Infant Behavior & Development 37 (2014) 105–110
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Infant Behavior and Development
Brief Report
Paternal influences on infant temperament: Effects of father internalizing problems, parenting-related stress, and temperament Natalia V. Potapova a,∗ , Maria A. Gartstein a , David J. Bridgett b a b
Washington State University, United States Northern Illinois University, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 9 September 2013 Received in revised form 16 November 2013 Accepted 29 December 2013
a b s t r a c t Temperament ratings were obtained from 98 fathers when their infants were 4 and 6 months of age to examine effects of paternal characteristics on infant temperament. Parental stress, internalizing symptoms, and father’s temperament were considered as factors possibly contributing to differences in their child’s temperament. © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fathers Paternal Infant temperament Parental stress Gender interactions
Assessment of temperament for research and clinical purposes often relies on parent-report largely because a number of reliable/valid tools are widely available at a low cost and can be easily administered (Gartstein, Bridgett, & Low, 2012). Mothers have generally been involved as informants, especially in infancy, because they typically play the role of primary caregivers, in single parent and traditional families. Few studies have obtained father reports of their children’s temperament, especially in infancy. Notable exceptions suggest that paternal depressive symptoms may predict infant fussiness and overall more difficult infant temperament, especially in boys (Dave, Nazareth, Sherr, & Senior, 2005; Diener, Heim, & Mangelsdorf, 1995; Hanington, Ramchandani, & Stein, 2010; Schoppe-Sullivan & Mangelsdorf, 2013). Studies conducted with mothers indicate that internalizing symptoms, parenting stress, along with personality factors make important contributions to infant temperament. For example, mother’s symptoms of depression have been linked with infant fearfulness and negative affectivity (Bridgett et al., 2009; Gartstein et al., 2010; Gartstein & Bateman, 2008). Parenting stress has been associated with overall increased infant crying (Beebe, Casey, & Pinto-Martin, 1993), fussiness, and activity levels (Atella, DiPietro, Smith, & St James-Roberts, 2003) as reported by both mothers and fathers, and, based on maternal report, slower growth/development in infant expressions of positive affectivity (Bridgett, Laake, Gartstein, & Dorn, 2013). With respect to parental personality, mother’s effortful control has been linked with infant orienting/regulation and, separately, toddler effortful control (Bridgett et al., 2011). Associations between mother’s higher positive affectivity (specifically social closeness) and infant’s lower levels of distress have also been reported, along with the links between mother’s negative affectivity and infant’s proneness to distress (Mangelsdorf, Gunnar, Kestenbaum, Lang, & Andreas, 1990).
∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, Washington State University, PO Box 644820, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, United States. Tel.: +1 509 335 4651. E-mail address: [email protected] (N.V. Potapova). 0163-6383/$ – see front matter © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.12.014
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N.V. Potapova et al. / Infant Behavior & Development 37 (2014) 105–110
The primary goal of this study was to evaluate how paternal temperament, internalizing symptomatology, and parenting stress contribute to infant temperament ratings provided at 4 and 6 months of age. We expected that fathers’ temperament characteristics would predict infant temperament at 4 and 6 months, specifically, that father higher Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control would predict infant higher Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Regulation/Orienting, respectively. We also anticipated that higher levels of father’s internalizing symptomatology would predict higher Negative Affectivity, lower levels of Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting in infants. Similarly, we expected father’s parenting stress to affect infant temperament characteristics in the same direction. Specifically, higher parental stress (i.e., lower competence, attachment to child, and social relation, and higher role restriction) would be related to infant lower Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting, as well as higher Negative Affectivity. It has been suggested that gender effects may be best conceptualized as moderation of associations among other variables (Crick & Zahn-Waxler, 2003), and we explored this possibility. That is, we expected the examined predictors would make a differential contribution to infant temperament for boys and girls. Two samples of fathers, combined for the purposes of this study, were recruited on the basis of birth announcements between 2004 and 2007 and provided ratings of infant temperament (N = 98; 52.7% male infants). Fathers from Eastern Washington and Northwestern Idaho provided temperament ratings for 75 infants (53.4% male) at 4 and 6 months of age, respectively. A second sample of fathers recruited from Washington, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Nevada rated their infants (n = 23, 44.0% male) on the same occasions. The majority of fathers in the combined sample were Caucasian (71.7%) and their family Revised Duncan Sociometric Index (TSEI2; Stevens & Featherman, 1981), an indicator of occupational prestige fell within 15 and 90 (M = 35.35, SD = 25.74). Comparison analyses revealed no significant