Plants used for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by the Bhoxa community of district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 150 (2013) 989–1006

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Plants used for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by the Bhoxa community of district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Sumeet Gairola a, Jyotsana Sharma b,n, R.D. Gaur c, T.O. Siddiqi b, R.M. Painuli c a

Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu-Tawi 180001, Jammu and Kashmir, India Department of Botany, Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi 110062, Delhi, India c Department of Botany, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar 246174, Uttarakhand, India b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 6 August 2013 Received in revised form 28 September 2013 Accepted 1 October 2013 Available online 25 October 2013

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Dysentery and diarrhoea are major causes of morbidity and mortality in rural communities of developing world. The Bhoxa community is an important primitive indigenous community of Uttarakhand, India. In this paper we have tried to scientifically enumerate ethnomedicinal plants and herbal preparations used by Bhoxa community to treat dysentery and diarrhoea, and discuss their antidiarrhoeal properties in the light of previous ethnomedicinal, pharmacological, microbiological and phytochemical studies. To record plants and herbal preparations used by Bhoxa community of district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India in treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, and to discuss antidiarrhoeal and antimicrobial properties of the recorded plants. Materials and methods: Ethnomedicinal survey was conducted in different villages of Bhoxa community located in district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India. Thirty Bhoxa traditional healers were interviewed to collect information on plants used by them for treating dysentery and diarrhoea. For each of the recorded plant species the use value (UV) and fidelity level (FL) was calculated. Detailed literature survey was conducted to summarize ethnomedicinal, pharmacological, microbiological and phytochemical information on the medicinal plants listed in the present study. Results: Fifty medicinal plants (45 genera and 30 families) were used by Bhoxa community to treat dysentery and diarrhoea, among which 27 species were used for dysentery, 41 for diarrhoea and 18 for both dysentery and diarrhoea. Three plants viz., Dioscorea bulbifera L., Euphorbia thymifolia L. and Prunus persica (L.) Stokes, recorded in the present survey have been reported for the first time in treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by any indigenous communities in India. FL and UV values revealed that most preferred species for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by Bhoxa community are Euphorbia hirta L. followed by Holarrhena pubescens Wall., Helicteres isora L. and Cassia fistula L. Earlier pharmacological studies confirmed that 27 of the recorded plants have some proven antidiarrhoeal properties and remaining 23 plants have to be pharmacologically evaluated for their antidiarrhoeal properties. Except 6 plants all the other recorded plants have shown antimicrobial properties in previous microbiological studies. Previous studies have corroborated the ethnomedicinal claims made by the traditional healers of the Bhoxa community. Conclusions: Present study has provided new information on many medicinal plants and their uses. All the three newly reported plants for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea have not been pharmacologically evaluated yet for their possible antidiarrhoeal properties. Twenty-three and six plants have not been evaluated pharmacologically and microbiologically, respectively. The present information may serve as a baseline data to initiate further research for discovery of new compounds and biological activities of these potential plants. Further research on these plants may provide some important clues for development of new drugs for dysentery and diarrhoea or other related diseases. & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bhoxa Ethnomedicine Medicinal plants Sub-Himalayan tract Antimicrobial Antidiarrhoeal

1. Introduction

Abbreviations: Cl, climber; FL, fidelity level; H, herb; NA, information not available; S, shrub; Tr, tree; UV, use value; MgSO4, magnesium sulphate; PGE2, prostaglandin E2. n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 8506013991. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Sharma). 0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.10.007

Diarrhoea is one of the most common illnesses in all age groups and is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in rural communities. It has long been recognized as an important health problem in developing countries and global threat to human health. Diarrhoea is the passage of 3 or more loose or liquid stools per day,

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S. Gairola et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 150 (2013) 989–1006

or more frequently than is normal for the individual (W.H.O., 2013a). It is usually a symptom of gastrointestinal infection, which can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms and infection spreads through contaminated food or drinking-water, or from person to person as a result of poor hygiene (W.H.O., 2013a). Diarrhoea ranges from a mild and socially inconvenient illness to a major cause of malnutrition among children in developing countries (Mukherjee et al., 1998). According to World Health Organization (WHO), diarrhoea causes 4% of all deaths, 5% of health loss to disability and kills around 2.2 million people globally each year, mostly children in developing countries (W.H.O., 2013b). Whereas, dysentery is bloody diarrhoea, i.e. any diarrhoeal episode in which the loose or watery stools contain visible red blood and dysentery is most often caused by Shigella species (bacillary dysentery) or Entamoeba histolytica (amoebic dysentery) (W.H.O., 2013c). Amoebic dysentery is more serious condition than bacillary dysentery (Kar and Borthakur, 2008). Dysentery account for about 15% of all deaths (Anne and Geboes, 2002; Krause et al., 2001). There are some 42 million cases annually and an estimated 75,000 deaths across the globe due to amoebic dysentery alone (Jamil et al., 2003). The WHO has emphasized the importance of the traditional indigenous medicines, since a large mainstream of rural and folk people in the developing countries still use these medicines as the first safety in health care (Goleniowski et al., 2006). Traditional medicines are continuously increasing in their status, and show that there are some features which are unique to this medicine, contributing to both efficacy and safety (Nanjan, 2010). In recent years, special attention is being paid on alternative natural bioremedies to cure the diseases because of their less or no side effects, high efficacy and less cost (Bonjar, 2004). The WHO has encouraged interaction between western and indigenous medicines with a view to develop and identify biologically active compounds that could offer safe and effective remedies for ailments caused by both microbial and non-microbial origins (Collise and Goduka, 2012). The WHO has constituted a diarrhoeal disease control programme, which includes traditional medicinal practices together with the evaluation of health education and prevention approaches (W.H.O., 1987). Due to the support of national and international organizations for the studies on treatment of diarrhoeal diseases based on indigenous practices, medicinal plants are becoming optimistic source of antidiarrhoeal drugs (Mukherjee et al., 1998; Tona et al., 1998; Otshudi et al., 2000; Lin et al., 2002; Patel et al., 2008). Documentation of traditional ethnomedicinal knowledge, indigenous herbal preparation is an approach to understand the use of different medicinal species to cure various ailments and also for conservation of biological resources. The tribal belt of India's population presents an interesting profile of India's ethnic diversity and there are altogether 427 tribal communities all over India (Dutta and Dutta, 2005). The Bhoxa community is an important primitive indigenous community of Sub-Himalayan tract of Uttarakhand, India and has a sound knowledge of natural herbal medicines for centuries with the knowledge being passed on through successive generations. Due to poor sanitation, lack of safe drinking water and unhygienic environment, the incidences of dysentery and diarrhoea are prevalent among the community. Because of less accessibility of modern medicines, herbal medicines are the only option available to them for the treatment, as it provides cheap alternative without any known side effects. Most of the Bhoxa villages have experienced traditional medicinal practitioners, who are familiar with the herbal medicines that are plentifully available near their surroundings for curing various diseases. They have profound knowledge of herbal preparations used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. There have been numerous studies that have served to

record ethnomedicinal plants used to treat or prevent diarrhoea (Mohanty et al., 1998; Sairam et al., 2003; Raju and Reddy, 2005; Kar and Borthakur, 2008; Sen and Behera, 2008; J. Sharma et al., 2010; Laloo and Hemalatha, 2011; Panda et al., 2012; Sarin and Bafna, 2012). But knowledge about the ethnomedicinal plants used by indigenous communities of sub-Himalayan region is very meagre except recent attempts made by Gaur and Sharma (2011), Sharma and Painuli (2011) and Sharma et al. (2011a, 2011b, 2012a, 2013a, 2013b). Under the backdrop of aforesaid facts in view the present study was undertaken to record plants and herbal preparations used by Bhoxa community of district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India in treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, and to discuss antidiarrhoeal and antimicrobial properties of the recorded plants.

