial Advisory Committee. This committee, in various forms, has continued into the present time. I began service as an adjunct faculty member in the Department of Human Nutrition and Food Management in 1977, and beginning in 1990, as an adjunct faculty member in the Department of Food Science and Technology. It has been a privilege and pleasure to serve with faculty members in teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in food science and technology over the years and www.annualreviews.org • Opportunities and Progress

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to serve on the committees of numerous MS and PhD candidates. Also, I have enjoyed helping in coaching Ohio State IFT College Bowl teams. I have witnessed these teams winning regional and national IFT competitions.

PROFESSIONAL SERVICE I have served on numerous committees of IFT and the Society for Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. I have had the honor of serving as president of both of these scientific societies. As a fellow of both IFT and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), I represented IFT as liaison to the AAAS Section on Agriculture, Food and Renewable Resources for 20 years. Service to scientific societies has always had high priority in my professional career.


SUMMARY POINTS 1. Microorganisms can be produced in industrial-scale fermentations for use as food flavors and as protein sources for animal feeds. Economic and market conditions will determine the commercial use of these products. 2. Food industry waste treatment processes are available for meeting environmental regulatory requirements. Animal product rendering processes based on fungal proteolytic enzyme and heat treatment can yield animal feed products that have no detectable levels of Salmonella. 3. Food safety considerations are important in all areas of the food system, including livestock production, processing, storage, and food service operations. The state of food plant automation development is now such that close controls can be maintained in processing operations affecting food product quality and safety. 4. Biodegradable food packaging is now available for a variety of packaged food products.

FUTURE ISSUES 1. Future emphasis on water conservation in food processing and water recovery and reuse from food industry waste treatment processes will be required. 2. Automated rapid microbiological and chemical analyses of foods need to be integrated with automated food processing operations to an increasing extent to obtain real-time control of factors affecting food quality and safety. 3. Education programs in food science and technology should prepare students for flexibility in employment in a wide range of industrial, academic, and government organizations.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT The author is not aware of any affiliations, membership, funding or financial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to former colleagues at Battelle Memorial Institute, many of whom are now deceased, for their contributions to the projects mentioned in this review. Also, 34

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I thank my son, Robert C. Litchfield (Department of Economics and Business, Washington and Jefferson College, Washington, PA) for his helpful comments on this review.