differences between the two samples’ demographic variables, including race and occupational prestige. The Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R; Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003), which has demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003; Parade & Leerkes, 2008), was utilized to measure temperament at 4 and 6 months via fathers’ report, providing three overarching temperament factors: Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Regulation/Orienting. Fathers provided information concerning their own temperament by completing the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000) and information regarding their parenting stress using the Parent Stress Inventory (PSI; Abidin, 1995), when their infants were 4 months of age. The ATQ consists of four temperament factors: Positive Affectivity/Extraversion, Neuroticism, Effortful Control, and Orienting Sensitivity, and four PSI scales, specifically Competence, Role Restriction, Attachment to Child, and Social Relationship, were also considered. Both of these instruments have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties at broad construct and factorial/scale levels (Bigras, LaFreniere, & Dumas, 1996; Evans & Rothbart, 2007). Fathers also rated their depressive and anxiety symptoms via Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, Ball, & Ranieri, 1996; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI; Beck & Steer, 1993), demonstrated as reliable and valid (Creamer, Foran, & Bell, 1995; Steer, Ball, Ranieri, & Beck, 1999). Because of the significant association (r = .50 p < .001) between fathers’ BAI and BDI-II ratings, these were combined to form an Internalizing problems composite. Comparison analyses were conducted to determine possible gender differences in fathers’ report of infant temperament and they revealed no significant differences. Next, simple correlations were performed among the variables in this study, producing a number of significant associations (Table 1). Regression equations were examined next, wherein ATQ and PSI indicators, and the Internalizing Composite scores served as independent variables, associated with fathers’ temperament ratings for their infants, revealing multiple significant effects (Table 2). Specifically, fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency and Orienting Sensitivity were linked with infants’ 4-month Extraversion/Surgency, whereas greater paternal bonding/attachment difficulties were predictive of lower infant Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting at 6 months of age. Additionally, fathers’ difficulties with parenting competence were linked to higher infant Negative Affectivity at 4 months, and Regulation/Orienting at 6 months of age, whereas fathers’ internalizing score predicted higher infant Negative Affectivity at 6 months of age. Finally, two of the interaction terms reflecting potential gender moderation effects reached statistical significance: infant sex by fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency and infant sex by fathers’ parenting competence. Follow-up regressions conducted separately for boys and girls indicated a significant contribution of fathers’ Extraversion for female infants only, and of paternal parenting competence related stress to Regulation/Orienting only for male infants. The aim of this study was to evaluate how paternal temperament, internalizing symptoms, and parenting stress contribute to the development of infant temperament at 4 and 6 months. Overall, fathers’ attributes appear to play a role in explaining early infant temperament development. Specifically, fathers’ temperament, internalizing symptoms, and parenting stress predicted infant Extraversion/Surgency and Negative Affectivity at 4 and 6 months and Regulation/Orienting only at 6 months. Fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency and Orienting Sensitivity positively predicted infant Extraversion/Surgency at 4 months of age. It is not surprising that fathers’ and infants’ extraversion-related indicators were associated as this link may be in part genetic in nature, as heritability has been demonstrated for this trait (Deater-Deckard & O’Connor, 2000). It is also possible that early modeling and responsive parenting could have contributed to this association, as infants with more positive affectivity are more likely to elicit positive parenting responses (Kyrios & Prior, 1990). Greater paternal attachment difficulties predicted lower Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting in 6-monthold infants, whereas higher difficulties with parenting competence was associated with higher Negative Affectivity at 4 months and higher Regulation/Orienting at 6 months. Infants, whose fathers reported attachment problems, may display less positive affect (i.e., pleasure and joy) when interacting with their fathers, leading these caregivers to provide lower ratings for Extraversion/Surgency items. It may be that fathers who feel that their emotional bond with the infant is a source
Table 1 Simple correlations: demographics, infant and fathers’ temperament, internalizing symptoms, and parenting stress scores (N = 94).a 6 Months
Father’s Intern. Score
Father’s NA
Father’s EC
4 Months Father’s Intern. Score Father’s NA Father’s EC Father’s E/S Father’s OS Father’s PSI Comp. Father’s PSI Attach. Father’s PSI Restrict. Father’s PSI Soc. Relations Infant E/S Infant NA Infant R/O
– .610** −.462** −.029 .339** .424** .123 .421** .521** .036 .177 −.132
.610** – −.565** −.160 .208* .365** .072 .211* .344** −.048 .238* −.203
6 Months Infant E/S Infant NA Infant R/O
.017 .252* −.002
−.076 .195 .053
a * **
Father’s E/S
Father’s OS
Father’s PSI Comp.