2. Research strategy and methods 2.1. Study area The present study was undertaken in the Sub-Himalayan region in district Dehradun of Uttarakhand state of India (Fig. 1). The Indian state of Uttarakhand is situated in the northern part of India and shares an international boundary with China in the north and Nepal in the east. It has an area of 53,483 km2 and lies between latitude 28143′ and 31128′N and longitude 77134′ and 81103′E. The district Dehradun is bordered by Sirmaur district of Himachal Pradesh in the west, by Tons and Yamuna rivers in the north, by Uttarkashi district in the northwest, by Pauri and Tehri districts in the east and by Haridwar and Uttar Pradesh's Saharanpur district in the south. It is located between latitudes 29158′ and 3112′N and longitudes 77134′ and 78118′ E and covers an area of about 300 km2. The study area is part of sub-Himalayan region in Uttarakhand, which stretches along the southern periphery, and consists of long chain of narrow as well as low mountain ranges of about 300–1000 m asl. It has a width of about 30–40 km standing with scattered mountains. The study was conducted in different villages of Bhoxa community located in district Dehradun viz., Shahpur, Kalyanpur, Badripur, Bhednipur, Peerwala, Aaduwala, Sabbawala, Vikasnagar, Sherpur, Tiperpur and Mahuwala. 2.2. Bhoxa community The Bhoxa community is one of the important indigenous communities of Uttarakhand, scattered in different districts of Sub-Himalayan belt of the state. It is the third largest indigenous community in Uttarakhand. Bhoxa come from Mongoloid stock, and are marked with Mongoloid facial features. They follow Hindu religion and speak Hindi language with dialect quite similar to the neighbouring districts. They have not made any changes in their lifestyle and tried to adapt to modernity. Education level is very low among the community and most adult villagers are illiterate, but some of them have received primary education. Bhoxas have a democratic, socialistically oriented justice system. They have ‘Panchayats’ (local legislative assembly) in each village. The head of Panchayat is known as ‘Pradhan’ or ‘Padhan’ and his decision is considered as final. They live in thatched huts made up of grasses and other forest materials. They build their houses in two rows with space in between, serving as a courtyard. Their economy is mainly based on agriculture and they sell milk, milk products, fish, eggs, flesh, forest products, etc. Their main food is fish and rice but they also eat other non-vegetarian food, chapatti, vegetables, pulses, etc. They depend on plant resources mainly for herbal medicines, food, forage, construction of dwellings, making household implements. They are fond of drinking alcoholic beverages. The drinks and narcotics form an integral part of their societies.


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Fig. 1. Map of the study area.

They have experienced and knowledgeable medicinal practitioner in most of the villages, who have good knowledge of medicinal plants and their herbal preparations. 2.3. Interview of traditional healers and plant identification To collect plants and associated ethnomedicinal information from the Bhoxa community many extensive and intensive field trips were undertaken between 2009 and 2012. The ethnomedicinal data was collected through questionnaire, series of interviews and discussions among the tribal healers who still practiced their indigenous system of medicine. A total of 30 traditional healers were interviewed, who possessed knowledge about herbal remedies. Ethical clearance was not obtained and no written prior consent was taken from the participants, as it was not the requirement at the Universities where research was conducted. However participants were clearly informed about the objective of the study and their right to withdraw from the study at any time. The people who participated in the study were requested to show the wild plants they used. Ethnomedicinal information was obtained through a series of fieldworks. The surrounding forested area and agricultural land of the villages were surveyed with knowledgeable elders for the identification of various medicinal plant species and their traditional uses. The traditional healers were specifically asked about the plants used for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea along with their vernacular names, methods of preparation, mode of administration, part(s) used and dosage of the prescribed medicine. The representative samples of the plant species used by the traditional healers were collected from the field. The plant specimens were identified with the help of Flora of the District Garhwal North West Himalaya (Gaur, 1999). For the confirmation of identification the specimens were compared with the authentic specimens lodged at Herbaria of Botanical Survey of India, Dehradun (BSD), Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (DD) and HNB Garhwal University Srinagar (GUH). The specimens were properly labelled with detailed botanical name, vernacular name(s), family, locality, field number, date of collection and other necessary remarks, and deposited in the internationally indexed Herbarium of Department of Botany, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal (GUH). Valid botanical names with author citations of all the plant species were verified from www.theplantlist.org.

2.4. Statistical analysis and literature review For each species the use value (UV), as adapted by Ferreira et al. (2009) from the proposal of Phillips et al. (2002) was calculated. This quantitative method evaluates the relative importance of each medicinal species based on its relative use among informants. Use value was calculated using the following formula: UV ¼

ΣU n

where, U is the number of times a species is cited and n is the number of informants. The use value of each species is therefore based objectively on the importance attributed by the informants and does not depend on the opinion of the researcher (Ferreira et al., 2009). Fidelity level (FL) was calculated using the following formula: FLð%Þ ¼ ðIp=IuÞ100 where, Ip is the number of informants who independently indicated the use of a species for the same major ailment and Iu the total number of informants who mentioned the plant for any major ailment (Friedman et al., 1986). Detailed literature survey was carried out to gather and discuss information about the earlier ethnomedicinal studies recording uses of listed plants in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, pharmacological studies showing their antidiarrhoeal properties and microbiological studies showing their antimicrobial properties.

3. Results and discussion Plants and herbal preparations used by Bhoxa community of district Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India to treat dysentery and diarrhoea are presented in Table 1. Information about botanical name of the plant species followed by the family, voucher specimen number, local name, habit, mode of preparation and dosage, UV and FL values are given in Table 1. The present investigation revealed that Bhoxa community of the study area used 50 plant species belonging to 45 genera and 30 families for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. Among which 27 were used as a remedy for dysentery and 41 for diarrhoea, 18 species were common for both dysentery and diarrhoea. Out of these 50 plant species 12, 12,

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Table 1 Plants and herbal preparations used by Bhoxa community of Dehradun district, Uttarakhand, India to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. Plant species (family), voucher specimen number

Local name (Habit)

Mode of preparation and dosage

UV (FL value)

Khair (Tr)

0.53 The leaf juice (1–2 teaspoonfuls) is given orally with milk, twice a day as a (72.73%) remedy for blood dysentery. The decoction of bark (2 teaspoonfuls) is taken in the treatment of diarrhoea

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (Mimosaceae) GUH-JS 18857

Babur (Tr)

The juice of leaves is mixed with 4–5 teaspoonfuls curd and administered orally to treat diarrhoea. The 2–3 g powder of bark is taken orally to get relief from dysentery

Microbiological studies showing antimicrobial properties of the plants recorded in the present study Plant part tested; Solvent or extracts used; Tested against (microorganism)

Effective extract; most effective against; Phytoconstituents (Source for columns 6 & 7)

Powdered catechu; ethyl acetate; 250 mg/kg; castor oil induced diarrhoea in albino rats (Ray et al., 2006)

Leaves; methanol, hexane, acetone; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans

Methanol; Staphylococcus aureus; Terpene i.e. camphor and phytol (Negi and Dave, 2010)

Leaves; methanol, ethanol, water; Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli

Methanol; On both; Saponin, glycoside, volatile oil, hydrolysable tannin, steroids, triterpenoid, tannin, flavonoids, phenol, alkaloid (Choudhari, 2011) Ethanol; Most of the bacterial strains; NA (Shendkar et al., 2012)

0.36 Bark; Petroleum ether, methanol, (57.89%) distilled water; Castor oil and MgSO4 induced diarrhoea and barium chloride induced peristalsis using Swiss albino mice (Misar et al., 2008)

Achyranthes aspera L. Ulta chirchita (Amaranthacea) (H) GUH-JS 18893

NA The whole plant is crushed and soaked 0.46 in water for whole night, half glass of (63.64%) this water is given to the patient in early morning to get relieve from dysentery

Roots; ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella abony

Adhatoda zeylanica Medik. (Acanthaceae) GUH-JS 18819

Bansa (S)

NA The infusion of leaves 1–2 teaspoonfuls 0.33 (50.00%) is taken to get rid of dysentery and diarrhoea

Leaves; Methanol, ethanol, acetone, chloroform, Diethyl ether; Klebsiella pneumonia; NA (Josephin and Selva, 2012) diethyl ether, water; Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogens, Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (Mimosaceae) GUH-JS 19740

Saris (Tr)

Bark; Ethanol; 500 mg/kg; Castor oil The bark powder, about 3 g along with 0.40 sugar is recommended orally, twice a (75.00%) induced diarrhoea in Wistar albino rats (Balekar et al., 2012) day in diarrhoea

Leaves; Petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, methanol; Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus Leaves; ethyl acetate; Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus cereus

Methanol; Salmonella typhi, ethyl acetate; Escherichia coli; Flavonoids, tannins, saponins (Bobby et al., 2012)

Ethyl acetate; Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Alkaloids, glycoside, tannins, saponins, flavanoids, carbohydrates (Chulet et al., 2010)

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd. (Combretaceae) GUH-JS 20268

Dhaudi (Tr) The decoction of stem bark is recommended orally twice a day for dysentery and diarrhoea for 3–4 days

0.30 NA (37.50%)

Bark; disc diffusion method; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus sp., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoneae, Salmonella typhi, Proteus mirabilis

Salmonella typhi; Alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, flavanols, phenols, saponins, terpenoids (Patil and Gaikwad, 2010)

Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae) GUH-JS 18838

Pili Katili (S)

0.13 NA (23.53%)

Leaves, seeds; Crude methanol, aqueous, n-hexane, chloroform, methanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus sp., Salmonella typhi Leaf, Stem; Acetone, ethyl acetate, petroleum ether; Escherichia coli, Shigella sp., Staphylococcus sp., Salmonella sp.

