This article was downloaded by: [Massachusetts PRIM Board] On: 06 April 2015, At: 21:22 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of American College Health Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vach20
Parent Conflict as a Mediator Between Marianismo Beliefs and Depressive Symptoms for Mexican American College Women a
a
a
Brandy Piña-Watson MS , Linda G. Castillo PhD , Lizette Ojeda PhD & Kimberly M. Rodriguez MS
a
a
Department of Educational Psychology , Texas A&M University , College Station , Texas Accepted author version posted online: 05 Sep 2013.Published online: 23 Oct 2013.
To cite this article: Brandy Piña-Watson MS , Linda G. Castillo PhD , Lizette Ojeda PhD & Kimberly M. Rodriguez MS (2013) Parent Conflict as a Mediator Between Marianismo Beliefs and Depressive Symptoms for Mexican American College Women, Journal of American College Health, 61:8, 491-496, DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2013.838567 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2013.838567
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH, VOL. 61, NO. 8
Major Article
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Parent Conflict as a Mediator Between Marianismo Beliefs and Depressive Symptoms for Mexican American College Women Brandy Pi˜ na-Watson, MS; Linda G. Castillo, PhD; Lizette Ojeda, PhD; Kimberly M. Rodriguez, MS
Abstract. Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine how marianismo is related to the depressive symptoms of Mexican American women with family conflict as a mediator. Participants: During January of 2010, 170 Mexican American women college students in a southern, Hispanic-serving institution were sampled. Methods: A mediation analysis was conducted to determine if parent conflict mediates the relationship between marianismo values and depressive symptoms. Results: Results from Barron and Kenny’s1 mediation analysis method, in conjunction with a Sobel2 test indicated that parent conflict significantly mediated the relation between marianismo and depressive symptoms. Conclusion: Findings and implications of the mediation will be discussed for the mental health and treatment of Mexican American women college students.
number on college campuses,5 the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between marianismo (a cultural gender role value), parent conflict, and depressive symptoms. Conceptual Framework for the Current Study The conceptual framework used in this study is based on acculturative family distancing (AFD) theory.6 AFD theory purports that parent conflict within ethnic minority families occurs as a consequence in the differences in the acculturative processes and cultural changes. The theory suggests that during the acculturation process, cultural values (eg, marianismo beliefs) develop and change over time at different rates for parents and their children, thus leading to a formation of an acculturation gap.6,7 Greater acculturation gaps increase the risk of family conflict, which in turn can lead to decreased family cohesion as well as psychological dysfunction, including depressive symptomatology.7,8
Keywords: college student, depression, marianismo, mental health, Mexican American women, parent conflict
D
epression is a widespread mental health concern across college campuses. National college surveys suggest that 17.9% of college students have been diagnosed with depression, with more women (20%) reporting depression than men (14%).3 Among college students of Mexican heritage, national depression prevalence rates are not known. However, one study found that Latino college students reported a higher degree of depressive symptoms than Caucasian college students even after controlling for socioeconomic factors.4 Because little is known about the cultural mechanisms that are associated with depression for Mexican American college women and given their growing
Marianismo and Depression Within Mexican American culture, female gender role norms are captured in the notion of marianismo. Marianismo is a cultural value that denotes the gender role expectations of Latina women.9 For instance, a study of the marianismo construct showed that it encompasses expectations that a Latina is dedicated to one’s family, be subordinate to others, and self-silencing in order to maintain harmonious relationships.9 To date, no empirical studies have examined marianismo beliefs and its association with depression in Mexican American college students. However, studies on the relationship between traditional gender roles and depression suggest a positive correlational relationship. In a study of Mexican American women, Aranda et al10 found that participant
˜ Ms Pina-Watson, Dr Castillo, Dr Ojeda, and Ms Rodriguez are with the Department of Educational Psychology at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas. Copyright © 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 491
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adherence to traditional gender-role scripts was related to depressive symptoms. Another study on Latino high school students also found that traditional gender role beliefs was associated with higher levels of depression.11 Finally, qualitative evidence suggests that strict gender roles that delineate a set of behavioral expectations may be harmful to one’s mental health.12 That is, Mexican American women who attempt to taken on roles that conflict with traditional role expectations endorsed by their families (eg, attending college far from home) experience psychological maladjustment.13 Parent Conflict and Depression As noted in the AFD theory, acculturative family conflict is purported to be associated with psychological dysfunction. Rivera and colleagues14 examined the effects of family cultural conflict on depressive symptoms using a sample of 2,540 participants that were divided into different Latino subethnic groups, including Mexican American. Results showed that increased levels of family conflict were related to higher levels of depressive symptoms, particularly for Mexican American females. A specific study on intergenerational family conflict also found that for Latino college students, family conflict significantly and positively predicted distress. Taken together, this evidence supports the argument that increased levels of family conflict can result in negative psychological effects for Latina college students. Marianismo and Parent Conflict As previously noted, the AFD theory suggests that cultural values, such as marianismo beliefs, develop and change over time.6 Furthermore, children acculturate at a faster rate than parents, which in turn can lead to intergenerational family conflict.7 Thus, traditional Latino parents who are less acculturated may come into conflict with their child as she acculturates into the college environment and shifts toward more liberal gender role beliefs.15,16 Few studies have examined the relationship between marianismo and parent conflict. In a study of Latino gender role beliefs and family conflict, results showed that perceived gender role parent–child discrepancy was associated with family conflict for Mexican American female participants.11 We could find only one study that specifically examined the relationship between marianismo and family conflict with a Latina college student sample. Results of this study showed that marianismo beliefs were associated with family conflict.15 Purpose of Study and Hypotheses As previously noted, Mexican American college women’s expectations of traditional gender role beliefs, as characterized by marianismo, may be perceived positively by family members. Positive perceptions can lead to less parent conflict, which in turn can develop into depressive symptoms. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between marianismo beliefs on Mexican American college women’s depressive symptoms. We hypothesize that parent 492
