Vol. 31, No. 1 Printed in U.S.A.
APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Jan. 1976, p. 53-59 Copyright C 1976 American Society for Microbiology
Preliminary Studies on the Characterization and Distribution of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus Species on Animal Skin1 WESLEY E. KLOOS,* RAYMOND J. ZIMMERMAN,
AND
RODNEY F. SMITH
Department of Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, and Public Health Laboratory Services, Contra Costa County Health Department, Martinez, California 94553
Received for publication 7 July 1975
A total of 221 strains of staphylococci and 98 strains of micrococci isolated from the skins of Eastern gray squirrels, Southern flying squirrels, raccoons, opossums, squirrel monkeys, swine, sheep, horses, cattle, and dogs were characterized in a preliminary attempt to resolve their natural relationships and distribution in nature. Staphylococci demonstrating the widest host range included Staphylococcus xylosus and unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 3. Unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 2 was isolated only from sheep, Staphylococcus sp. 4 only from opossums, Staphylococcus sp. 5 only from squirrel monkeys, and Staphylococcus sp. 6 only from swine. The predominant species isolated from human skin, including S. epidermidis, S. hominis, S. haemolyticus, and S. capitis, were either not isolated or only rarely isolated from animal skin. Micrococcus varians was the predominant Micrococcus species isolated from animal skin. M. luteus was only occasionally isolated. M. lylae, M. sedentarius, M. roseus, M. kristinae, and M. nishinomiyaensis, species occasionally isolated from human skin, were not isolated from animal skin.
Numerous studies have characterized animal strains of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus biotypes and possible subspecies. The majority of these studies have been conducted with strains isolated from bovine (8, 27, 29) and canine (4, 18, 26) sources. A few studies have been conducted with strains isolated from swine (9, 28), horses (24), hares (10, 25), mink (11, 25), sheep (21), and other animals. S. aureus strains isolated from humans and certain animals could be distinguished on the basis of specific biochemical, nutritional, phage typing, and serological properties (19, 22, 24, 31). Studies characterizing animal coagulasenegative staphylococci and their distribution on animal skin have been reported infrequently in the literature. Most investigators used the system of biotyping proposed by Baird-Parker (1, 2, 12, 23) which is not aimed at resolving the majority of staphylococci at a species or subspecies level. Also, by using this system, many staphylococci producing weak acid from glucose under anaerobic conditions would have been misclassified as micrococci. Since methods are now available to clearly separate staphylococci
from micrococci (16, 32, 33) and comprehensive systematic studies have resolved up to 12 Staphylococcus and 8 Micrococcus species isolated from human skin (14-17, 32; W. E. Kloos, K. H. Schleifer, and R. F. Smith, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., in press), we have proceeded in the present study to begin to explore the characterization and distribution of staphylococci and micrococci isolated from animal skin. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling. A total of 14 Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), nine from Sunbury and five from Raleigh, N.C.; five Southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) from Raleigh, N.C.; three raccoons (Procyon lotor) and 11 opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from Sunbury, N.C.; and four horses (Equus caballus) and five cattle (Bos taurus) from farms in Chapel Hill, N.C., were sampled once during August through December, 1972. Five pigs (Sus scrofa) from farms in Chapel Hill and three pigs and five sheep (Ovis aries) from the North Carolina State University farms in Raleigh, N.C., were sampled once in November, 1972, and March, 1975, respectively. Two dogs (Canis familiarus), one from Raleigh, N.C., and one from New Brunswick, N.J., were sampled once in November and October, 1971, respectively. Two squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciurea), freshly captured from Columbia, South America, and maintained in cages at the Burroughs Wellcome Company, Research Triangle Park, N.C.,
I Paper no. 4808 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh, N.C. 27607.