Methanol, Chloroform: all the test organisms; Alkaloids, amino acids, phenolics, fatty acids (Priya and Rao, 2012)

Stem bark; Methanol, aqueous, ethanol; Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligense, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas

Methanol, ethanol; Gram positive bacteria; Quercitroside, isoquercitroside, rutoside, myricetol glycoside, kaempferol glycoside (Sahu and Gupta, 2012)

The powder of leaves (2 g) is taken orally thrice a day with unboiled milk to get relief from dysentery

Petroleum ether; Staphylococcus sp., Escherichia coli; NA (Rahman et al., 2011)

. Bauhinia variegata L. (Caesalpiniaceae) GUH-JS 19780

Kachnal (Tr)

The flowers are dried in shade, made into powder and given orally once a day to infants in treatment of dysentery

0.33 Leaves; Ethanol; different dose levels; (71.43%) Castor oil induced diarrhoea in rats (Kumar and Chandrashekar, 2011)


Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) GUH-JS 19752

Pharmacological studies showing antidiarrhoeal properties of the plants recorded in the present study Plant part; Solvent or extracts used; Dose; Animal experimental model tested (Source)

aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae, Vibrio cholera Ethanol, chloroform, aqueous; More activity towards human pathogenic organisms except Vibrio cholerae; Quinones, saponinis, triterpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids, tannins, furanoids, phenols (Umamaheswari et al., 2010)

0.30 NA The powder of calyx is administered (64.29%) orally to treat stomachache and dysentery. Gum is used in treatment of diarrhoea

Leaves; Ethanol; Salmonella typhi

Salmonella typhi; Shamimin, a flavonol C-glycoside (Faizi and Ali, 1999)

Dhak, Tesu (Tr)

The stem bark juice is administered orally in treatment of dysentery

0.23 Flowers; Methanol; 200 and 400 mg/ (36.84%) kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in Wistar albino rats (Sharma et al., 2012b) Stem bark; Ethanol; 400 and 800 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in Wistar albino rats (Mishra et al., 2012)

Leaves; Ethanol, aqueous; Staphylococcus aureus, Ethanol; both; Alkaloids, carbohydrates, Escherichia coli tannins, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, starch (Rmanjaneyulu et al., 2011)

Cassia fistula L. (Caesalpiniaceae) GUH-JS 18842

Amaltas (Tr)

The fruit pulp is used as a remedy in dysentery and diarrhoea

0.63 NA (82.61%)

Leaves; Hydroalcohol; Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus clavatus, Candida albicans

Celosia argentea L. (Amaranthaceae) GUH-JS 19715

Salera (H)

The powder of seeds is taken internally 0.30 to treat diarrhoea (60.00%) The juice of leaves is prescribed orally in dysentery, twice a day for 2 days

Cissampelos pareira L. (Menispermaceae) GUH-JS 18827

Jaljamini (Cl)

The aqueous extract of leaves is taken orally in treatment of dysentery

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W. Theob. (Menispermaceae) GUH-JS 19777

Jaljamuni (Cl)

The powder of leaves is given orally in 0.30 NA dysentery and diarrhoea (64.29%)

Leaves, stem, root; petroleum ether, chloroform, Benzene, methanol; All the tested organisms; Steroids, aminoacids, anthocyanins benzene, acetone, methanol, water; Bacillus (Abiramasundari et al., 2011) subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Shigella dysentriae, Klebsiella pneumoniae

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Hypoxidaceae) GUH-JS 18861

Samusli (H)

The infusion of roots is taken orally in 0.33 Rhizomes; Ethanol; 100, 250 and dysentery (62.50%) 500 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in Wistar albino rats and carbachol induced diarrhoea in Swiss albino mice (Rathore et al., 2012)

Roots; Methanol, acetonitrile, chloroform, Methanol; Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Saponins hexane; Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus (Singh and Gupta, 2008) aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia

0.40 Whole plant; hexane, The powder of whole plant (2–4 g) along with sugar is administered orally (70.59%) dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and methanol; 200 and 300 mg/kg; Castor 2–3 times a day in dysentery oil induced diarrhoea in Wistar albino rats (Babu et al., 2009)

Acetone; Enterobacter aerogenes; Alkaloids, Leaves; Acetone, ethanol, propanol; Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, phytosterols, tannins (Hema et al., 2013) Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Shigella sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sp.

Santi ghass, Puraniama (H)

The powder of roots is administered 0.40 orally in blood dysentery and diarrhoea (57.14%)

Bombax ceiba L. (Bombacaceae) GUH-JS 18900

Sembar (Tr)

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (Fabaceae) GUH-JS 18802

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Dubghass, Dubar (H) Pers. (Poaceae) GUH-JS 20293

Dalbergia sissoo DC. (Fabaceae) GUH-JS 20373

Seesam (Tr)

NA

Leaf; Alcohol; 100 and 200 mg/kg; Castor oil induced, charcoal meal test and PGE2 induced diarrhoea in rats (Sharma et al., 2010b)

Hydroalcohol; Tannins, flavonoids, saponins, triterpenoids, steroids, glycosides, anthraquinones, reducing sugars, carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids (Bhalodia and Shukla, 2011)

Leaves; Ethanol; Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, Ethanol; Shigella sp.; NA (Gnanamani et al., 2003) Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, Shigella, Salmonella, Vibrio

0.53 Roots; Ethanol; 25, 50 and 100 mg/ kg; Roots; Methanol; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeuroginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus (76.19%) Castor oil induced diarrhoea in Sprague-Dawley rats and albino mice subtilis of either sex (Reddy et al., 2004)

Leaves; Ethanol; Castor oil and MgSO4 NA The paste of leaves is mixed with curd 0.23 and given orally to treat dysentery and (50.00%) induced diarrhoea in albino mice diarrhoea (Chandra and Sachan, 2013)

Methanol; Bacillus subtilis; Tannins, flavonoids, steroids (Kumar et al., 2012)


Leaves; Ethanol, ethylacetate, diethyl ether, methanol, chloroform, aqueous; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Serratia marcescens, Shigella flexneri, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus

Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae) GUH-JS 18845

NA

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Table 1 (continued ) Plant species (family), voucher specimen number

Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae) GUH-JS 18891

Local name (Habit)

Genti (Cl)



The root decoction is used in treatment 0.36 NA of dysentery (64.71%)

Lal dudhi (H)

The juice of leaves along with curd is given in dysentery

E. thymifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae) GUH-JS 20374

Dhudhi (H) The 1–2 g powder of plant is given to infants to cure dysentery, twice a day



Bulbils; Petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol, water; Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigates, Rhizopus nigricans Bulbils; Methanol, ethylacetate, n-butanol; Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium smegmatis, drug-susceptible strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Petroleum ether, chloroform; Aspergillus fumigates, Rhizopus nigricans; NA (Seetharam et al., 2003)

NA; Terpenoids (Kuete et al., 2012)

0.76 Whole plant; lyophilized decoction; Whole plant; Methanol, hexane, distilled water; (95.83%) 50 mg/kg; Diarrhoea induced by castor Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Shigella. oil, arachidonic acid and prostaglandin dysentriae, Salmonella typhi, Proteus mirabilis E2 in mice (Galvez et al., 1993) Roots, stem, bud, leaves; Ethanol, petroleum ether; Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aureginosa, Vibrio cholera, Escherichia coli

Aqueous; Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi; Tannins, saponins, phenolics, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, anthroquinones, alkaloids (Abubakar, 2009) Ethanol; Salmonella typhi; NA (Saravanan et al., 2012)

0.26 NA (72.73%)

NA

NA

The aerial roots are boiled and used in 0.33 Bark; Ethanol; 400 and 600 mg/kg; treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery (62.50%) Castor oil-induced diarrhoea, gastrointestinal motility test, PGE2 induced enteropooling in Wistar albino rats (Patil et al., 2012) Hanging roots; Ethanol; Castor oil induced diarrhoea and PGE2 induced enteropooling in rats (Mukherjee et al., 1998)

Roots; Aqueous, ethanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia

Ethanol; Staphylococcus aureus; NA (Murti and Kumar, 2011)

F. racemosa L. (Moraceae) GUH-JS 20127

Gular (Tr)

The latex is internally used in treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery

0.30 Bark; Ethanol; Castor oil induced (64.29%) diarrhoea in rats and PEG2 induced enteropooling in rats (Uma et al., 2009) Bark; Ethanol; Castor oil induced diarrhoea and PGE2 induced enteropooling in rats (Mukherjee et al., 1998) Leaves; Ethanol; 400 and 600 mg/ kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea, gastrointestinal motility test, PGE2 induced enteropooling in Wistar albino rats (Patil et al., 2012)

Roots; Aqueous, ethanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia Roots; Methanol; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeuroginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis

Ethanol; Staphylococcus aureus; NA (Murti and Kumar, 2011) Bacillus subtilis; Tannins, flavonoids, steroids (Kumar et al., 2012)

Helicteres isora L. (Sterculiaceae) GUH-JS 18864

Marora (S)

The decoction of fruits along with sugar is given orally in treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery

0.60 Fruits; petroleum ether, alcohol and (90.00%) aqueous; 200 and 400 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea for PGE2 induced diarrhoea, for Charcoal Meal test on albino rats (Pandurang, 2010)

Fruits; Aqueous, acetone, ethanol, methanol; Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Salmonella typhimurium, Proteus vulgaris, Enterobacter aerogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi.