conflict will mediate the relationship between marianismo and depressive symptoms for Mexican American college women. METHODS Participants Participants included 170 Mexican American college women attending a Hispanic-serving institution (HSI) in a midsized urban city in south Texas. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 30 years (M = 20.54, SD = 2.77). The sample varied in generation level: 22.4% were first-generation Mexican Americans, which refers to children that immigrated to the United States from Mexico; 35.8% were second generation, which refers to offspring of parents that immigrated to the United States from Mexico; 20.0% were third-generation Mexican Americans, or the children of parents native to the United States that have a Mexican ancestral background; 10.9% were fourth generation, which indicates that these individuals are of Mexican descent and have grandparents that were born in the United States; and 10.9% were fifth generation, which denotes that these students are of Mexican descent and have great-grandparents native to this country. Information on socioeconomic status (SES) was also gathered: 24.3% of the students identified themselves as working class, 55.0% middle class, 19.5% upper-middle class, and 1.2% upper class. Measures Demographics Questionnaire A questionnaire was used to gather demographic information about age, SES, generation level, and ethnic background. Students self-reported their age. Only participants who marked they were Mexican American, or some combination of Mexican American and another ethnicity, were included in the study. Depressive Symptoms The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale was used to analyze the psychological distress. This scale includes items characteristic of both anxiety and depression.17 For purposes of this study, the 6 items that measured depressive symptoms were pulled to create the depressive symptoms variable. These items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale. The participant was asked to choose the response that best represents the frequency in the last 4 weeks that they experienced the feelings described in the question. The responses range from none of the time (1) to all of the time (5). Some sample items include “About how often did you feel hopeless?” “About how often did you feel so sad, nothing could cheer you up?” and “About how often did you feel depressed?” To calculate the score for the depressive symptoms construct, a sum of the 6 items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher endorsement of depressive symptoms. In the present study, α = 81. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
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Parent Conflict, Marianismo Beliefs, and Depressive Symptoms
Marianismo The Marianismo Beliefs Scale (MBS) was used to measure enculturation of Latino gender role beliefs. The MBS assessed the degree to which a Latina believes she should incorporate and sustain the value systems learned from the Mexican gender role construct known as marianismo.9 This scale consists of 24-items that are measured using a 4-point Likert scale. The participant selects a response based on the extent to which they agree and disagree with each of the statements presented in the scale. The responses to each item range from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Sample items include “A Latina must be a source of strength for her family,” “is responsible for the spiritual growth of the family,” and “should feel guilty about telling people what she needs.” To calculate the score for the marianismo construct, a sum of the items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher levels of marianismo gender role values. The MBS has demonstrated acceptable reliability as well as convergent and discriminant validity in a previous study with college students.9 In the present study, α = 85. Parent Conflict The Family Conflict Scale was used to measure the amount of parent–child conflict that the individual perceives.18 This scale consists of 10-items that are measured using a 5-point Likert scale. The participant must consider how frequently these types of situations described in the scale occur in their family. The Family Conflict Scale contains responses ranging from almost never (1) to almost always (5). Sample items from this scale include “Your parents tell you what to do with your life, but you want to make your own decisions,” “Your parents always compare you to others, but you want them to accept you for being yourself,” and “You want to state your opinion, but your parents consider it to be disrespectful to talk back.” The total score is computed into a mean score for each individual. An individual demonstrates a higher probability of having experienced these types of conflicts with their family when they score higher on this scale. In addition, should the individual score significantly lower on the scale, the less likely they are to be enduring these types of issues with their parents. The scale has demonstrated both convergent and discriminant construct validity and internal consistency.18 In the present study, α = .90. Procedure This study received approval from the Institutional Review Boards of both the institution conducting the research and the institution in which investigators recruited the participants. Several professors at a south Texas HSI granted the researchers permission to students in their social sciences courses. All students in the introductory and upper level courses were given the option to participate, including individuals who did not identify as being Mexican American or female. Only data from participants who identified as being Mexican American and female were included in these analyses. Each potential participant was given to opportunity to VOL 61, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013
decline participation. Each participant was given an informed consent form, which explained the benefits and risks of participation in the research, purpose of the study, and contact information for the primary investigator as well as the Institutional Review Board from the researching university. All materials, including the questionnaire, were given using paper-and-pencil format and were in English. No assessment for English proficiency was used because each class surveyed was taught and assessed in the English language. The consent procedure and questionnaire administration took about 30 minutes to complete, and all forms were completed during their regular class time. Students were informed by both their instructor and the researcher assistants that their grades would not be affected based on their choice to participate. Participation was completely voluntary and anonymous. As an incentive, snacks were provided to those who chose to participate. RESULTS Data Analysis Plan The statistical analyses performed for this research study were completed using SPSS version 21 (SPSS, Chicago, Illinois). Descriptive statistics including frequencies, means, and standard deviations were conducted. In addition, based on recommendations on conducting a simple mediation analysis by Barron and Kenny,1 a series of regression analyses were conducted to test the relationship between marianismo, parent conflict, and depressive symptoms. A Sobel2 test was performed to test the presence of indirect effects between marianismo and depressive symptoms through parent conflict. Preliminary Analyses The data met statistical assumptions for multivariate normality, linearity, and multicollinearity. Using Mahalanobis distance score, 2 outliers were identified and deleted from the data set. Additionally, 5 participants were excluded due to being outliers in age (>2 SDs above the mean). Therefore, only 170 of the original 177 participants were included in further analyses. A preliminary investigation between marianismo, parent conflict, and depressive symptoms were conducted. Table 1 illustrates Pearson product moment correlations
TABLE 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Alpha Coefficients, and Pearson Product Moment Correlations Among Measured Variables Variable 1. Marianismo 2. Parent conflict 3. Depressive symptoms α M SD
1
2
3
— 0.19∗∗ 0.16∗ 0.85 2.25 0.34
— 0.34∗∗∗ 0.90 2.17 1.02
— 0.81 2.02 0.72
Note. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01; ∗∗∗ p < .001.