−.462** −.565** – .070 −.094 −.270** −.065 −.252* −.337** .106 −.146 .214*
−.029 −.160 .070 – .234* −.172 −.083 −.132 −.072 .310** −.135 .214*
.339** .208* −.094 .234* – .020 −.247* .201* .132 .294** .136 .069
.424** .365** −.270** −.172 .020 – .407** .435** .423** −.065 .344** −.132
.170 −.191 .199
.239* −.017 .151
.163 .107 .093
−.048 .083 .127
Father’s PSI Attach.
Father’s PSI Restrict
Father’s PSI Soc. Rel.
.123 .072 −.065 −.083 −.247* .407** – .260** .296** −.006 .120 .061
.421** .211* −.252* −.132 .201* .435** .260** – .451** .067 .170 −.069
.521** .344** −.337** −.072 .132 .423** .296** .451** – .131 .174 .026
−.254* .209 −.266*
.040 .048 −.062
.077 .077 −.039
Note. Maximum number of participants. N varied from 89 to 98 participants over assessments/instruments due to missing data. p < .05. p < .01.
Infant E/S
Infant NA
Infant R/O
Infant E/S
Infant NA
Infant R/O
.036 −.048 .106 .310** .294** −.065 −.006 .067 .131 – −.032 .585**
.177 .238* −.146 −.135 .136 .344** .120 .170 .174 −.032 – −.314**
−.132 −.203 .214* .214* .069 −.132 .061 −.069 .026 .585** −.314** –
.017 −.076 .170 .239* .163 −.048 −.254* .040 .077 .546** −.229 .464**
.252* .195 −.191 −.017 .107 .083 .209 .048 .077 −.117 .509** −.243*
−.002 .053 .199 .151 .093 .127 −.266* −.062 −.039 .417** −.023 .494**
.546** −.117 .417**
−.229 .509** −.023
.464** −.243* .494**
– −.274* .709**
−.274* – −.295**
.709** −.295** –
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4 Months
107
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N.V. Potapova et al. / Infant Behavior & Development 37 (2014) 105–110
Table 2 Hierarchical Multiple Regression: Fathers’ Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ), Composite Internalizing Score, and Parenting Stress Index (PSI) scores predicting IBQ-R factors at 4 and 6 months. Variable 4 Month-IBQ-R Extraversion/Surgency Factor Model 2 ATQ Negative Affect ATQ Effortful Control ATQ Extraversion/Surgency ATQ Orienting Sensitivity Infant Sex 4 Month-IBQ-R Negative Affectivity Factor Model 1 Composite Internalizing Score Infant Sex 4 Month-IBQ-R Negative Affectivity Factor Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex 6 Month-IBQ-R Extraversion/Surgency Factor Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex 6 Month-IBQ-R Negative Affectivity Factor Model 1 Composite Internalizing Score Infant Sex 6 Month-IBQ-R Regulation/Orienting Factor Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex Interaction Equations 4 Month-IBQ-R Extraversion/Surgency Factor Model 1 ATQ Negative Affect ATQ Effortful Control ATQ Extraversion/Surgency ATQ Orienting Sensitivity Infant Sex Infant Sex × ATQ Extraversion/Surgency Factor Interaction Follow-Up – Female Only Model 2 ATQ Negative Affect ATQ Effortful Control ATQ Extraversion/Surgency Factor ATQ Orienting Sensitivity 6 Month-IBQ-R Regulation/Orienting Factor Model 1 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex Infant Sex × PSI Competence Interaction Follow-Up – Male Only Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation * **
p < .05. p < .01.