Aqueous: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Salmonella typhimurium, Proteus vulgaris; Carbohydrates, anthraquinon glycosides, proteins, tannin, phenolic compounds, steroids (Tambekar et al., 2008)


Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae) GUH-JS 18829

Ficus benghalensis L. Bad (Tr) (Moraceae) GUH-JS 18878

UV (FL value)

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) GUHJS 20313

Patson (S)

Holarrhena pubescens Kuda (Tr) Wall. (Apocynaceae) GUH-JS 18830

Aqueous-methanolic; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus; Cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids (Tolulope, 2007)

The seed powder is given orally in dysentery

0.20 Dried calyxes; Ethanol; 250 and (54.55%) 500 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in mice (Ali et al., 2011)

Red calyces; Aqueous-methanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus stearothermophilus, Micrococcus luteus, Serratia mascences, Clostridium sporogens, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas fluorescence

The powder of bark is given in treatment of dysentery

0.66 Seeds; Ethanol; 200 to 800 mg/kg; (90.91%) Castor oil induced diarrhoea in rats (Kavitha et al., 2004)

Bark; Methanol; Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Methanol; Micrococcus luteus; NA (Siddiqui Bacillus thuringiensis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, et al., 2012) Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium hoffmanii, Corynebacterium xerosis, Streptococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi Bark; Methanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli

Methanol; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, phenolics, coumarin, xanthoproteins (Agrawal et al., 2012)

Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae) GUH-JS 18822

Sharmili (H)

The decoction of whole plant is given orally in dysentery, twice a day

0.23 Leaves; ethanol; 200 mg/kg and Leaves; Methanol; Aspergillus fumigates, (58.33%) 400 mg/kg; Castor oil induced Citrobacter divergens, Klebsiella pneumonia diarrhoea, PGE2 induced enterpooling model, gastrointestinal motility in rats (Khalid et al., 2011)

Methanol; Aspergillus fumigatus, Klebsiella pneumonia; Terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, quinines, phenols, tannins, saponins, coumarin (Gandhiraja et al., 2009)

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. (Rutaceae) GUH-JS 18888

Pinvaran (S)

The leaf juice is taken orally in dysentery and diarrhoea

0.30 Seeds; n-hexane; Castor oil induced (50.00%) diarrhoea and PGE2 induced enteropooling in rats (Mandal et al., 2010). Roots; Ethanol and aqueous; 100 and 200 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in Wistar albino rats of either sex (Pagariya and Maithili, 2009)

Methanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Trichophyton rubrum; NA (Malwal and Sarin, 2011).

Roots; Hexane, methanol, chloroform, aqueous; Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum Leaves, bark, flowers; Ethanol; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans.

Musa balbisiana Colla Kela (S) (Muscaceae) GUHJS 20333 Ocimum tenuiflorum Tulsi (S) L. (Lamiaceae) GUH-JS 20296

The aqueous extract of roots is taken to 0.10 NA treat diarrhoea (37.50%)

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Arula (Tr) Kurz (Bignoniaceae) GUH-JS 20273

The powder of seeds is taken internally 0.30 Bark; Methanol; 400 mg/kg; Castor oil Stem bark, root; Dichloromethane; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, in dysentery (75.00%) induced diarrhoea in Swiss albino Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans mice (Asaduzzaman et al., 2011)

The decoction of whole plant is taken in diarrhoea

0.20 NA (54.55%)

NA

Sandan (Tr)

The gum is used in treatment of dysentery

0.26 (57.14%)

NA

NA

Benzene, chloroform; Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis Acetone; Klebsiella pneumonia; NA (Baskaran, 2008). Stem, root and leaves; ethyle acetate, methanol; Methanol, Leaf; Escherichia coli, Aspergillus niger; NA (A. Sharma et al., 2012) Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans.

Leaves; acetone, benzene, chloroform; Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia

Root, stem; Alcohol; Escherichia coli, Klebseilla sps, Proteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr. (Fabaceae) GUH-JS 20182

Leaves; Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Bark; Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans; NA (Gupta et al., 2011)

NA


Madhuca longifolia (J. Mahua (Tr) The decoction of flowers is mixed with 0.40 NA Konig ex L.) J.F. sugar and taken internally in treatment (85.71%) Macbr. of diarrhoea (Sapotaceae) GUHJS 18841

Dichloromethane; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus; Flavonoids (bacailein and chrysin) and a naphthoquinone, lapachol (Mat Ali et al., 1998) Alcohol stem; Staphylococcus aureus, Klebseilla sps, Proteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Alkaloids, phenols, fats, lipids, waxes (Radhika et al., 2011) NA

995

996

Table 1 (continued ) Plant species (family), voucher specimen number

Local name (Habit)


UV (FL value)




Buiamla (H)

Leaves; Aqueous; Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus Leaves; Aqueous; 400 mg/kg; Castor The decoction of whole plant is given 0.43 internally to relief from dysentery and (72.22%) oil induced diarrhoea in mice (Odetola subtilis, Staphylococcus albus, Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Akojenu, 2000) diarrhoea Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus vulgaris

Aqueous; Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus albus, Escherichia coli; Alkaloids, phytosterols, phenolic compounds and tannins, proteins and amino acids, lignins, saponins (Dhandapani et al., 2007)

Prunus persica (L.) Stokes (Rosaceae) GUH-JS 18803

Aaru (Tr)

The infusion of leaves is administered in dysentery

0.40 NA (70.59%)

Bark; Methanol, petroleum ether, dichloromethane, chloroform, ethyl acetate; Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, Shigella flexenari, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Methanol; Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterococcus faecalis. Petroleum ether; Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus. Dichloromethane; Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia Ethyl acetate; Enterococcus faecalis (Aziz and Habib-ur-Rahman, 2013)

Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae) GUH-JS 20248

Jayantee (S)

The powder of seeds is recommended for dysentery

0.16 NA (55.56%)

Leaves, root, stem; Methanol, ethanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Enterococcus faecalis, Erwinia amylovora, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella dysenteriae, Bacillus subtilis

Methanol; Erwinia amylovora; Alkaloids, carbohydrates, protein, phytosterol, phenol, flavonoids, fixed oil, gum (Mythili and Ravindhran, 2012)

Oleoresin; aqueous, methanol, petroleum, benzene; Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus griseus, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas fluorescence, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Penicillium chrysogenum Floral parts; Aqueous; Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Serratia marcescens

Aqueous; Bacillus coagulans, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus; Alkaloids, carboxylic acids, fatty acids, phenols, saponins, steroids (Murthy et al., 2011)

Sakhu (Tr) Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae) GUH-JS 20369

NA The gum with curd is given internally 0.06 in dysentery. The decoction of bark is (40.00%) internally recommended for diarrhoea

Aqueous; All; Tannins, flavanoids, cardiac glycosides, steroids (Duddukuri et al., 2011)

Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. (Asteraceae) GUHJS 20344

Mundi (H)

The powder of fruits is taken in diarrhoea

0.10 Whole plant; Aqueous extract; 50, 100 NA (50.00%) and 200 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in mice (Sarin and Bafna, 2012)

NA

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (Anacardiaceae) GUH-JS 20346

Aamra (Tr)

The decoction of fruits is given in diarrhoea and dysentery

0.16 NA (50.00%)

Stem bark; Methanol; Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Methanol; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli; NA (Chetia and Gogoi, 2011)

The gum is given with curd in dysentery

0.20 NA (75.00%)

Leaves; Ethanol; Bacillus cereus, B. megateriuum, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella sonnei, Vibrio cholera, Aspergillus niger, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Microsporum sp., Pityrosporum ovale, Trichophyton sp.