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between these 3 variables, as well as means, standard deviations, and alpha coefficients for each measure. The correlations revealed a significant positive relationship between all 3 variables, a quality that must exist before moving forward with the mediation analysis.1 Additionally, since there was such variation in generation status and SES demographics of the participants, analyses of variance were conducted to determine if mean differences were present on the measured variables. Results indicated that no statistically significant mean differences were present among the measured variables based on these demographic characteristics. Main Analyses For the present study, the level of parent conflict was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between Mexican American college women’s marianismo beliefs and depressive symptoms. Through the use of Baron and Kenny’s1 mediation analysis approach, a series of regressions were complete. The correlations in Table 1 confirm that the first 3 requirements of moving forward with the mediation analysis was met with significant correlations between marianismo (the independent variable) and parent conflict (r = .19, p = .01; the mediating variable), marianismo and depressive symptoms (r = .16, p = .04; the dependent variable), and parent conflict and depressive symptoms (r = .34, p = .00). Since the previous requirements were met, regression analyses, as displayed in Table 2, were then conducted. The fourth requirement was met in that the relationship between marianismo and distress was reduced to being nonsignificant in the third regression model when the mediator was entered into the regression equation (β = .20, p = .19). Next, in order to test the statistical significance of the medication effect, a Sobel2 test was conducted using an online simulation calculator.19 The unstandardized B weights and standard errors presented in Table 2 for analyses 1 and 2 were entered into the online equation tool and indicated that the mediating effect was statistically significant (z = 2.20, p = 03).20 This, combined with the relationship between mar-
TABLE 2. Multiple Regression Analyses for Parent Conflict as a Mediator to the Relationship Between Marianismo and Depressive Symptoms Predictor
B
SEB
β
R2
Analysis 1: Dependent variable: Parent conflict Marianismo .58∗∗ .23 .19∗∗ .04 Analysis 2: Dependent variable: Depressive symptoms .16 .16∗ .03 Marianismo .33∗ Analysis 3: Dependent variable: Depressive symptoms Parent conflict .20 .16 .10 .12 .05 .32∗∗∗ Marianismo .22∗∗∗ Note: Overall regression for analysis 3: F(2, 169) = 11.56, p < .001, R2 = .12. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01; ∗∗∗ p < .001.
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ianismo and depressive symptoms becoming nonsignificant when entering parent conflict into the regression equation, is indicative of a full mediation model. In other words, the positive predictive relationship between marianismo and depressive symptoms is explained indirectly through parent conflict. COMMENT Our study contributed to the Mexican American women college students’ mental health literature by examining the role of marianismo beliefs on Mexican American college women’s depressive symptoms. More specifically, we examined how experiencing parent conflict would play a role on the relation between marianismo beliefs and depressive symptoms for Mexican American women college students. We hypothesized marianismo beliefs would significantly and negatively predict parent conflict. Surprisingly, however, the relation was significantly positive. This suggests participants who reported holding traditional Latina gender role beliefs experienced conflict with their parents. Despite our finding’s contradiction to previous research, it is important to note that marianismo beliefs, not behaviors, were assessed. In this study, participants who held traditional Latina gender role beliefs could have behaviors that are in contradiction to their beliefs. As college students, these Mexican American women are exposed daily to individualistic perspectives by virtue of the US university culture being a Westernized institution that promotes independence and individualism. Thus, it is possible these Mexican American women display more behavioral acculturation yet may be more cognitively enculturated, which may lead to bicultural conflict and distress.21 Further, research demonstrates that discrepancies in acculturation between Latino adolescents and their parents can disrupt family cohesion and trigger distress for Latino youth.22 Thus, the conflict that these Mexican American women experienced with their parents may indicate cultural discrepancy11 between them and their parents if these women’s behaviors are discrepant from their marianismo beliefs. In future research, assessing the degree to which women adhere behaviorally to traditional Latina gender role behaviors, as well as the actual discrepancy between parent and child in gender role values, may help shed light on this notion. As hypothesized, parent conflict was significantly and positively related to Mexican American college women’s distress. In addition, a significant mediation effect was found that indicates marianismo beliefs increased participants’ depressive symptoms when parent conflict was taken into account. The results suggest that participants who held traditional Latina gender role beliefs were distressed because they experienced conflict with their parents. Given the importance of “familismo” among Latino culture and the notion of the “self-sacrificing Latina,” it makes sense that experiencing conflict with parents would negatively affect Mexican American women’s mental health. Research demonstrates that Latinas experience distress due to the tension of navigating between the gender roles of the mainstream and Latino cultures.16 As suggested by JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