R
R2
Std. error
F
.395
.156
4.510
3.147*
Beta
.043 .149 .246* .231* .020 2.319
3.808*
.279 .185
.191
2.218
4.062**
.437 .362** −.023 −.041 .101 .265**
.166
3.473
2.628*
.407 −.006 −.321* .042 .133 −.281*
.102
1.875
3.993*
.320 .252* .202
.178
1.882
2.897*
.422 .321* −.384** −.080 −.057 −.167
.219
4.365
3.926**
.420
4.096
6.698**
.648 .257 −.232 .419** .215
.226
1.839
3.215**
.476 .981** −.365** −.063 −.068 1.223 −1.517*
.278
1.812
3.275*
.078 .217*
.468 .048 .175 −.517 .242* −1.643* 1.754*
.527 .513** −.366* .065 −.899
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of stress are not very effective in eliciting infant positive affect in the context of parent-child interactions. It is also possible that attachment related issues impact fathers’ perceptions of infant affect, leading to appraisals of lower levels of joy (e.g., smiling and laughter). Higher infant negative affect at 4 months was predicted by the fathers’ lower parenting competence, and could be related to fathers’ limited parenting skills resulting in more fussiness for babies generally, or during fatherinfant interactions, specifically. Fathers’ perception of their parenting competence as limited and a source of stress could also impact their views of infant emotional expressions, leading to more negative assessments. The observed link between more difficulties with parenting competence and higher infant regulation/orienting at 6 months of age was inconsistent with our hypotheses and awaits replication. Overall, these findings indicate the importance considering fine-grained dimensions of parenting competence, not widely examined in existing research. Additionally, our results indicated that paternal internalizing scores significantly predicted infant Negative Affectivity at 6 months of age. Although it is possible that fathers who experience more significant symptoms of anxiety and depression fail to utilize interactional skills that would lead to more positive infant emotional expressions, paternal internalizing symptoms could also amplify negative perceptions of infant behaviors and emotions, similar to the well-known and consistently replicated pattern noted for mothers with symptoms of depression (e.g., Forman et al., 2003; Gartstein et al., 2009; Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2003). Gender moderation, whereby child sex influences the strength and/or the direction of a relationship between parental attributes and child outcomes, was explored in this study (Crick & Zahn-Waxler, 2003), with two interaction terms reaching statistical significance. Fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency traits predicted Extraversion/Surgency at 4 months only for girls, whereas fathers’ parenting competence predicted Regulation/Orienting at 6 months only for boys. It may be that paternal extraversion makes a unique contribution to explaining their daughters’ positive emotionality/surgency because of the particular importance of the father-daughter relationships (e.g., Piccinini, Tudge, Marin, Frizzo, & Lopes, 2010; Snow, Jacklin, & Maccoby, 1983). For example, Snow et al. (1983) reported that fathers tend to encourage and engage more with their infant girls. Paternal parenting competence appears to make a unique contribution to their sons’ regulation and orienting, and it may be that fathers are particularly involved in fostering early regulation in their sons, and their perception of parenting as being stressful with respect to competence may reflect these efforts (e.g., Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2006). In summary, results of our study make an important contribution to the existing literature by identifying relationships between paternal internalizing problems, temperament, parenting stress, and infant temperament, as well as providing some support for gender moderation. Results of this study are generally consistent with those outlining the influence of maternal characteristics on infant temperament. Importantly, these findings reflect the significance of fathers’ contributions as caregivers of their infant. References Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Atella, L. D., DiPietro, J. A., Smith, B. A., & St James-Roberts, I. (2003). More than meets the eye: Parental and infant contributors to maternal and paternal reports of early infant difficultness. Parenting: Science and Practice: 3., 265–284. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1993). Beck anxiety inventory manual. San Antonio: Harcourt Brace and Company. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. F. (1996). Comparison of Beck depression inventories-IA and -II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal Of Personality Assessment: 67., 588–597. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). BDI-II Beck depression inventory: manual. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation. Beebe, S., Casey, R., & Pinto-Martin, J. (1993). Association of reported infant crying and maternal parenting stress. Clinical Pediatrics: 32., 15–19. Bigras, M., LaFreniere, P. J., & Dumas, J. E. (1996). Discriminant validity of the parent and child scales of the parenting stress index. Early Education and Development: 7., 167–178. Bridgett, D. J., Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., Lance, K. O., Iddins, E., Waits, R., VanVleet, J., & Lee, L. (2011). Emerging effortful control in toddlerhood: The role of infant orienting/regulation, maternal effortful control, and maternal time spent in caregiving activities. Infant Behavior & Development: 34., 189–199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.12.008 Bridgett, D. J., Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., McKay, T., Iddins, E., Robertson, C., Ramsay, K., & Rittmueller, A. (2009). Maternal and contextual influences and the effect of temperament development during infancy on parenting in toddlerhood. Infant Behavior & Development: 32., 103–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.10.007 Bridgett, D. J., Laake, L. M., Gartstein, M. A., & Dorn, D. (2013). Development of infant positive emotionality: The contribution of maternal characteristics and effects on subsequent parenting. 