Ethanol; Salmonella paratyphi, Pityrosporum ovale; Alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, reducing sugars, gums (Tania et al., 2013)

Sterculia villosa Roxb. Udal (Tr) (Sterculiaceae) GUH-JS 20310


Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. (Euphorbiaceae) GUH-JS 19748

Syzygium cumini (L.) Jamun (Tr) Skeels (Myrtaceae) GUH-JS 20370

0.46 Seeds; Aqueous; Castor oil induced The infusion of stem bark is taken internally in dysentery. Chirka obtained (77.78%) diarrhoea in Swiss albino mice of either sex (Shamkuwar et al., 2012) from fermentation of ripe fruits is taken in diarrhoea

Seeds, leaves, bark, root; Aqueous, ethanol, methanol; Bacillus megaterium, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Klebsiella pneumonia, Citrobacter freundii, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus faecalis, Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Vibrio cholera, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Enterococcus faecium

Ethanol; C. acetobutylicum, Citrobacter freundii, Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella paratyphi, E. faecium; Carbohydrates, phenols, flavonoids, tannins (Prabhakaran et al., 2011)

The bark powder is taken orally to treat 0.30 NA dysentery (90.00%)

Stem barks; Methanol; Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoneae, Salmonella typhi, Proteus mirabilis, Micrococcus sp.

Methanol; Staphylococcus aureus; Alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, flavanols, phenols, saponins, terpenoids (Patil and Gaikwad, 2011)

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. (Combretaceae) GUH-JS 20334

Arjun (Tr)

T. bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Combretaceae) GUH-JS 20353

Bahera (Tr) The infusion of fruits is given orally in 0.53 Fruit pulp; Aqueous and ethanol; 334, NA diarrhoea (84.21%) 200 and 143 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea, PGE2 induced enteropooling and gastrointestinal motility test (Kumar et al., 2010)

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers (Menispermaceae) GUH-JS 20354

Giloe (Cl)

The infusion of roots is used as remedy 0.40 Stem; Ethanol; 250 and 500 mg/kg; for dysentery (66.67%) Magnesium sulphate induced diarrhoea model in Male Wistar rats (Tiwari et al., 2011)

Ethanol; Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli; Stem; Aqueous, ethanol, chloroform; E. coil, Proteus vulgaris, Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella Alkaloids (Jeyachandran et al., 2003) typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, S. marcesenses.

Tridax procumbens (L.) L. (Asteraceae) GUH-JS 18817

Phulli (H)

The infusion of leaves is taken to treat 0.30 NA dysentery (56.25%)

Leaves; Methanol, ethyl acetate; Escherichia coli, Ethyl acetate; Staphylococcus aureus; Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus Alkaloids, flavanoids, glycosides (Bharathi et al., 2012) cereus, Staphylococcus aureus

Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (Asteraceae) GUH-JS 20204

Sehdevi (H)

The decoction of plant is taken for dysentery

Leaves; Aqueous, ethanol, methanol, chloroform; Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Helicobacter pylori, Candida albicans, Aspergillus flavus, Trichosporan asahi Leaves; Acetone; A. fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Fusarium sp., Nocardia sp., Rhodotorula sp., Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida glabrata, Candida krusei, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexinerii, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholera

Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae) GUH-JS 18836

Sambhalu (S)

0.26 The infusion of plant is taken to cure (50.00%) diarrhoea. The fresh flowers are crushed, soaked in water; this water is orally given to treat dysentery

Aerial parts; Aqueous-methanol; 100, 300 and 1000 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in Balbc albino mice and local rabbits of either sex (Khan et al., 2013)

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz (Lyrthaceae) GUHJS 20161

Dhaudi (S)

The juice of flowers is given internally 0.36 NA to treat dysenter (73.33%)

Leaves; Benzene, chloroform, ethanol, waterethanol (50:50), water; Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavon, Candida albicans

Ethanol; Most of the pathogens; NA (Srilakshmi and Sasikumar, 2011)

Acetone; Effective against all the fungal strains; NA (Vijayan et al., 2010)


0.23 Whole plant; Methanol; 250 and (77.78%) 500 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in female albino rats (Panday et al., 2011) Barks, leaves; Methanol; 250 and 500 mg/kg; Castor oil induced diarrhoea in swiss albino mice (Haque et al., 2013)

NA

Water-ethanol (50:50); showed maximum antimicrobial, Water; showed maximum antifungal activity; α-pinene, camphene, caryophyllene, citral, glycosides like negundoside, nishinadaside, other hydroxybenzoylmussaenosidic acid derivatives (Aswar et al., 2009)

Methanol; Pseudoalcalig pseudoalcaligenes; NA Flowers; Methanol; Bacillus cereus, Bacillus (Parekh and Chanda, 2007) subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus subflava, Micrococcus flavus, Alcaligenes fecalis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudoalcalig pseudoalcaligenes, Pseudomonas testosteroni, Salmonella typhimurium 997

Abbreviations: Cl ¼ climber; FL¼fidelity level; H ¼herb; MgSO4 ¼ magnesium sulphate; NA ¼not available; PGE2 ¼prostaglandin E2; S ¼shrub; Tr¼ tree; UV ¼ use value.

Leaves; Aqueous, ethanol; Staphylococcus aureus, Ethanol; Staphylococcus aureus and fungi Trichophyton rubrum; NA (Gautam et al., 2011) Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum 0.26 NA (80.00%) The root powder is given orally in dysentery and diarrhoea Z. nummularia (Burm. Jharber (S) f.) Wight & Arn. (Rhamnaceae) GUH-JS 20328

Leaves; Ethanol; Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus Ethanol; Streptococcus pyogenes; Cardiac aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Aspergillus niger, glycosides, polyphenols, saponins, tannins (Abalaka et al., 2010) Candida albicans The decoction of bark is taken internally in diarrhoea Ber (S) Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (Rhamnaceae) GUH-JS 20149

0.33 Root; Methanol; 25 and 50 mg/kg; (76.92%) Castor oil induced diarrhoea in male Wistar rats and albino mice (Dahiru et al., 2006)

Mode of preparation and dosage Local name (Habit) Plant species (family), voucher specimen number

Table 1 (continued )

UV (FL value)


Plant part tested; Solvent or extracts used; Tested against (microorganism)



Microbiological studies showing antimicrobial properties of the plants recorded in the present study

998

22 and 4 were herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers, respectively. Herbal medicines were prepared in the form of decoction (37.7%), powder (24.5%), infusion (20.7%), juice (13.2%) and paste (3.7%). Among different plant parts used, the leaves (19.4%) were most frequently used followed by root (18.1%), bark (15.5%), fruit (11.6%), whole plant (11.6%) and seed (9%). None of the recorded preparations were used externally, all were administered internally. All herbal medicines prescribed by traditional healers for curing dysentery and diarrhoea were based on single plant part only. In general fresh part of the plant was used for the preparation of medicine, but when fresh plant parts were unavailable, dried parts were also used by the practitioner. In some cases the herbal preparation was mixed with curd or sugar to make the preparation efficacious. Fidelity level (FL) and use value (UV) for each of the recorded plant species is given in Table 1. Highest FL for plants used by Bhoxa community was recorded for Euphorbia hirta L. (95.83%) followed by Holarrhena pubescens Wall. (90.91%), Helicteres isora L. (90.00%) and Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. (90.00%), whereas highest UV was recorded for Euphorbia hirta L. (0.76) followed by Holarrhena pubescens Wall. (0.66), Cassia fistula L. (0.63) and Helicteres isora L. (0.60). FL and UV values revealed that most preferred species for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by Bhoxa community are Euphorbia hirta L. followed by Holarrhena pubescens Wall., Helicteres isora L. and Cassia fistula L. Information on previous ethnomedicinal studies in India citing uses of the plants recorded in the present study for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea has been summarized in Table 2. The table presents plant name, ethnic/indigenous group, region, state, plant part used, preparation and source of the information. When we compared information recorded in the present study with the earlier ethnomedicinal studies, we observed that same plant part was used for the treatment in case of 29 out of 50 recorded plants, while in case of 18 plants, use of different plant part to treat same disease is recorded in the present study. Use of three plant species viz., Dioscorea bulbifera L., Euphorbia thymifolia L. and Prunus persica (L.) Stokes, to treat dysentery and diarrhoea has been recorded for the first time in the present study. In all the previous studies, only the use of bark of Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. was recorded, but in present study we have recorded the use of both leaves and bark for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by the Bhoxa community. Leaves of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd. were used to treat diarrhoea by indigenous community of Mayurbhanj district, Orissa (Panda et al., 2011), but use of bark of this species by Bhoxa community to treat this disease is new information. Local community of south Surguja district, Chhattisgarh (Kala, 2009) and rural women of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand (Uniyal and Shiva, 2005) use flower, seeds and gum of Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub., but Bhoxa community used bark of this plant to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. Stem bark of Cassia fistula L. is used by Konda Reddi and Koyas community of Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh (Raju and Reddy, 2005), and Bhil and Bhilala community of Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh (Wagh et al., 2011), whereas fruit pulp of same plant is used by Bhoxa community to treat dysentery. Local communities of Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu (Johnsy et al., 2013) and Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Mayrurbhanj district, Orissa (Rout and Panda, 2010), used roots of Cissampelos pareira L. but Bhoxa community used its leaves to treat the disease. Milky latex of Ficus benghalensis L. is used by indigenous communities of Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh (Wagh et al., 2011) and Bargarh district, Orissa (Sen and Behera, 2008), and infusion of bark by local communities of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand (Tiwari et al., 2010) and Marudhamalai hills, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu (Senthilkumar et al., 2006), whereas aerial roots of this plant is used by Bhoxa community to treat same disease.