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Garc´ıa,23 the university environment is a place where many second-generation Mexican American women can (re)invent themselves. However, the process is not without conflict. Implications Findings from this study can have many implications for the mental health field in regards to counseling. In order to work to promote well-being and educational attainment for these women, focusing on the role that acculturation can have on the parent–child relationship and distress is warranted. Findings of this study show that marianismo gender role values have an effect on Mexican American women’s distress, and treatment provided to this group of college women should be tailored to take into account the gender role values of themselves and that of their families. For example, counselors can assess the student’s gender role values and have a discussion about how their values are in line or in contradiction to their parents. Processing this discrepancy and the implications that it has on the parent–child relationship could help give practitioners a more keen insight into the cultural dynamics that are playing into Mexican American college women’s distress. Special focus on the ways in which the individual is navigating the discrepancy between their own values and that held by their family may be beneficial for therapeutic outcomes with this group. Working to help the client successfully navigate this discrepancy could have positive implications, decreasing their distress that could lead to improvements in well-being and educational attainment. Another consideration that may need to be addressed in the counseling encounter is parent–child interactions and conflicts. As shown in the findings of this study, parent–child conflict is predictive of distress in Mexican American college women. An example of how this can be used in therapy is to explore with the client the dynamics between the client and their parents. If the student is having conflict with their parents, working with the client to increase their ability to communicate and resolve conflict could have positive benefits to their overall functioning in college. By working with this client to decrease their distress levels through effective communication and problem solving, counselors will help free up energy to focus on educational endeavors in contrast to focusing on their familial conflicts. The goal is not to ignore the issues the student is having with their family, but help them work toward resolution of the conflict. Limitations The limitations of this study should be noted. First, the cultural context of where these women reside should be noted. The women were from a border town where the majority of the population is of Mexican descent. Thus, daily exposure to Mexican culture makes the generalizability of these results to other Mexican American women across the country (eg, Midwest) difficult. Therefore, future research should replicate this study in less Mexican-populated regions and universities to determine if these findings can be generalVOL 61, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013
ized to Mexican American women living in different cultural contexts. Additionally, information was not gathered on the living arrangements of these women. Perhaps living in the same home as parents could lead to increases in parent conflict due to close proximity, which in turn could lead to distress. Although it is not possible to test for these group differences in the present study, future research may benefit from examining the possible buffering effect that living outside of the parents’ home could have on the mental health of Mexican American college women. Caveats with the measures used should also be noted. The MBS only measures cognitions, not behaviors. It is possible that these Mexican American women’s beliefs differ from their actual behavior. Thus, future research should also assess behavioral components of marianismo. Finally, although unable to look at generational difference or SES in our model due to insufficient sample size in each group, future research should look at possible generational and/or socioeconomic differences in the model. Conclusion In conclusion, the results of this study indicated that, for Mexican American college women, marianismo beliefs are positively related to parent–child conflict, parent–child conflict is positively related to depressive symptoms, and parent–child conflict mediates the relationship between marianismo beliefs and depressive symptoms. Future research may examine the mechanisms through which the unexpected finding of marianismo positively relating to parent–child conflict. Perhaps assessing the congruency of behaviors with beliefs and/or the discrepancy between the woman’s gender role beliefs and her parents would help put these results in context. Mental health practitioners working with Mexican American women should be cognizant of the implications that the parent–child relationship can have on the distress of these women. In addition, when these women present for mental health services, assessing their gender role beliefs and the impact they may have on the parent–child relationship can help give the practitioner insight into the dynamics which are at play in leading to their distress. ROLE OF FUNDING SOURCES DISCLOSURE No funding was used to support this research and/or the preparation of the manuscript. CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURE The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United States and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Texas A&M University. NOTE For comments and further information, address correspondence to Brandy Pi˜na-Watson, Department of 495
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Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, MS 4225, College Station, TX 77843-4225, USA (e-mail: brandy [email protected]).
REFERENCES 1. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;51: 1173–1182. 2. Sobel ME. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In: Leinhardt S, ed. Sociological Methodology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association; 1982:290–312. 3. American College Health Association. American College Health Association–National College Health Assessment II: Reference Group Executive Summary Report Fall 2012. Hanover, MD: American College Health Association; 2013. 4. Gore S, Aseltine RH. Race and ethnic differences in depressed mood following the transition from high school. J Health Soc Behav. 2003;44:370–389. 5. Aud S, Fox M, Kewalramani A. Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups. US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office; 2010. NCES 2010-015. 6. Hwang W. Acculturative family distancing: theory, research, and clinical practice. Psychother Res Pract Train. 2006;43: 397–409. 7. Castillo LG, Cano MA, Chen SW, Blucker RT, Olds TS. Family conflict and intragroup marginalization as predictors of acculturative stress in Latino college students. Int J Stress Manage. 2008;15:43–52. 8. Lee RM, Liu HT. Coping with intergenerational family conflict: comparison of Asian American, Hispanic, and European American college students. J Couns Psychol. 2001;48:410–419. 9. Castillo LG, Perez FV, Castillo R, Ghosheh MR. Construction and initial validation of the Marianismo Beliefs Scale. Coun Psychol Q. 2010;23:163–175. 10. Aranda M, Castaneda I, Lee P, Sobel E. Stress, social support, and coping as predictors of depressive symptoms: gender differences among Mexican Americans. Soc Work Res. 2001;25: 37–48.