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Litchfield JH, Ordal ZJ. 1955. A study of the Stuart method for the evaluation of germicides. Appl. Microbiol. 3:67–71 Litchfield JH, Ordal ZJ. 1958. The oxidative metabolism of Rhodotorula gracilis. Can. J. Microbiol. 4:205–13 Litchfield JH, Overbeck RC. 1965. Submerged culture growth of Morchella sp in food processing waste substrates. In Proc. Int. Congr. Food Sci. Technol. 1st, London, 1962, Vol. II. Biological and Microbiological Aspects of Foods, ed. JM Leich, pp. 511–20. New York: Gordon & Breach Litchfield JH, Overbeck RC, Davidson RS. 1963a. Factors affecting the growth of morel mushrooms in submerged culture. J. Agric. Food Chem. 11:158–62 Litchfield JH, Vely VG. 1971. Phosphorus-containing anticaries chewing gum composition. US Patent No. 3629395 Litchfield JH, Vely VG. 1972a. Anticaries chewing gum. US Patent No. 3651206 Litchfield JH, Vely VG. 1972b. Dialdehyde-containing anticaries chewing gum. US Patent No. 3679792 Litchfield JH, Vely VG. 1973. Aldehyde-containing anticaries chewing gum. US Patent No. 3749966 Litchfield JH, Vely VG. 1977a. Anticaries confectioneries and oral health products. US Patent No. 4048299 Litchfield JH, Vely VG. 1977b. Anticaries confectioneries and oral health products. US Patent No. 4053638 Litchfield JH, Vely VG, Overbeck RC. 1963b. Nutrient content of morel mushroom mycelium. Amino acid composition of the protein. J. Food Sci. 28:741–43 Mack SD, Albrecht JJ, Litchfield JH, Parker ME. 1959. Studies on the cold sterilization of liquid foods using mercury resonance radiation. II. Apple juice. Food Res. 24:383–91 Margard WL, Peters AC, Pesut RN, Litchfield JH. 1971. Chlortetracycline resistance in enteric microorganisms in chickens and swine. In Developments in Industrial Microbiology, 42:376–92. Washington, DC: Am. Inst. Biol. Sci. McComis WT, Litchfield,JH. 1988. Meat, fish and poultry processing wastes. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 60:868–70 McComis WT, Litchfield JH. 1989. Meat, fish and poultry processing wastes. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 61:855–58 Natl. Comm. Water Qual., Battelle Mem. Inst. 1975. Final Report on Cost of Implementation and Capabilities of Available Technology to Comply with P.L. 92-500: For National Commission on Water Quality: Vols. 1–2. Columbus, OH: Battelle Mem. Inst. Parker ME. 1948. Food Plant Sanitation. New York: McGraw-Hill Parker ME, Harvey EH, Stateler ES. 1952/1954. Elements of Food Engineering, Vols. 1–3. New York: Reinhold Parker ME, Litchfield JH. 1962. Food Plant Sanitation. New York: Reinhold. 401 pp. Prescott SC, Dunn CG. 1959. Industrial Microbiology. New York: McGraw-Hill. 3rd ed. Rosen S, Peters AC, Litchfield JH, Davis J. 1963. Caries lesions on buccal surfaces induced by a coarse-particle diet. J. Dent. Res. 42:1248 Spotholz CH, Litchfield JH, Ordal ZJ. 1956. The effect of pH, temperature and composition of the growth medium on growth characteristics of Rhodotorula gracilis. Appl. Microbiol. 4:285–88 Steinberg MP, Ordal ZJ. 1954a. Effect of fermentation variables on rate of fat formation by Rhodotorula gracilis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2:873–77 Steinberg MP, Ordal ZJ. 1954b. Theoretical rate of fat formation by yeasts. Science 120:609–10 Szuecs J. 1958. Method of growing mushroom mycelium and the resulting products. US Patent No. 2850841 Taussig P, Mullenix C, Soltesz C, Litchfield J, McComis W, Preis H, Hampel HJ. 1988. Advanced Automation for the Food Processing Industry, Vols. I–V. Columbus, OH: Battelle Mem. Inst.

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Annual Review of Food Science and Technology


Contents

Volume 5, 2014

From Tomato King to World Food Prize Laureate Philip E. Nelson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1 Opportunities and Progress John H. Litchfield p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p23 Body Weight Regulation and Obesity: Dietary Strategies to Improve the Metabolic Profile M.J.M. Munsters and W.H.M. Saris p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p39 Delivery of Lipophilic Bioactives: Assembly, Disassembly, and Reassembly of Lipid Nanoparticles Mingfei Yao, Hang Xiao, and David Julian McClements p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p53 Extraction, Evolution, and Sensory Impact of Phenolic Compounds During Red Wine Maceration L. Federico Casassa and James F. Harbertson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p83 Gastric Digestion In Vivo and In Vitro: How the Structural Aspects of Food Influence the Digestion Process Gail M. Bornhorst and R. Paul Singh p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 111 New Developments on the Role of Intramuscular Connective Tissue in Meat Toughness Peter P. Purslow p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 133 Strategies to Mitigate Peanut Allergy: Production, Processing, Utilization, and Immunotherapy Considerations Brittany L. White, Xiaolei Shi, Caitlin M. Burk, Michael Kulis, A. Wesley Burks, Timothy H. Sanders, and Jack P. Davis p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 155 Designing Food Structures for Nutrition and Health Benefits Jennifer E. Norton, Gareth A. Wallis, Fotis Spyropoulos, Peter J. Lillford, and Ian T. Norton p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 177 Nanodelivery of Bioactive Components for Food Applications: Types of Delivery Systems, Properties, and Their Effect on ADME Profiles and Toxicity of Nanoparticles T. Borel and C.M. Sabliov p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 197 v

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Modern Supercritical Fluid Technology for Food Applications Jerry W. King p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 215 Impact of Diet on Human Intestinal Microbiota and Health Anne Salonen and Willem M. de Vos p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 239 Applications of Power Ultrasound in Food Processing Sandra Kentish and Hao Feng p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 263