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L., & Stuart, S. (2003). Infant emotionality: Observational methods and the validity of maternal reports. Infancy: 4., 541–565. Gartstein, M. A., & Bateman, A. E. (2008). Early manifestations of childhood depression: Influences of infant temperament and parental depressive symptoms. Infant and Child Development: 17., 223–248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.549 Gartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Dishion, T. J., & Kaufman, N. K. (2009). Depressed mood and maternal report of child behavior problems: Another look at the depression-distortion hypothesis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology: 30., 149–160. Gartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., & Low, C. (2012). Asking questions about temperament: Self- and other-report measures across the lifespan. In M. Zentner, & R. Shiner (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 183–207). New York, NY: Guilford Publications. Gartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Rothbart, M. K., Robertson, C., Iddins, E., Ramsay, K., & Schlect, S. (2010). 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Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2003). Studying infant temperament via the Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire. Journal of Infant Behavior and Development: 26., 64–86. Hanington, L., Ramchandani, P., & Stein, A. (2010). Parental depression and child temperament: Assessing child to parent effects in a longitudinal population study. Infant Behavior & Development: 33., (1), 88–95. Kyrios, M., & Prior, M. (1990). Temperament, stress, and family factors in behavioral adjustment of 3-year-old children. International Journal of Behavioral Development: 13., 67–93. Leerkes, E. M., & Crockenberg, S. C. (2003). The impact of maternal characteristics and sensitivity on the concordance between maternal reports and laboratory observations of infant negative emotionality. Infancy: 4., 517–539. Mangelsdorf, S., Gunnar, M., Kestenbaum, R., Lang, S., & Andreas, D. (1990). Infant proneness-to-distress temperament, maternal personality, and motherinfant attachment: Associations and goodness of fit. Child Development: 61., (3), 820–831. Parade, S. H., & Leerkes, E. M. (2008). The reliability and validity of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire – Revised. Infant Behavior and Development: 31., 637–646. Piccinini, C. A., Tudge, J., Marin, A. H., Frizzo, G. B., & Lopes, R. d. C. S. (2010). The impact of socio-demographic variables, social support and child sex on mother–infant and father–infant interaction. Revista Interamericana De Psicología: 44., 382–391. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1032897419?accountid=14902 Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Evans, D. E. (2000). Temperament and personality: Origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: 78., 122–135. Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Diener, M. L., Mangelsdorf, S. C., Brown, G. L., McHale, J. L., & Frosch, C. A. (2006). Attachment and sensitivity in family context: The roles of parent and infant gender. Infant and Child Development: 15., 367–385. Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (2013). Parent characteristics and early coparenting behavior at the transition to parenthood. Social Development: 22., 363–383. Snow, M. E., Jacklin, C. N., & Maccoby, E. E. (1983). Sex-of-child differences in father–child interaction at one year of age. Child Development: 54., (1), 227–232. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/616739644?accountid=14902 Steer, R. A., Ball, R., Ranieri, W. F., & Beck, A. T. (1999). Dimensions of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in clinically depressed outpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychology: 55., (1), 117–128. Stevens, G., & Featherman, D. L. (1981). A Revised Socioeconomic Index of Occupational Status. Social Science Research: 10., 364–395.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Infant Behavior and Development
Brief Report
Paternal influences on infant temperament: Effects of father internalizing problems, parenting-related stress, and temperament Natalia V. Potapova a,∗ , Maria A. Gartstein a , David J. Bridgett b a b
Washington State University, United States Northern Illinois University, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 9 September 2013 Received in revised form 16 November 2013 Accepted 29 December 2013
a b s t r a c t Temperament ratings were obtained from 98 fathers when their infants were 4 and 6 months of age to examine effects of paternal characteristics on infant temperament. Parental stress, internalizing symptoms, and father’s temperament were considered as factors possibly contributing to differences in their child’s temperament. © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fathers Paternal Infant temperament Parental stress Gender interactions
Assessment of temperament for research and clinical purposes often relies on parent-report largely because a number of reliable/valid tools are widely available at a low cost and can be easily administered (Gartstein, Bridgett, & Low, 2012). Mothers have generally been involved as informants, especially in infancy, because they typically play the role of primary caregivers, in single parent and traditional families. Few studies have obtained father reports of their children’s temperament, especially in infancy. Notable exceptions suggest that paternal depressive symptoms may predict infant fussiness and overall more difficult infant temperament, especially in boys (Dave, Nazareth, Sherr, & Senior, 2005; Diener, Heim, & Mangelsdorf, 1995; Hanington, Ramchandani, & Stein, 2010; Schoppe-Sullivan & Mangelsdorf, 2013). Studies conducted with mothers indicate that internalizing symptoms, parenting stress, along with personality factors make important contributions to infant temperament. For example, mother’s symptoms of depression have been linked with infant fearfulness and negative affectivity (Bridgett et al., 2009; Gartstein et al., 2010; Gartstein & Bateman, 2008). Parenting stress has been associated with overall increased infant crying (Beebe, Casey, & Pinto-Martin, 1993), fussiness, and activity levels (Atella, DiPietro, Smith, & St James-Roberts, 2003) as reported by both mothers and fathers, and, based on maternal report, slower growth/development in infant expressions of positive affectivity (Bridgett, Laake, Gartstein, & Dorn, 2013). With respect to parental personality, mother’s effortful control has been linked with infant orienting/regulation and, separately, toddler effortful control (Bridgett et al., 2011). Associations between mother’s higher positive affectivity (specifically social closeness) and infant’s lower levels of distress have also been reported, along with the links between mother’s negative affectivity and infant’s proneness to distress (Mangelsdorf, Gunnar, Kestenbaum, Lang, & Andreas, 1990).
∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, Washington State University, PO Box 644820, Pullman, WA 99164-4820, United States. Tel.: +1 509 335 4651. E-mail address: [email protected] (N.V. Potapova). 0163-6383/$ – see front matter © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.12.014
106
N.V. Potapova et al. / Infant Behavior & Development 37 (2014) 105–110
The primary goal of this study was to evaluate how paternal temperament, internalizing symptomatology, and parenting stress contribute to infant temperament ratings provided at 4 and 6 months of age. We expected that fathers’ temperament characteristics would predict infant temperament at 4 and 6 months, specifically, that father higher Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control would predict infant higher Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Regulation/Orienting, respectively. We also anticipated that higher levels of father’s internalizing symptomatology would predict higher Negative Affectivity, lower levels of Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting in infants. Similarly, we expected father’s parenting stress to affect infant temperament characteristics in the same direction. Specifically, higher parental stress (i.e., lower competence, attachment to child, and social relation, and higher role restriction) would be related to infant lower Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting, as well as higher Negative Affectivity. It has been suggested that gender effects may be best conceptualized as moderation of associations among other variables (Crick & Zahn-Waxler, 2003), and we explored this possibility. That is, we expected the examined predictors would make a differential contribution to infant temperament for boys and girls. Two samples of fathers, combined for the purposes of this study, were recruited on the basis of birth announcements between 2004 and 2007 and provided ratings of infant temperament (N = 98; 52.7% male infants). Fathers from Eastern Washington and Northwestern Idaho provided temperament ratings for 75 infants (53.4% male) at 4 and 6 months of age, respectively. A second sample of fathers recruited from Washington, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Nevada rated their infants (n = 23, 44.0% male) on the same occasions. The majority of fathers in the combined sample were Caucasian (71.7%) and their family Revised Duncan Sociometric Index (TSEI2; Stevens & Featherman, 1981), an indicator of occupational prestige fell within 15 and 90 (M = 35.35, SD = 25.74). Comparison analyses revealed no significant differences between the two samples’ demographic variables, including race and occupational prestige. The Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R; Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003), which has demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003; Parade & Leerkes, 2008), was utilized to measure temperament at 4 and 6 months via fathers’ report, providing three overarching temperament factors: Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Regulation/Orienting. Fathers provided information concerning their own temperament by completing the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000) and information regarding their parenting stress using the Parent Stress Inventory (PSI; Abidin, 1995), when their infants were 4 months of age. The ATQ consists of four temperament factors: Positive Affectivity/Extraversion, Neuroticism, Effortful Control, and Orienting Sensitivity, and four PSI scales, specifically Competence, Role Restriction, Attachment to Child, and Social Relationship, were also considered. Both of these instruments have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties at broad construct and factorial/scale levels (Bigras, LaFreniere, & Dumas, 1996; Evans & Rothbart, 2007). Fathers also rated their depressive and anxiety symptoms via Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, Ball, & Ranieri, 1996; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI; Beck & Steer, 1993), demonstrated as reliable and valid (Creamer, Foran, & Bell, 1995; Steer, Ball, Ranieri, & Beck, 1999). Because of the significant association (r = .50 p < .001) between fathers’ BAI and BDI-II ratings, these were combined to form an Internalizing problems composite. Comparison analyses were conducted to determine possible gender differences in fathers’ report of infant temperament and they revealed no significant differences. Next, simple correlations were performed among the variables in this study, producing a number of significant associations (Table 1). Regression equations were examined next, wherein ATQ and PSI indicators, and the Internalizing Composite scores served as independent variables, associated with fathers’ temperament ratings for their infants, revealing multiple significant effects (Table 2). Specifically, fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency and Orienting Sensitivity were linked with infants’ 4-month Extraversion/Surgency, whereas greater paternal bonding/attachment difficulties were predictive of lower infant Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting at 6 months of age. Additionally, fathers’ difficulties with parenting competence were linked to higher infant Negative Affectivity at 4 months, and Regulation/Orienting at 6 months of age, whereas fathers’ internalizing score predicted higher infant Negative Affectivity at 6 months of age. Finally, two of the interaction terms reflecting potential gender moderation effects reached statistical significance: infant sex by fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency and infant sex by fathers’ parenting