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11. C´espedes YM, Huey SJ. Depression in Latino adolescents: a cultural discrepancy perspective. Cult Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2008;14:168–172. 12. Fuligni AJ. The adjustment of children from immigrant families. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 1998;7:99–103. 13. Raffaelli M., Ontai LL. Gender socialization in Latino/a families: results from two retrospective studies. Sex Roles 2004;50:287–299. 14. Rivera FI, Guarnaccia PJ, Mulvaney-Day N, Lin JY, Torres M, Alegria M. Family cohesion and its relationship to psychological distress among Latino groups. Hisp J Behav Sci. 2008;30:357–378. 15. Niebes-Davis A. The role of family and academic support in the relationship between gender role beliefs and psychosocial distress among Latina college students [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University; 2012. 16. Zayas L, Kaplan C, Turner S, Romano K, Gonzalez-Ramos G. Understanding suicide attempts by adolescent Hispanic females. Soc Work. 2000;45:53–63. 17. Andrews G, Slade T. Interpreting scores on the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10). Aust N Z J Public Health. 2001;25:494–497. 18. Lee, RM, Choe J, Kim G, Ngo V. Construction of the Asian American Family Conflicts Scale. J Couns Psychol. 2000;47: 211–222. 19. Preacher KJ, Leonardelli, GJ. Calculation for the Sobel test: an interactive calculation tool for mediation tests [computer software]. Available at: http://www.unc.edu/ preacher/sobel/sobel.htm. Accessed April 25, 2013. 20. Frazier PA, Tix AP, Barron KE. Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. J Couns Psychol. 2004;51:115–134. 21. Benet-Martinez V, Haritatos J. Bicultural identity integration (BII): components and psychosocial antecedents. J Pers. 2005;73:1015–1049. 22. Gonzales NA, Deardorff J, Formoso D, Barr A, Barrera M. Family mediators of the relation between acculturation and adolescent mental health. Fam Relat. 2006;55:318–330. 23. Garc´ıa AM. The development of Chicana feminist discourse, 1979–1980. Gend Soc. 1989;3:217–238. Received: 26 March 2013 Revised: 17 July 2013 Accepted: 23 August 2013
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
Journal of American College Health Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vach20
Parent Conflict as a Mediator Between Marianismo Beliefs and Depressive Symptoms for Mexican American College Women a
a
a
Brandy Piña-Watson MS , Linda G. Castillo PhD , Lizette Ojeda PhD & Kimberly M. Rodriguez MS
a
a
Department of Educational Psychology , Texas A&M University , College Station , Texas Accepted author version posted online: 05 Sep 2013.Published online: 23 Oct 2013.
To cite this article: Brandy Piña-Watson MS , Linda G. Castillo PhD , Lizette Ojeda PhD & Kimberly M. Rodriguez MS (2013) Parent Conflict as a Mediator Between Marianismo Beliefs and Depressive Symptoms for Mexican American College Women, Journal of American College Health, 61:8, 491-496, DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2013.838567 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2013.838567
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH, VOL. 61, NO. 8
Major Article
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Parent Conflict as a Mediator Between Marianismo Beliefs and Depressive Symptoms for Mexican American College Women Brandy Pi˜ na-Watson, MS; Linda G. Castillo, PhD; Lizette Ojeda, PhD; Kimberly M. Rodriguez, MS
Abstract. Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine how marianismo is related to the depressive symptoms of Mexican American women with family conflict as a mediator. Participants: During January of 2010, 170 Mexican American women college students in a southern, Hispanic-serving institution were sampled. Methods: A mediation analysis was conducted to determine if parent conflict mediates the relationship between marianismo values and depressive symptoms. Results: Results from Barron and Kenny’s1 mediation analysis method, in conjunction with a Sobel2 test indicated that parent conflict significantly mediated the relation between marianismo and depressive symptoms. Conclusion: Findings and implications of the mediation will be discussed for the mental health and treatment of Mexican American women college students.
number on college campuses,5 the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between marianismo (a cultural gender role value), parent conflict, and depressive symptoms. Conceptual Framework for the Current Study The conceptual framework used in this study is based on acculturative family distancing (AFD) theory.6 AFD theory purports that parent conflict within ethnic minority families occurs as a consequence in the differences in the acculturative processes and cultural changes. The theory suggests that during the acculturation process, cultural values (eg, marianismo beliefs) develop and change over time at different rates for parents and their children, thus leading to a formation of an acculturation gap.6,7 Greater acculturation gaps increase the risk of family conflict, which in turn can lead to decreased family cohesion as well as psychological dysfunction, including depressive symptomatology.7,8
Keywords: college student, depression, marianismo, mental health, Mexican American women, parent conflict
D
epression is a widespread mental health concern across college campuses. National college surveys suggest that 17.9% of college students have been diagnosed with depression, with more women (20%) reporting depression than men (14%).3 Among college students of Mexican heritage, national depression prevalence rates are not known. However, one study found that Latino college students reported a higher degree of depressive symptoms than Caucasian college students even after controlling for socioeconomic factors.4 Because little is known about the cultural mechanisms that are associated with depression for Mexican American college women and given their growing
Marianismo and Depression Within Mexican American culture, female gender role norms are captured in the notion of marianismo. Marianismo is a cultural value that denotes the gender role expectations of Latina women.9 For instance, a study of the marianismo construct showed that it encompasses expectations that a Latina is dedicated to one’s family, be subordinate to others, and self-silencing in order to maintain harmonious relationships.9 To date, no empirical studies have examined marianismo beliefs and its association with depression in Mexican American college students. However, studies on the relationship between traditional gender roles and depression suggest a positive correlational relationship. In a study of Mexican American women, Aranda et al10 found that participant
˜ Ms Pina-Watson, Dr Castillo, Dr Ojeda, and Ms Rodriguez are with the Department of Educational Psychology at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas. Copyright © 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 491