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KLOOS, ZIMMERMAN, AND SMITH
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were
sp. 1. These strains were similar to those previ-
Characterization of Staphylococcus species isolated from animal skin. The five coagulasepositive S. aureus strains isolated from animal skin were similar in most characteristics to strains isolated from human skin (14, 15). A second group of eight coagulase-positive staphylococci isolated from animal skin that were distinguishable from the above S. aureus strains by a number of characters were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus
ously described by Reeder and Ekstedt (30), Oeding (24), and Kloos and Schleifer (14, 15) which differed from typical S. aureus strains by having glycerol and galactosamine as components of teichoic acid, usually weaker anaerobic growth in a thioglycolate medium, no or only weak hemolysin activity on bovine blood agar, usually no or only weak acid produced, aerobically, from maltose and n-mannitol, and lack of pigmentation. Thirty S. sciuri strains isolated in this study were described earlier in a proposal for new species status (Kloos et al., in press). Strains isolated from members of the squirrel family Sciuridae could be distinguished from strains isolated from most other animals in having a higher resistance to lysostaphin. Sixty-four S. xylosus strains isolated from animals had very similar character parameters to those isolated from human skin (14, 32; Kloos et al., in press). Five strains of staphylococci isolated from sheep skin appeared to be related to S. xylosus and S. sciuri and were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 2. These strains could be distinguished from either of the above species by their orange pigment and small colony diameter, unique umbonate colony profile, lack of acid production from n-((+)-galactose, and a combination of other characteristics. Like S. sciuri, they produced acid aerobically from n-(+)-fucose, D-(+)cellobiose, and B3-gentiobiose. Twenty S. cohnii strains isolated from animals were similar to those isolated from human skin in many character parameters (14, 16, 32); however, several noteworthy discrepancies were observed that might suggest some divergence and a separate subspecies status. Hence, their classification here as S. cohnii is only tentative. Strains isolated from several different animals produced slightly larger colonies and usually more intense anaerobic growth in a thioglycolate medium, and more strains produced acid aerobically from -( + )-galactose, n-(+)-mannose, maltose, a-lactose, and Dmannitol as compared to strains isolated from human skin. Forty-eight strains of staphylococci isolated from a variety of animal species that appeared to be somewhat intermediate in relationship between S. xylosus and S. cohnii were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 3. These strains were different from S. xylosus in having only glistening colonies with an entire edge, no or occasionally very weak anaerobic growth in a thioglycolate medium, no reduction of nitrates, no or only weak pro-
sampled once in March, 1973. Samples were taken from healthy skin at one site on the forehead, one anterior naris, inner and outer sides of the forelimbs and hindlimbs, abdomen, and back of each animal. Samples were also taken from the marsupium (ventral pouch) in female opossums. Sampling procedures. Sterile cotton swabs were moistened with a detergent containing 0.1% Triton X-100 in 0.075 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.9 (35), and rubbed vigorously, with rotation, over approximately 8-cm2 sites. Sites on the body were exposed for swabbing by parting the pelage away from the site area. Swabbing was performed for 5 on sites in the anterior nares and ventral pouch (opossums only) that usually contained large populations of bacteria and for 15 s on sites of the forehead, forelimbs, hindlimbs, abdomen, and back that usually contained relatively small populations (13). Swabs taken from the forehead, forelimbs, hindlimbs, abdomen, and back were immediately applied directly on agar media by rubbing, with rotation, over the entire surface for two consecutive times. Swabs taken from the anterior naris and ventral pouch were immediately rinsed once in 5 ml of detergent and then applied to the surface of agar media. Isolation medium. The original isolating medium (P agar) (16) was nonselective for bacteria, but contained the mold inhibitor cycloheximide (50 lAg/ml). Later, we also employed an additional isolating medium that was similar in composition to the above, but contained 7.5% NaCl to inhibit the development of common large or spreading Bacillus colonies. Bacteriological analysis. Inoculated agar media were incubated aerobically at 34 C. After 4 days, colonies were counted and their morphology and pigment were recorded. In most instances, one representative of each colony type per site was picked and isolated on P agar. Subcultures were stored at 4 C. Identification of bacteria. Subcultures of bacteria were first tentatively identified or grouped on the basis of colony and cell morphology, pigmentation (when present), Gram stain, catalase activity, growth pattern in a semisolid thioglycolate medium, and growth rate (3, 7, 13, 14, 16, 33). Those suspected of being staphylococci or micrococci were tested further for specific genus and species characteristics by previously described procedures and current schemes (14-16, 32-34; Kloos et al., in press). s