Table 2 Earlier ethnomedicinal studies in India citing uses of the recorded plants in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. Plant species

Ethnic/ Indigenous Region, State group

Part used/ preparation

Source

Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd.

Local Local Local Local

Bark used Bark used Decoction Bark used

Kumar et al. (2011) Gaur (1999) Tiwari et al. (2010) Joshi (2011)

community community community community

Traditional healers Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Bhil and Bhilala Delile Local community Local community

to to of to

treat dysentery and diarrhoea treat dysentery and diarrhoea wood and bark used to treat diarrhoea treat diarrhoea

Heart wood and bark used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery

Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh

Singh and Dubey (2012)

One teaspoonful seed powder is given empty stomach in the morning thrice a day for two days in dysentery Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Bark used to treat dysentery Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Gum from the stem used to treat dysentery Uttar Pradesh Churu district, Thar Desert, Infusion of tender leaves given orally. Decoction of pods used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery Rajasthan

Wagh et al. (2011) Gaur (1999) Singh et al. (2010) Parveen et al. (2007)

Achyranthes aspera L.

Indigenous communities

Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Mayurbhanj district, Orissa

Whole plant used to treat dysentery

Panda et al. (2011)

Adhatoda zeylanica Medik.

Jaunsari

Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand

Roots used to treat dysentery.

Local inhabitants

Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu

Infusion of leaf juice used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery

Bhatt and Negi (2006) Johnsy et al. (2013)

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.

Local community


Johnsy et al. (2013)

Local community


Decoction of bark and seeds used to treat diarrhoea. Fresh decoction of bark used 3 times daily to treat dysentery Seeds and bark used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd.


Mayurbhanj district, Orrisa

Leaves used to treat diarrhoea

Panda et al. (2011)

Argemone mexicana L.

Irular

Marudhamalai hills, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Seed powder used to treat dysentery

Senthilkumar et al. (2006)

Bauhinia variegata L.

Local community

Himalaya region

Flowers and buds used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea

Indigenous communities Local community

Central Himalaya

Young leaves and flower buds are eaten raw; it is useful in treatment of dysentery

Joshi and Tyagi (2011) Negi et al. (2002)

Gaur (1999)

Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Flower buds used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea Uttar Pradesh

Singh et al. (2010)

Boerhavia diffusa L.

Bhils

Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh

Root paste used to cure bloody dysentery

Mitra and Gupta (1997)

Bombax ceiba L.

Bhil and Bhilala Local community

Gum (10–15 g) of tree is chewed thrice a day in diarrhoea Bark used to treat blood dysentery and diarrhoea

Wagh et al. (2011) Singh et al. (2010)

Local community Local traditional healers

Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Uttar Pradesh Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu Tahsil Multai, Betul district, Madhya Pradesh

Gum used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery 10 g powder of bark is used 7 days, twice a day to cure diarrhoea.

Johnsy et al. (2013) Dahare and Jain (2010)

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

Local community Rural women

South Surguja district, Chhattisgarh Flower, gum and seed used to treat diarrhoea Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Seeds, flowers and gum are used to treat dysentery

Kala (2009) Uniyal and Shiva (2005)

Cassia fistula L.

Konda Reddi and Koyas Bhil and Bhilala

Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh

Raju and Reddy (2005) Wagh et al. (2011)

Stem bark (25 g) crushed with pepper grains and the prepared extract is administered once daily for 3 days to treat dysentery A glassful of bark decoction is given twice a day for 2 days to treat dysentery


Rural communities

Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Tarai and Bhawar, Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand Sonebhadra district, Uttar Pradesh

999

1000

Table 2 (continued ) Ethnic/ Indigenous Region, State group


Source

Celosia argentea L.

Konda Reddi and Koyas

Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh

Seed decoction (3–4 teaspoonful) is administered twice daily for 2 days. Seeds and leaves used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea

Raju and Reddy (2005)

Cissampelos pareira L.

Local community Indigenous communities

Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Mayurbhanj district, Orissa

Infusion of root given to treat diarrhoea and dysentery Root used to treat dysentery

Johnsy et al. (2013) Rout and Panda (2010)

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W. Theob.

Local community

Gingee hills, Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu

Leaves boiled in water and the decoction is taken orally for 2 days in dysentery

Muralidharan and Narasimhan (2012)

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Bhil and Bhilala Local community Local community

Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Churu district, Thar Desert, Rajasthan

Root paste is administered orally with water thrice a day for three days to treat diarrhoea Rhizome used to treat diarrhoea Tubers are washed and cut into slices and dried and then given in dose of 180 grains beaten up with an equal quantity of sugar in a glass of milk until it forms thick mucilage an given to treat diarrhoea

Wagh et al. (2011) Gaur (1999) Parveen et al. (2007)

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Ukhimath block, Uttarakhand Rawain Valley, Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh. Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu Cachar district, Assam

Whole plant extract is taken orally to cure diarrhoea Different parts of the plant are used to treat dysentery

Semwal et al. (2010) Negi et al. (2011)

Whole plant juice is taken orally with black salt twice a day for four days in dysentery. Infusion of root is given to treat diarrhoea and dysentery Plant juice is taken orally to treat dysentery

Wagh et al. (2011) Johnsy et al. (2013) Das et al. (2008)

Traditional healers Local community Bhil and Bhilala Local community Different indigenous communities

Dalbergia sissoo DC.

Traditional healers Rural communities

Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh Churu district, Thar Desert, Rajasthan

Bark decoction is given twice a day to treat diarrhoea Leaf juice mixed with sugar and curd is given to cure blood dysentery

Shukla et al. (2010) Parveen et al. (2007)

Dioscorea bulbifera L.

NA

NA

NA

NA

Euphorbia hirta L.

Local community

Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Leaf juice is used to treat dysentery Uttar Pradesh Palamalai Hills, Coimbatore, Tamil Crushed leaves mixed with coconut water and given in empty stomach to cure dysentery Nadu Churu district, Thar Desert, Juice of plant is used to treat dysentery Rajasthan

Singh et al. (2010)

Irular community Rural communities

Umapriya et al. (2011) Parveen et al. (2007)

Euphorbia thymifolia L.

NA

NA

NA

NA

Ficus benghalensis L.

Indigenous community Local community Bhil and Bhilala

Bargarh district, Orrisa

Milky latex is poured into the navel in every two hrs to cure diarrhoea

Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh

Infusion of bark is given to treat diarrhoea Few drops of latex with ghee and sugar are consumed twice a day for three days to get relief in dysentery Milky latex is poured into the navel in every two hrs to cure diarrhoea

Sen and Behera (2008) Tiwari et al. (2010) Wagh et al. (2011)

Indigenous community Irular


Ficus racemosa L.

Local villagers

Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Latex is used to treat dysentery Uttar Pradesh

Singh et al. (2010)

Helicteres isora L.