competence. Follow-up regressions conducted separately for boys and girls indicated a significant contribution of fathers’ Extraversion for female infants only, and of paternal parenting competence related stress to Regulation/Orienting only for male infants. The aim of this study was to evaluate how paternal temperament, internalizing symptoms, and parenting stress contribute to the development of infant temperament at 4 and 6 months. Overall, fathers’ attributes appear to play a role in explaining early infant temperament development. Specifically, fathers’ temperament, internalizing symptoms, and parenting stress predicted infant Extraversion/Surgency and Negative Affectivity at 4 and 6 months and Regulation/Orienting only at 6 months. Fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency and Orienting Sensitivity positively predicted infant Extraversion/Surgency at 4 months of age. It is not surprising that fathers’ and infants’ extraversion-related indicators were associated as this link may be in part genetic in nature, as heritability has been demonstrated for this trait (Deater-Deckard & O’Connor, 2000). It is also possible that early modeling and responsive parenting could have contributed to this association, as infants with more positive affectivity are more likely to elicit positive parenting responses (Kyrios & Prior, 1990). Greater paternal attachment difficulties predicted lower Extraversion/Surgency and Regulation/Orienting in 6-monthold infants, whereas higher difficulties with parenting competence was associated with higher Negative Affectivity at 4 months and higher Regulation/Orienting at 6 months. Infants, whose fathers reported attachment problems, may display less positive affect (i.e., pleasure and joy) when interacting with their fathers, leading these caregivers to provide lower ratings for Extraversion/Surgency items. It may be that fathers who feel that their emotional bond with the infant is a source
Table 1 Simple correlations: demographics, infant and fathers’ temperament, internalizing symptoms, and parenting stress scores (N = 94).a 6 Months
Father’s Intern. Score
Father’s NA
Father’s EC
4 Months Father’s Intern. Score Father’s NA Father’s EC Father’s E/S Father’s OS Father’s PSI Comp. Father’s PSI Attach. Father’s PSI Restrict. Father’s PSI Soc. Relations Infant E/S Infant NA Infant R/O
– .610** −.462** −.029 .339** .424** .123 .421** .521** .036 .177 −.132
.610** – −.565** −.160 .208* .365** .072 .211* .344** −.048 .238* −.203
6 Months Infant E/S Infant NA Infant R/O
.017 .252* −.002
−.076 .195 .053
a * **
Father’s E/S
Father’s OS
Father’s PSI Comp.
−.462** −.565** – .070 −.094 −.270** −.065 −.252* −.337** .106 −.146 .214*
−.029 −.160 .070 – .234* −.172 −.083 −.132 −.072 .310** −.135 .214*
.339** .208* −.094 .234* – .020 −.247* .201* .132 .294** .136 .069
.424** .365** −.270** −.172 .020 – .407** .435** .423** −.065 .344** −.132
.170 −.191 .199
.239* −.017 .151
.163 .107 .093
−.048 .083 .127
Father’s PSI Attach.
Father’s PSI Restrict
Father’s PSI Soc. Rel.
.123 .072 −.065 −.083 −.247* .407** – .260** .296** −.006 .120 .061
.421** .211* −.252* −.132 .201* .435** .260** – .451** .067 .170 −.069
.521** .344** −.337** −.072 .132 .423** .296** .451** – .131 .174 .026
−.254* .209 −.266*
.040 .048 −.062
.077 .077 −.039
Note. Maximum number of participants. N varied from 89 to 98 participants over assessments/instruments due to missing data. p < .05. p < .01.
Infant E/S
Infant NA
Infant R/O
Infant E/S
Infant NA
Infant R/O
.036 −.048 .106 .310** .294** −.065 −.006 .067 .131 – −.032 .585**
.177 .238* −.146 −.135 .136 .344** .120 .170 .174 −.032 – −.314**
−.132 −.203 .214* .214* .069 −.132 .061 −.069 .026 .585** −.314** –
.017 −.076 .170 .239* .163 −.048 −.254* .040 .077 .546** −.229 .464**
.252* .195 −.191 −.017 .107 .083 .209 .048 .077 −.117 .509** −.243*
−.002 .053 .199 .151 .093 .127 −.266* −.062 −.039 .417** −.023 .494**
.546** −.117 .417**
−.229 .509** −.023
.464** −.243* .494**
– −.274* .709**
−.274* – −.295**
.709** −.295** –
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4 Months
107
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N.V. Potapova et al. / Infant Behavior & Development 37 (2014) 105–110
Table 2 Hierarchical Multiple Regression: Fathers’ Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ), Composite Internalizing Score, and Parenting Stress Index (PSI) scores predicting IBQ-R factors at 4 and 6 months. Variable 4 Month-IBQ-R Extraversion/Surgency Factor Model 2 ATQ Negative Affect ATQ Effortful Control ATQ Extraversion/Surgency ATQ Orienting Sensitivity Infant Sex 4 Month-IBQ-R Negative Affectivity Factor Model 1 Composite Internalizing Score Infant Sex 4 Month-IBQ-R Negative Affectivity Factor Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex 6 Month-IBQ-R Extraversion/Surgency Factor Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex 6 Month-IBQ-R Negative Affectivity Factor Model 1 Composite Internalizing Score Infant Sex 6 Month-IBQ-R Regulation/Orienting Factor Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex Interaction Equations 4 Month-IBQ-R Extraversion/Surgency Factor Model 1 ATQ Negative Affect ATQ Effortful Control ATQ Extraversion/Surgency ATQ Orienting Sensitivity Infant Sex Infant Sex × ATQ Extraversion/Surgency Factor Interaction Follow-Up – Female Only Model 2 ATQ Negative Affect ATQ Effortful Control ATQ Extraversion/Surgency Factor ATQ Orienting Sensitivity 6 Month-IBQ-R Regulation/Orienting Factor Model 1 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation Infant Sex Infant Sex × PSI Competence Interaction Follow-Up – Male Only Model 3 PSI Competence PSI Attachment PSI Restriction PSI Social Relation * **
p < .05. p < .01.