RESULTS
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duction of acid aerobically from >-(+)-galactose, and no acid from i-(+)-mannose, D-(+)-xylose, a-lactose, sucrose, or D-(+)-turanose. On the other hand, these strains were different from S. cohnii on the basis of pigmentation pattern, no or occasionally very weak anaerobic growth (as mentioned above), weak-to-moderate phosphatase activity, no lecithinase activity or hydrolysis of Tween 80, no or only weak production of acid aerobically from -(+)-galactose, no acid from -(+)-mannose, a-lactose, or xylitol, and often producing acid from -(+)arabinose and n-(-)-ribose. The three S. saprophyticus strains isolated from animal skin were very similar to those isolated from human skin (14, 32), with the one exception that they produced acid aerobically from -(+)-galactose. Different clusters of eight strains of staphylococci isolated from opossum skin, eight strains from squirrel monkey skin, and six strains from pig skin could not be identified with currently recognized Staphylococcus species or the unnamed species mentioned above and were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus spp. 4, 5, and 6, respectively. Staphylococcus sp. 4 was resistant (-1.6 ,ug/ml) and Staphylococcus sp. 5 was slightly resistant (0.4 to 0.8 gg/ml) to novobiocin, which together with certain other characteristics would suggest a relationship to the novobiocin-resistant species group composed of S. sciuri, S. xylosus, S. cohnii, and S. saprophyticus. Staphylococcus sp. 4, isolated from opossums, possessed the unique character combination of nitrate reduction, resistance to novobiocin, weak-to-moderate deoxyribonuclease, caseinolytic, and gelatinase activities, moderate phosphatase activity and lipolytic activity on triolein, production of acid aerobically from -(+)-mannose, sucrose, and 8-gentiobiose, but no acid produced from maltose, n-(+)-cellobiose, D-(+)-fucose, D-(+)xylose, or L-(+)-arabinose. Staphylococcus sp. 5, isolated from squirrel monkeys, demonstrated a unique colony morphology and pigment pattern and possessed the unique character combination of nitrate reduction, slight resistance to novobiocin, moderate caseinolytic, gelatinase, lecithinase, and phosphatase activities and lipolytic activities on triolein and tributyrin, production of acid aerobically from maltose, sucrose, D-mannitol, n-((+)-turanose, D-(+)-trehalose, and usually L-(+)-arabinose, but no acid was produced from n-(-)-ribose, D-(+)-xylose, or 83-gentiobiose. This species also contained a cell wall peptidoglycan similar to the L-Lys-Gly,5, L-Sero.&1.5 type found in predominately human Staphylococcus species (K. H. Schleifer, personal communication). Strains
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of Staphylococcus sp. 6 appeared to be similar to a group of porcine staphylococci described by Baird-Parker (2) and Smith and Bettge (34). The seven S. haemolyticus, two S. warneri, and three S. epidermidis strains isolated from animal skin were very similar to those isolated from human skin (14, 33). Characterization of Micrococcus species isolated from animal skin. M. luteus strains isolated from animal skin were very similar to those isolated from human skin (16). M. varians strains isolated from animal skin were similar to those isolated from human skin in most character parameters (16); however, one group of 10 strains isolated predominantly from Eastern gray squirrels and occasionally from opossums living in the Dismal Swamp area around Sunbury, N.C., were different from human strains in that they produced orange-yellow to orange pigmented colonies and all strains tested produced acid aerobically from D-(+)-xylose. The latter strains may represent a distinct geographical race. Distribution of Staphylococcus species on various animal skins. The most widely distributed Staphylococcus species isolated from animal skin in this study was S. xylosus, followed by Staphylococcus sp. 3, S. sciuri, and Staphylococcus sp.1 (Table 1). Other staphylococci were isolated from only one or, at most, three different animal species and, therefore, appear to be exhibiting some degree of host specificity. S. aureus was isolated from only two out of 14 Eastern gray squirrels and one out of eight pigs. The closely related species Staphylococcus sp. 1 was isolated from a slightly larger variety of animal species including Eastern gray squirrels, raccoons, squirrel monkeys, and dogs. In general, the coagulase-positive staphylococci were found on a relatively small-to-moderate percentage of individuals within a species and usually composed only a small-to-moderate percentage of the total staphylococci isolated from skin. S. sciuri was one of the major species isolated from the Eastern gray squirrel and Southern flying squirrel. All of the squirrels sampled contained moderate to relatively large populations of this species. S. sciuri was also occasionally isolated from opossums, raccoons, sheep and dogs. The related species Staphylococcus sp. 2 was only found in sheep. S. xylosus was isolated from a wide variety of animal species and was often present in a large percentage of individuals within a species. It also usually composed a moderate-tolarge percentage of the total staphylococci isolated from skin. Very high percentages of this
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KLOOS, ZIMMERMAN, AND SMITH
TABLE 1. Occurrence of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus species on the skins of various animals Animal host Eas- South-