Koyas

Khammam district of Andhra Pradesh Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Uttar Pradesh

Raju and Reddy (2005) Gaur (1999) Tiwari et al. (2010) Singh et al. (2010)

Local community Local community Local community

Marudhamalai hills, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

Infusion of the bark is used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea

Root paste (5 g) mixed with 15 ml of water is administered twice daily for 2 days to infants Powdered fruits used to treat diarrhoea Fruit powder is used to treat diarrhoea Decoction of bark is given to treat diarrhoea and dysentery

Sen and Behera (2008) Senthilkumar et al. (2006)


Plant species

Extract taken from flowers added with common salt is more beneficial to cure diarrhoea and dysentery

Singh et al. (2006)

Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Kudulipada (Koraput)

Bark is used to treat dysentery Bark used to treat dysentery Powder of root is given in dysentery

Kumar et al. (2011) Gaur (1999) Aminuddin and Girach (1991)


Fruit pulp mixed with cow's ghee is taken twice to cure infantile diarrhoea called Dhuda


Infusion of flowers is given in early morning to treat diarrhoea

Sen and Behera (2008) Tiwari et al. (2010)

Shahjahanpur district, Uttar Pradesh

Dried fruit powder is given to relieve dysentery

Sharma et al. (2010a)


Leaf extract is taken with black pepper powder and honey twice daily to cure infantile diarrhoea

Shiwalik Himalaya

Whole plant is used to treat dysentery

Different indigenous communities

Cachar district, Assam

Root juice mixed with the fruit juice of Dillenia indica L. and few drops of honey i s taken once daily to cure dysentery

Sen and Behera (2008) Gaur and Sharma (2011) Das et al. (2008)

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.

Local community


Fresh green tender leaves are eaten raw against dysentery. Decoction of leaves and petiole is given against diarrhoea

Musa balbisiana Colla

Mishings

Dibrugarh district, Assam

During dysentery, after removal the peels, a half ripe fruit is soaked in about 2 L water for whole night. The filtrate Baruah and Kalita usually given in early morning for three days continuously (2007)

Ocimum tenuiflorum L.

Indigenous community


Seeds soaked overnight in half a glass of water are filtered and the filtrate is taken in the morning to cure dysentery. Root paste is taken with sugar candy twice a day to cure dysentery

Sen and Behera (2008)

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Indigenous community Local community Konda Reddi and Koyas Traditional healers Local community

Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh Siwalik Region, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand

150 g of stem bark and 100 g of leaves are boiled in 10 glasses of water till the quantity becomes one third and the residue is sieved out. Dose: one glass thrice daily after meals for five days Root, bark and fruits used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea Root bark (5–6 teaspoons) decoction is administered twice daily for three days

Kar and Borthakur (2008) Gaur (1999) Raju and Reddy (2005) Shukla et al. (2010) Gaur and Sharma (2011)

Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Local community Hochr.

Amarkantak region, Madhya Pradesh

Bark is used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery

Srivastava et al. (2012)

Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.

Local community

Dindigul district in Tamil Nadu

Entire plant extract is taken internally to treat diarrhoea and dysentery

Shanmugam et al. (2011)

Prunus persica (L.) Stokes

NA

NA

NA

NA

Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.


Sirumalai Hills, Eastern Ghats, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu

Decoction of the leaf is mixed with hot milk and given once a day for 7 days to treat diarrhoea

Alagesaboopathi (2012)

Shorea robusta Gaertn.

Local community Local community

Similipal Biosphere reserve, Orrisa Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand

Bark given to treat dysentery Aromatic resin used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea

Mohanta et al. (2006) Gaur (1999)

Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC.



Root is crushed with Achyranthes aspera root and sugar candy is taken thrice daily after each defecation to cure Sen and Behera diarrhoea (2008)

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz Indigenous communities

Similipal biosphere Reserve, Mayurbhanj district, Orissa

Bark is used to treat diarrhoea

Rout and Panda (2010)

Sterculia villosa Roxb.

Cachar district, Assam

Root juice mixed with honey is taken orally against blood dysentery

Das et al. (2008)

Local community

Holarrhena pubescens Wall. Rural community Local community Bondo Madhuca longifolia (J.Konig ex L.) J.F.Macbr.

Mimosa pudica L.

Indigenous community Indigenous community Locals community Indigenous community Local community

Different indigenous communities

Leaf decoction is given in diarrhoea Roots are used in diarrhoea

Johnsy et al. (2013)


Arunachal Pradesh

Hibiscus sabdariffa L.

1001

1002

Table 2 (continued ) Plant species

Ethnic/ Indigenous Region, State group

Source


Root extract is taken twice daily in empty stomach to cure dysentery and diarrhoea

Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Uttar Pradesh Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh

Bark is pounded in water and given orally twice a day for two days in diarrhoea Leaves are used in diarrhoea and dysentery

Sen and Behera (2008) Wagh et al. (2011) Singh et al. (2010)

Juice of leaves is given for dysentery. Decoction of bark is used for diarrhoea and dysentery Fresh juice of bark is given with goat's milk in diarrhoea

Johnsy et al. (2013) Shukla et al. (2010)

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex Indigenous DC.) Wight & Arn. communities Indigenous community

Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Mayurbhanj district, Orissa Aurangabad district, Maharashtra

Bark is used to treat dysentery

Rout and Panda (2010) Mali and Bhadane (2011)

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb.

Tarai and Bhawar, Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu Aurangabad district, Maharashtra

Fruits are used in treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea

Joshi (2011)

The paste of bark is kept in water overnight and administered next day in dysentery Mature and dry fruit is used for diarrhoea and dysentery Decoction of fruits is given in diarrhoea

Wagh et al. (2011) Johnsy et al. (2013) Mali and Bhadane (2011)

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Bhil and Bhilala Miers Local community

Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu

Decoction of whole plant is given orally thrice a day for two days in diarrhoea The infusion of plant with long pepper and honey is given for chronic dysentery

Wagh et al. (2011) Johnsy et al. (2013)

Tridax procumbens (L.) L.



Root paste is taken three times a day to cure dysentery

Sen and Behera (2008)

Vernoia cinerea (L.) Less.

Indigenous communities Local community

Sirumalai Hills, Eastern Ghats, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand

Roots are used in diarrhoea

Alagesaboopathi (2012) Gaur (1999)

Vitex negundo L.

Irular community Tai Ahom

Palamalai Hills, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu Dibrugarh district, Assam.

Sufficient amount of fried young leaves are given to take twice daily for three days

Indigenous community Local community Local community

Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand Shiwalik Himalaya

Fresh flowers are directly taken against blood dysentery. Dose: 10 flowers are taken, once daily for four days Juice of flowers with honey is used to cure dysentery Flowers used to treat dysentery

Rural women


Dried flowers are used in dysentery

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.

Local community


Decoction of root and stem bark powder is given in diarrhoea

Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.

Local community

Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Decoction of bark is used in dysentery Uttar Pradesh Tahsil Multai, district Betul, 15 ml extract of bark is used 7 day, thrice a day to cure diarrhoea Madhya Pradesh Churu district, Thar Desert, Powder of stem bark is used in Diarrhoea Rajasthan

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Indigenous community Bhil and Bhilala Local community Local community Traditional healers

Local community Bhil and Bhilala Local community Indigenous community

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz

Traditional healers Rural communities

Bark is allowed to macerate with water and the decoction is taken internally to cures dysentery

Leaf extract used to treat dysentery Powdered flowers are given with milk to treat diarrhoea

Umapriya et al. (2011) Kalita and Phukan (2010) Kar and Borthakur (2008) Tiwari et al. (2010) Gaur and Sharma (2011) Uniyal and Shiva (2005) Tiwari et al. (2010) Singh et al. (2010) Dahare and Jain (2010) Parveen et al. (2007)