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adherence to traditional gender-role scripts was related to depressive symptoms. Another study on Latino high school students also found that traditional gender role beliefs was associated with higher levels of depression.11 Finally, qualitative evidence suggests that strict gender roles that delineate a set of behavioral expectations may be harmful to one’s mental health.12 That is, Mexican American women who attempt to taken on roles that conflict with traditional role expectations endorsed by their families (eg, attending college far from home) experience psychological maladjustment.13 Parent Conflict and Depression As noted in the AFD theory, acculturative family conflict is purported to be associated with psychological dysfunction. Rivera and colleagues14 examined the effects of family cultural conflict on depressive symptoms using a sample of 2,540 participants that were divided into different Latino subethnic groups, including Mexican American. Results showed that increased levels of family conflict were related to higher levels of depressive symptoms, particularly for Mexican American females. A specific study on intergenerational family conflict also found that for Latino college students, family conflict significantly and positively predicted distress. Taken together, this evidence supports the argument that increased levels of family conflict can result in negative psychological effects for Latina college students. Marianismo and Parent Conflict As previously noted, the AFD theory suggests that cultural values, such as marianismo beliefs, develop and change over time.6 Furthermore, children acculturate at a faster rate than parents, which in turn can lead to intergenerational family conflict.7 Thus, traditional Latino parents who are less acculturated may come into conflict with their child as she acculturates into the college environment and shifts toward more liberal gender role beliefs.15,16 Few studies have examined the relationship between marianismo and parent conflict. In a study of Latino gender role beliefs and family conflict, results showed that perceived gender role parent–child discrepancy was associated with family conflict for Mexican American female participants.11 We could find only one study that specifically examined the relationship between marianismo and family conflict with a Latina college student sample. Results of this study showed that marianismo beliefs were associated with family conflict.15 Purpose of Study and Hypotheses As previously noted, Mexican American college women’s expectations of traditional gender role beliefs, as characterized by marianismo, may be perceived positively by family members. Positive perceptions can lead to less parent conflict, which in turn can develop into depressive symptoms. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between marianismo beliefs on Mexican American college women’s depressive symptoms. We hypothesize that parent 492
conflict will mediate the relationship between marianismo and depressive symptoms for Mexican American college women. METHODS Participants Participants included 170 Mexican American college women attending a Hispanic-serving institution (HSI) in a midsized urban city in south Texas. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 30 years (M = 20.54, SD = 2.77). The sample varied in generation level: 22.4% were first-generation Mexican Americans, which refers to children that immigrated to the United States from Mexico; 35.8% were second generation, which refers to offspring of parents that immigrated to the United States from Mexico; 20.0% were third-generation Mexican Americans, or the children of parents native to the United States that have a Mexican ancestral background; 10.9% were fourth generation, which indicates that these individuals are of Mexican descent and have grandparents that were born in the United States; and 10.9% were fifth generation, which denotes that these students are of Mexican descent and have great-grandparents native to this country. Information on socioeconomic status (SES) was also gathered: 24.3% of the students identified themselves as working class, 55.0% middle class, 19.5% upper-middle class, and 1.2% upper class. Measures Demographics Questionnaire A questionnaire was used to gather demographic information about age, SES, generation level, and ethnic background. Students self-reported their age. Only participants who marked they were Mexican American, or some combination of Mexican American and another ethnicity, were included in the study. Depressive Symptoms The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale was used to analyze the psychological distress. This scale includes items characteristic of both anxiety and depression.17 For purposes of this study, the 6 items that measured depressive symptoms were pulled to create the depressive symptoms variable. These items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale. The participant was asked to choose the response that best represents the frequency in the last 4 weeks that they experienced the feelings described in the question. The responses range from none of the time (1) to all of the time (5). Some sample items include “About how often did you feel hopeless?” “About how often did you feel so sad, nothing could cheer you up?” and “About how often did you feel depressed?” To calculate the score for the depressive symptoms construct, a sum of the 6 items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher endorsement of depressive symptoms. In the present study, α = 81. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
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Parent Conflict, Marianismo Beliefs, and Depressive Symptoms
Marianismo The Marianismo Beliefs Scale (MBS) was used to measure enculturation of Latino gender role beliefs. The MBS assessed the degree to which a Latina believes she should incorporate and sustain the value systems learned from the Mexican gender role construct known as marianismo.9 This scale consists of 24-items that are measured using a 4-point Likert scale. The participant selects a response based on the extent to which they agree and disagree with each of the statements presented in the scale. The responses to each item range from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Sample items include “A Latina must be a source of strength for her family,” “is responsible for the spiritual growth of the family,” and “should feel guilty about telling people what she needs.” To calculate the score for the marianismo construct, a sum of the items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher levels of marianismo gender role values. The MBS has demonstrated acceptable reliability as well as convergent and discriminant validity in a previous study with college students.9 In the present study, α = 85. Parent Conflict The Family Conflict Scale was used to measure the amount of parent–child conflict that the individual perceives.18 This scale consists of 10-items that