Nondestructive Measurement of Fruit and Vegetable Quality Bart M. Nicola¨ı, Thijs Defraeye, Bart De Ketelaere, Els Herremans, Maarten L.A.T.M. Hertog, Wouter Saeys, Alessandro Torricelli, Thomas Vandendriessche, and Pieter Verboven p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 285 Production of Aroma Compounds in Lactic Fermentations E.J. Smid and M. Kleerebezem p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 313 Phage Therapy in the Food Industry Lorraine Endersen, Jim O’Mahony, Colin Hill, R. Paul Ross, Olivia McAuliffe, and Aidan Coffey p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 327 Public Health Impacts of Foodborne Mycotoxins Felicia Wu, John D. Groopman, and James J. Pestka p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 351 Soft Materials Deformation, Flow, and Lubrication Between Compliant Substrates: Impact on Flow Behavior, Mouthfeel, Stability, and Flavor Nichola Selway and Jason R. Stokes p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 373 Metabolic Stimulation of Plant Phenolics for Food Preservation and Health Dipayan Sarkar and Kalidas Shetty p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 395 Indexes Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 1–5 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 415 Cumulative Index of Article Titles, Volumes 1–5 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 418 Errata An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Food Science and Technology articles may be found at http://www.annualreviews.org/errata/food

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New From Annual Reviews:

Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application Volume 1 • Online January 2014 • http://statistics.annualreviews.org


Editor: Stephen E. Fienberg, Carnegie Mellon University

Associate Editors: Nancy Reid, University of Toronto Stephen M. Stigler, University of Chicago The Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application aims to inform statisticians and quantitative methodologists, as well as all scientists and users of statistics about major methodological advances and the computational tools that allow for their implementation. It will include developments in the field of statistics, including theoretical statistical underpinnings of new methodology, as well as developments in specific application domains such as biostatistics and bioinformatics, economics, machine learning, psychology, sociology, and aspects of the physical sciences.

Complimentary online access to the first volume will be available until January 2015. table of contents:

• What Is Statistics? Stephen E. Fienberg • A Systematic Statistical Approach to Evaluating Evidence from Observational Studies, David Madigan, Paul E. Stang, Jesse A. Berlin, Martijn Schuemie, J. Marc Overhage, Marc A. Suchard, Bill Dumouchel, Abraham G. Hartzema, Patrick B. Ryan

• High-Dimensional Statistics with a View Toward Applications in Biology, Peter Bühlmann, Markus Kalisch, Lukas Meier • Next-Generation Statistical Genetics: Modeling, Penalization, and Optimization in High-Dimensional Data, Kenneth Lange, Jeanette C. Papp, Janet S. Sinsheimer, Eric M. Sobel

• The Role of Statistics in the Discovery of a Higgs Boson, David A. van Dyk

• Breaking Bad: Two Decades of Life-Course Data Analysis in Criminology, Developmental Psychology, and Beyond, Elena A. Erosheva, Ross L. Matsueda, Donatello Telesca

• Brain Imaging Analysis, F. DuBois Bowman

• Event History Analysis, Niels Keiding

• Statistics and Climate, Peter Guttorp

• Statistical Evaluation of Forensic DNA Profile Evidence, Christopher D. Steele, David J. Balding

• Climate Simulators and Climate Projections, Jonathan Rougier, Michael Goldstein • Probabilistic Forecasting, Tilmann Gneiting, Matthias Katzfuss • Bayesian Computational Tools, Christian P. Robert • Bayesian Computation Via Markov Chain Monte Carlo, Radu V. Craiu, Jeffrey S. Rosenthal • Build, Compute, Critique, Repeat: Data Analysis with Latent Variable Models, David M. Blei • Structured Regularizers for High-Dimensional Problems: Statistical and Computational Issues, Martin J. Wainwright

• Using League Table Rankings in Public Policy Formation: Statistical Issues, Harvey Goldstein • Statistical Ecology, Ruth King • Estimating the Number of Species in Microbial Diversity Studies, John Bunge, Amy Willis, Fiona Walsh • Dynamic Treatment Regimes, Bibhas Chakraborty, Susan A. Murphy • Statistics and Related Topics in Single-Molecule Biophysics, Hong Qian, S.C. Kou • Statistics and Quantitative Risk Management for Banking and Insurance, Paul Embrechts, Marius Hofert

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