Extract taken from flowers of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. is used by local community of Arunachal Pradesh (Singh et al., 2006), while seeds are used by Boxa community in the present study. Mishings community of Dibrugarh district, Assam used half ripe fruit of Musa balbisiana Colla to cure dysentery (Baruah and Kalita, 2007), but Bhoxa community used roots of same plant for treatment of the disease. Bhoxa community used whole plant of Ocimum tenuiflorum L. to treat diarrhoea but indigenous community of Bargarh district, Orissa used its seed and root for treatment (Sen and Behera, 2008). Stem bark (Kar and Borthakur, 2008), root (Gaur, 1999; Raju and Reddy, 2005; Gaur and Sharma, 2011), leaves (Shukla et al., 2010; Kar and Borthakur, 2008) and fruits (Gaur, 1999) of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz have been previously reported to be used in treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, but in the present study we have recorded use of seeds of this plant in treatment by Bhoxa community. Bark of Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr. was reported to be used by local community of Amarkantak region, Madhya Pradesh (Srivastava et al., 2012), but Bhoxa community used gum of this plant for the treatment. Indigenous community of Sirumalai Hills, Eastern Ghats, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu used leaves of Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (Alagesaboopathi, 2012), but Bhoxa community used seeds of this plant. Indigenous community of Bargarh district, Orissa used root of Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. to cure diarrhoea but Bhoxa community used fruit for the treatment. Bark of Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz is used by indigenous community of Similipal biosphere reserve, Mayurbhanj district, Orissa (Rout and Panda, 2010), but fruit is used in treatment by Bhoxa community. Roots of Sterculia villosa Roxb. are used by different communities of Cachar district, Assam (Das et al., 2008) on the other hand gum is used by Bhoxa community. Use of various plant parts of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels to cure dysentery and diarrhoea was reported by various workers viz., root (Sen and Behera, 2008), bark (Wagh et al., 2011; Johnsy et al., 2013; Shukla et al., 2010) and leaves (Singh et al., 2010: Johnsy et al., 2013), but in the present study we have recorded use of whole plant by the Bhoxa community. Indigenous communities of Sirumalai Hills, Eastern Ghats, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu used roots (Alagesaboopathi, 2012) and of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand used leaves (Gaur, 1999) of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. to treat dysentery and diarrhoea but Bhoxa community used whole plant. Bhoxa community used root of Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, whereas local communities of Chatara block, Sonebhadra district, Uttar Pradesh (Singh et al., 2010), Tahsil Multai, Betul district, Madhya Pradesh (Dahare and Jain, 2010) and Churu district, Thar desert, Rajasthan (Parveen et al., 2007) used its bark only. The information on pharmacological studies on animal models showing antidiarrhoeal properties of the plants recorded in the present study is summarized in Table 1. Plant name, plant part tested, solvent or extracts used, dosage, tested against and animal experimental model used along with the source of the study is given in Table 1. Out of the recorded 50 plants reported in the present study only 27 have been pharmacologically evaluated on animal models for their antidiarrhoeal properties (Table 1). These studies confirm that these 27 plants have some antidiarrhoeal properties, while, rest 23 plants have not been evaluated pharmacologically for their antidiarrhoeal properties. These plants are Achyranthes aspera L., Adhatoda zeylanica Medik., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd., Argemone mexicana L., Boerhavia diffusa L., Bombax ceiba L., Cassia fistula L., Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W. Theob., Dioscorea bulbifera L., E. thymifolia L., Madhuca longifolia (J.Konig ex L.) J.F.Macbr., Musa balbisiana Colla, Ocimum tenuiflorum L., Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr., Prunus persica (L.) Stokes, Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr., Shorea robusta Roxb. ex Gaertn., Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz, Sterculia villosa Roxb., Terminalia arjuna

1003

(Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn., Tridax procumbens (L.) L., Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz and Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. In most of the pharmacological experiments the castor oil induced diarrhoea model was used. Castor oil induces diarrhoea in the upper intestine by the formation of an active compound of castor oil ricinoleic acid. This being poorly absorbed induces change in the mucosal permeability, electrolyte transport and intestinal peristalsis, leading to diarrhoea (Bimelsh et al., 2010; Sarin and Bafna, 2012). Literature review revealed that most of the plant species reported in the present study possess antimicrobial properties against wide spectrum of microbes (Table 1). Table 1 provides summary of studies showing antimicrobial properties of the plants recorded in the present study. Information about botanical name of the plant, plant part used, solvent or extracts used, extract tested against, most effective extract, extract most effective against, phytoconstituents recorded in the plant and source to the study is provided in Table 1. Six plants out of these 50 plants have not been tested against any of the microorganisms for their antimicrobial activity. These plants are Dalbergia sissoo DC., Euphorbia thymifolia L., Musa balbisiana Colla, Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr., Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. and Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb. These studies suggest that the recorded plant species have some important phytoconstituents, which are effective against microbes, imparting them antimicrobial and antidiarrhoeal properties. Most of these studies infer antimicrobial activities of these plants to the presence of alkaloids, flavanoids, tannins, saponins, steroids, phenols and glycosides in them, which they have confirmed by the preliminary phytochemical screening of the extracts (Table 1). Sarin and Bafna (2012) also suggested that the main chemical constituents in plants found to be responsible for antidiarrhoeal activity are tannins and tannic acid, flavonoids, alkaloids, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, terpenes and terpenoids. Some of the plants recorded in the present study contain active molecules which have scientifically proven antimicrobial properties. 17-Pentatriacontanol present in shoot of Achyranthes aspera L., 7-O-[α-L-Xylopyranosyl-(1-3)-α-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1-4)-βD-galactopyranoside] present in flowers of Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub., 3′–O-(6-O-Methyl-β-D-glucuronopyranoside) present in leaves of Vitex negundo L., Corilagin or 1-O-Galloyl-3,6-(R)hexahydroxydiphenoyl-β-D-glucopyranose present in leaves of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd., Vitelignin A present in seeds of Vitex negundo L., 1,2,4,5-Tetrahydroxy-7-methylanthraquinone or 2-Me ether present in bark of Dalbergia sissoo DC., 4,6-(Hexahydroxydiphenoyl)glucose present in Euphorbia thymifolia L., 5,7-Dihydroxyflavone or Chrysin present in Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, Marmesin present in Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. and Sanguinarine present in Argemone mexican L. are active antifungal agents (D.N.P., 2013). 2-Hentriacontanone and 5-Nonatetracontanone present in pods of Cassia fistula L., Isotrilobine present in stems and roots of Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W. Theob., 3,5-Dihydroxystilbene or Pinosylvin present in Dalbergia sissoo DC., and 6,7-Dimethoxy-3-methyl-9H-carbazol-1-ol present in leaves of Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. are active antibacterial agents, whereas Corilagin or 1-O-Galloyl-3,6-(R)-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-β-D-glucopyranose present in leaves of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd., Sanguinarine present in Argemone mexicana L., and Eugenol or 2-Methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) phenol present in Celosia argentea L. are active antimicrobial agents (D.N.P., 2013). 1Methoxy-9H-carbazole-3-carboxaldehyde present in stem bark of Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. is active against Gram-positive bacteria, Vitexilactone or 6,9-Dihydroxy-13-labden-15,16-olide present in leaves of Vitex negundo L. is active against fungi, yeast and bacteria, 4Methoxydalbergione from heartwood of Dalbergia sissoo DC. showed limited antibacterial and antifungal activity, 1,8-Dihydroxy-3-(hydroxymethyl) anthraquinone present in Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

1004


showed antibacterial activity against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (D.N.P., 2013). The aforesaid molecules are responsible for the antimicrobial properties of the respective plant species, which corroborates the ethnomedicinal claims made by the traditional healers of the Bhoxa community.

4. Conclusions The medicinal plants have been used as a major source of therapeutic agents by human race since time immemorial. By documenting their therapeutic uses, we can provide basic tools for modern ethnopharmacological research. In recent years the drug resistance of human pathogenic bacteria has been commonly reported from all over the world (Singh et al., 1992), which is one of the most important challenges faced by the modern civilization today. There is an urgent need to pay attention to adopt research strategies, through which new herbal formulations could be developed which could be used for treatment without any side effects. Therefore, we should search for new antidysentery and antidiarrhoeal drugs which could provide effective protection against these resistant organisms. In this context, traditional ethnomedicines may provide important lead for discovery and development of new drugs. In this paper we have not only tried to scientifically enumerate ethnomedicinal plants used by Bhoxa community to treat dysentery and diarrhoea, but also to discuss most promising plant species in the light of the previous ethnomedicinal, pharmacological, microbiological and phytochemical studies. In the present study, we have recorded use of 50 plant species (45 genera and 30 families) for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by Bhoxa community. Use of three plant species viz., Dioscorea bulbifera L., Euphorbia thymifolia L. and Prunus persica (L.) Stokes, in treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea has been recorded for the first time in the present study. FL and UV values revealed that most preferred species for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by Bhoxa community are Euphorbia hirta L. followed by Holarrhena pubescens Wall., Helicteres isora L. and Cassia fistula L. Through comparison with the previous ethnomedicinal studies, we observed that same plant part was used for the treatment in case of 29 out of 50 recorded plants. But in case of 18 plants, use of different plant part to treat same disease is recorded in the present study for the first time. Literature review confirmed that 27 plants recorded in the present study have some proven antidiarrhoeal properties and remaining 23 plants have to be pharmacologically evaluated for their antidiarrhoeal properties. Most of the recorded plants have shown some antimicrobial properties in previous microbiological studies. Six out of these 50 plants have not been tested for their antimicrobial activity and further studies on these plants may be initiated. In the present study it is also observed that the precise knowledge of the plants and their medicinal properties are held by only a few individuals in this community. Therefore, more efforts are urgently required to tap this traditional information and to convert it into scientific language for proper scientific screening and evaluation. The present information may serve as a baseline data to initiate further research for discovery of new compounds and biological activities of these potential plants.

Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to the traditional healers of the Bhoxa community for providing valuable information and sharing their knowledge with us. We are also grateful to local people for their cooperation during the field surveys. One of the Author Dr. Jyotsana Sharma is also thankful to University Grants Commission, India for providing financial support under Dr. D.S. Kothari Postdoctoral Fellowship.

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