are measured using a 5-point Likert scale. The participant must consider how frequently these types of situations described in the scale occur in their family. The Family Conflict Scale contains responses ranging from almost never (1) to almost always (5). Sample items from this scale include “Your parents tell you what to do with your life, but you want to make your own decisions,” “Your parents always compare you to others, but you want them to accept you for being yourself,” and “You want to state your opinion, but your parents consider it to be disrespectful to talk back.” The total score is computed into a mean score for each individual. An individual demonstrates a higher probability of having experienced these types of conflicts with their family when they score higher on this scale. In addition, should the individual score significantly lower on the scale, the less likely they are to be enduring these types of issues with their parents. The scale has demonstrated both convergent and discriminant construct validity and internal consistency.18 In the present study, α = .90. Procedure This study received approval from the Institutional Review Boards of both the institution conducting the research and the institution in which investigators recruited the participants. Several professors at a south Texas HSI granted the researchers permission to students in their social sciences courses. All students in the introductory and upper level courses were given the option to participate, including individuals who did not identify as being Mexican American or female. Only data from participants who identified as being Mexican American and female were included in these analyses. Each potential participant was given to opportunity to VOL 61, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013
decline participation. Each participant was given an informed consent form, which explained the benefits and risks of participation in the research, purpose of the study, and contact information for the primary investigator as well as the Institutional Review Board from the researching university. All materials, including the questionnaire, were given using paper-and-pencil format and were in English. No assessment for English proficiency was used because each class surveyed was taught and assessed in the English language. The consent procedure and questionnaire administration took about 30 minutes to complete, and all forms were completed during their regular class time. Students were informed by both their instructor and the researcher assistants that their grades would not be affected based on their choice to participate. Participation was completely voluntary and anonymous. As an incentive, snacks were provided to those who chose to participate. RESULTS Data Analysis Plan The statistical analyses performed for this research study were completed using SPSS version 21 (SPSS, Chicago, Illinois). Descriptive statistics including frequencies, means, and standard deviations were conducted. In addition, based on recommendations on conducting a simple mediation analysis by Barron and Kenny,1 a series of regression analyses were conducted to test the relationship between marianismo, parent conflict, and depressive symptoms. A Sobel2 test was performed to test the presence of indirect effects between marianismo and depressive symptoms through parent conflict. Preliminary Analyses The data met statistical assumptions for multivariate normality, linearity, and multicollinearity. Using Mahalanobis distance score, 2 outliers were identified and deleted from the data set. Additionally, 5 participants were excluded due to being outliers in age (>2 SDs above the mean). Therefore, only 170 of the original 177 participants were included in further analyses. A preliminary investigation between marianismo, parent conflict, and depressive symptoms were conducted. Table 1 illustrates Pearson product moment correlations
TABLE 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Alpha Coefficients, and Pearson Product Moment Correlations Among Measured Variables Variable 1. Marianismo 2. Parent conflict 3. Depressive symptoms α M SD
1
2
3
— 0.19∗∗ 0.16∗ 0.85 2.25 0.34
— 0.34∗∗∗ 0.90 2.17 1.02
— 0.81 2.02 0.72
Note. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01; ∗∗∗ p < .001.
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between these 3 variables, as well as means, standard deviations, and alpha coefficients for each measure. The correlations revealed a significant positive relationship between all 3 variables, a quality that must exist before moving forward with the mediation analysis.1 Additionally, since there was such variation in generation status and SES demographics of the participants, analyses of variance were conducted to determine if mean differences were present on the measured variables. Results indicated that no statistically significant mean differences were present among the measured variables based on these demographic characteristics. Main Analyses For the present study, the level of parent conflict was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between Mexican American college women’s marianismo beliefs and depressive symptoms. Through the use of Baron and Kenny’s1 mediation analysis approach, a series of regressions were complete. The correlations in Table 1 confirm that the first 3 requirements of moving forward with the mediation analysis was met with significant correlations between marianismo (the independent variable) and parent conflict (r = .19, p = .01; the mediating variable), marianismo and depressive symptoms (r = .16, p = .04; the dependent variable), and parent conflict and depressive symptoms (r = .34, p = .00). Since the previous requirements were met, regression analyses, as displayed in Table 2, were then conducted. The fourth requirement was met in that the relationship between marianismo and distress was reduced to being nonsignificant in the third regression model when the mediator was entered into the regression equation (β = .20, p = .19). Next, in order to test the statistical significance of the medication effect, a Sobel2 test was conducted using an online simulation calculator.19 The unstandardized B weights and standard errors presented in Table 2 for analyses 1 and 2 were entered into the online equation tool and indicated that the mediating effect was statistically significant (z = 2.20, p = 03).20 This, combined with the relationship between mar-
TABLE 2. Multiple Regression Analyses for Parent Conflict as a Mediator to the Relationship Between Marianismo and Depressive Symptoms Predictor
B
SEB
β
R2
Analysis 1: Dependent variable: Parent conflict Marianismo .58∗∗ .23 .19∗∗ .04 Analysis 2: Dependent variable: Depressive symptoms .16 .16∗ .03 Marianismo .33∗ Analysis 3: Dependent variable: Depressive symptoms Parent conflict .20 .16 .10 .12 .05 .32∗∗∗ Marianismo .22∗∗∗ Note: Overall regression for analysis 3: F(2, 169) = 11.56, p < .001, R2 = .12. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01; ∗∗∗ p < .001.