R
R2
Std. error
F
.395
.156
4.510
3.147*
Beta
.043 .149 .246* .231* .020 2.319
3.808*
.279 .185
.191
2.218
4.062**
.437 .362** −.023 −.041 .101 .265**
.166
3.473
2.628*
.407 −.006 −.321* .042 .133 −.281*
.102
1.875
3.993*
.320 .252* .202
.178
1.882
2.897*
.422 .321* −.384** −.080 −.057 −.167
.219
4.365
3.926**
.420
4.096
6.698**
.648 .257 −.232 .419** .215
.226
1.839
3.215**
.476 .981** −.365** −.063 −.068 1.223 −1.517*
.278
1.812
3.275*
.078 .217*
.468 .048 .175 −.517 .242* −1.643* 1.754*
.527 .513** −.366* .065 −.899
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of stress are not very effective in eliciting infant positive affect in the context of parent-child interactions. It is also possible that attachment related issues impact fathers’ perceptions of infant affect, leading to appraisals of lower levels of joy (e.g., smiling and laughter). Higher infant negative affect at 4 months was predicted by the fathers’ lower parenting competence, and could be related to fathers’ limited parenting skills resulting in more fussiness for babies generally, or during fatherinfant interactions, specifically. Fathers’ perception of their parenting competence as limited and a source of stress could also impact their views of infant emotional expressions, leading to more negative assessments. The observed link between more difficulties with parenting competence and higher infant regulation/orienting at 6 months of age was inconsistent with our hypotheses and awaits replication. Overall, these findings indicate the importance considering fine-grained dimensions of parenting competence, not widely examined in existing research. Additionally, our results indicated that paternal internalizing scores significantly predicted infant Negative Affectivity at 6 months of age. Although it is possible that fathers who experience more significant symptoms of anxiety and depression fail to utilize interactional skills that would lead to more positive infant emotional expressions, paternal internalizing symptoms could also amplify negative perceptions of infant behaviors and emotions, similar to the well-known and consistently replicated pattern noted for mothers with symptoms of depression (e.g., Forman et al., 2003; Gartstein et al., 2009; Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2003). Gender moderation, whereby child sex influences the strength and/or the direction of a relationship between parental attributes and child outcomes, was explored in this study (Crick & Zahn-Waxler, 2003), with two interaction terms reaching statistical significance. Fathers’ Extraversion/Surgency traits predicted Extraversion/Surgency at 4 months only for girls, whereas fathers’ parenting competence predicted Regulation/Orienting at 6 months only for boys. It may be that paternal extraversion makes a unique contribution to explaining their daughters’ positive emotionality/surgency because of the particular importance of the father-daughter relationships (e.g., Piccinini, Tudge, Marin, Frizzo, & Lopes, 2010; Snow, Jacklin, & Maccoby, 1983). For example, Snow et al. (1983) reported that fathers tend to encourage and engage more with their infant girls. Paternal parenting competence appears to make a unique contribution to their sons’ regulation and orienting, and it may be that fathers are particularly involved in fostering early regulation in their sons, and their perception of parenting as being stressful with respect to competence may reflect these efforts (e.g., Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2006). In summary, results of our study make an important contribution to the existing literature by identifying relationships between paternal internalizing problems, temperament, parenting stress, and infant temperament, as well as providing some support for gender moderation. Results of this study are generally consistent with those outlining the influence of maternal characteristics on infant temperament. Importantly, these findings reflect the significance of fathers’ contributions as caregivers of their infant. References Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Atella, L. 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