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ianismo and depressive symptoms becoming nonsignificant when entering parent conflict into the regression equation, is indicative of a full mediation model. In other words, the positive predictive relationship between marianismo and depressive symptoms is explained indirectly through parent conflict. COMMENT Our study contributed to the Mexican American women college students’ mental health literature by examining the role of marianismo beliefs on Mexican American college women’s depressive symptoms. More specifically, we examined how experiencing parent conflict would play a role on the relation between marianismo beliefs and depressive symptoms for Mexican American women college students. We hypothesized marianismo beliefs would significantly and negatively predict parent conflict. Surprisingly, however, the relation was significantly positive. This suggests participants who reported holding traditional Latina gender role beliefs experienced conflict with their parents. Despite our finding’s contradiction to previous research, it is important to note that marianismo beliefs, not behaviors, were assessed. In this study, participants who held traditional Latina gender role beliefs could have behaviors that are in contradiction to their beliefs. As college students, these Mexican American women are exposed daily to individualistic perspectives by virtue of the US university culture being a Westernized institution that promotes independence and individualism. Thus, it is possible these Mexican American women display more behavioral acculturation yet may be more cognitively enculturated, which may lead to bicultural conflict and distress.21 Further, research demonstrates that discrepancies in acculturation between Latino adolescents and their parents can disrupt family cohesion and trigger distress for Latino youth.22 Thus, the conflict that these Mexican American women experienced with their parents may indicate cultural discrepancy11 between them and their parents if these women’s behaviors are discrepant from their marianismo beliefs. In future research, assessing the degree to which women adhere behaviorally to traditional Latina gender role behaviors, as well as the actual discrepancy between parent and child in gender role values, may help shed light on this notion. As hypothesized, parent conflict was significantly and positively related to Mexican American college women’s distress. In addition, a significant mediation effect was found that indicates marianismo beliefs increased participants’ depressive symptoms when parent conflict was taken into account. The results suggest that participants who held traditional Latina gender role beliefs were distressed because they experienced conflict with their parents. Given the importance of “familismo” among Latino culture and the notion of the “self-sacrificing Latina,” it makes sense that experiencing conflict with parents would negatively affect Mexican American women’s mental health. Research demonstrates that Latinas experience distress due to the tension of navigating between the gender roles of the mainstream and Latino cultures.16 As suggested by JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
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Garc´ıa,23 the university environment is a place where many second-generation Mexican American women can (re)invent themselves. However, the process is not without conflict. Implications Findings from this study can have many implications for the mental health field in regards to counseling. In order to work to promote well-being and educational attainment for these women, focusing on the role that acculturation can have on the parent–child relationship and distress is warranted. Findings of this study show that marianismo gender role values have an effect on Mexican American women’s distress, and treatment provided to this group of college women should be tailored to take into account the gender role values of themselves and that of their families. For example, counselors can assess the student’s gender role values and have a discussion about how their values are in line or in contradiction to their parents. Processing this discrepancy and the implications that it has on the parent–child relationship could help give practitioners a more keen insight into the cultural dynamics that are playing into Mexican American college women’s distress. Special focus on the ways in which the individual is navigating the discrepancy between their own values and that held by their family may be beneficial for therapeutic outcomes with this group. Working to help the client successfully navigate this discrepancy could have positive implications, decreasing their distress that could lead to improvements in well-being and educational attainment. Another consideration that may need to be addressed in the counseling encounter is parent–child interactions and conflicts. As shown in the findings of this study, parent–child conflict is predictive of distress in Mexican American college women. An example of how this can be used in therapy is to explore with the client the dynamics between the client and their parents. If the student is having conflict with their parents, working with the client to increase their ability to communicate and resolve conflict could have positive benefits to their overall functioning in college. By working with this client to decrease their distress levels through effective communication and problem solving, counselors will help free up energy to focus on educational endeavors in contrast to focusing on their familial conflicts. The goal is not to ignore the issues the student is having with their family, but help them work toward resolution of the conflict. Limitations The limitations of this study should be noted. First, the cultural context of where these women reside should be noted. The women were from a border town where the majority of the population is of Mexican descent. Thus, daily exposure to Mexican culture makes the generalizability of these results to other Mexican American women across the country (eg, Midwest) difficult. Therefore, future research should replicate this study in less Mexican-populated regions and universities to determine if these findings can be generalVOL 61, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013
ized to Mexican American women living in different cultural contexts. Additionally, information was not gathered on the living arrangements of these women. Perhaps living in the same home as parents could lead to increases in parent conflict due to close proximity, which in turn could lead to distress. Although it is not possible to test for these group differences in the present study, future research may benefit from examining the possible buffering effect that living outside of the parents’ home could have on the mental health of Mexican American college women. Caveats with the measures used should also be noted. The MBS only measures cognitions, not behaviors. It is possible that these Mexican American women’s beliefs differ from their actual behavior. Thus, future research should also assess behavioral components of marianismo. Finally, although unable to look at generational difference or SES in our model due to insufficient sample size in each group, future research should look at possible generational and/or socioeconomic differences in the model. Conclusion In conclusion, the results of this study indicated that, for Mexican American college women, marianismo beliefs are positively related to parent–child conflict, parent–child conflict is positively related to depressive symptoms, and parent–child conflict mediates the relationship between marianismo beliefs and depressive symptoms. Future research may examine the mechanisms through which the unexpected finding of marianismo positively relating to parent–child conflict. Perhaps assessing the congruency of behaviors with beliefs and/or the discrepancy between the woman’s gender role beliefs and her parents would help put these results in context. Mental health practitioners working with Mexican American women should be cognizant of the implications that the parent–child relationship can have on the distress of these women. In addition, when these women present for mental health services, assessing their gender role beliefs and the impact they may have on the parent–child relationship can help give the practitioner insight into the dynamics which are at play in leading to their distress. ROLE OF FUNDING SOURCES DISCLOSURE No funding was used to support this research and/or the preparation of the manuscript. CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURE The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United States and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Texas A&M University. NOTE For comments and further information, address correspondence to Brandy Pi˜na-Watson, Department of 495
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Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, MS 4225, College Station, TX 77843-4225, USA (e-mail: brandy [email protected]).
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