tern
Genus and species
gray
SquirRac- Opos- rel S
ern
flying
squir- squirrel (14)a
rel (5)
(14)C C7 100 0 64 86 0 (7) 0 0 0 (7) 0 0
0 0 100 0 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
coon
sum
(3)
(11)
mon-
key
Swine Sheep (8) (5)
Total wild and domes- Humans tic ani- studiedb Horse Cattle Dog mals tud- (40) (4) (5) (2) ied (9
(2)
Staphylococcus: S. aureus Staphylococcus sp. S. sciuri Staphylococcus sp. S. xylosus Staphylococcus sp. S. cohnii S. saprophyticus Staphylococcus sp. Staphylococcus sp. Staphylococcus sp. S. haemolyticus S. warneri S. epidermidis Micrococcus: M. Iuteus M. varians
1
2 3 4 5 6
21 64
0 0
0 0 0 12 0 B 33 0 A 50 0 0 33 36 0 0 C 20 0 0 0 0 100 33 36 0 12 100 100 100 0 12 20 0 C 45 B 100 D 12 0 0 0 0 (12) 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 (33) 0 0 12 0 0 67
0 100
0 50
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 100 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 (20) (20) 0
0 A 50 50 0 50 0 0 (50) 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 7 44 8 59 58 14 5 19 3 14 5 2 3
52 12 10 0 42 0 35 70 0 0 0 78 52 100
0 25
20 40
50 50
8 46
95 83
Number of individuals sampled per animal host species. References 13, 14, 16, and Kloos et al., in press. Percentages of individuals from which Staphylococcus or Micrococcus species were isolated. Parentheses around percentages denote that only one or two colonies of the species were isolated from an individual. Capital letters preceding percentages signify different suspected unnamed subspecies within the designated species. S. simulans, S. hominis, and S. capitis were not isolated from animals but were isolated from 12, 100, and 65%, respectively, of the 40 humans studied previously. M. lylae, M. sedentarius, M. kristinae, M. roseus, and M. nishinomiyaensis were not isolated from animals but were isolated from 35, 20, 35, 10, and 38%, respectively, of the 40 humans. a
I c
species were found in sheep, horses, and cattle. contained moderate-to-large populations of these Staphylococcus sp. 3 was isolated primarily organisms. from wild animals and occasionally from doS. haemolyticus, S. epidermidis, and S. mestic animals. This species usually composed warneri were isolated from only three, two, and a moderate percentage of the total staphylococci one of the 59 animals sampled, respectively.
isolated from skin in wild animals and a small S. haemolyticus was represented by a single isolated colony in one individual and two coloStrains tentatively identified as various S. nies in another. This species was represented cohnii subspecies were found on three different by 28 colonies in a head site and 12 colonies in a animal species, namely, opossums, squirrel naris site of one pig. S. epidermidis and S. monkeys, and pigs. These organisms composed warneri were each represented by two colonies only a small-to-moderate percentage of the in one individual and in one pig; S. epidermidis total staphylococci isolated from skin. was represented by 49 colonies in a naris site. S. saprophyticus was isolated from only three As previously mentioned above for S. saproout of the 59 animals sampled in this study phyticus, very small frequencies of isolation and in each case was represented by a single and numbers of isolates do raise a question as isolated colony. For this reason, a serious ques- to the original source of these species. By tion should be raised as to the original source comparison, out of 40 humans sampled in an of this species, i.e., whether it is indigenous earlier study (13), S. haemolyticus was isolated or represents a contaminant from another from 78%, S. epidermidis from 100%, and S. source. warneri from 52% of the individuals. Staphylococcus sp. 4 was only isolated from Most of the various Staphylococcus species opossums, Staphylococcus sp. 5 only from found on animal skin in this study did not apsquirrel monkeys, and Staphylococcus sp. 6 pear to exhibit significant skin site specificity only from pigs. These species were among the in those areas sampled. However, S. aureus major staphylococci isolated from each of the was isolated predominantly from the nares and respective animal species and all individuals abdomen, and S. sciuri was only occasionally
percentage in domestic animals.
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isolated from the nares. We believe that a more comprehensive study involving additional animals and skin sites would be required to clearly resolve any subtle site specificity that might be present. Distribution of Micrococcus species on various animal skins. Micrococci were commonly isolated as relatively large populations from the nine Eastern gray squirrels living in the Dismal Swamp area around Sunbury, N.C., but were found as very small populations on the five Eastern gray squirrels living in Raleigh, N.C., and the three raccoons, eleven opossums, two squirrel monkeys, four horses, five cattle, and two dogs. Members of the genus Micrococcus were not isolated from Southern flying squirrels, pigs, or sheep in this preliminary study. The most widely distributed Micrococcus species isolated from animal skin was M. varians (Table 1). M. luteus was isolated from only three different animal species. Micrococci were isolated from a wide variety of skin sites, but were seldom isolated from the nares. DISCUSSION Staphylococcus species populations isolated from animal skin were remarkably different from those isolated from human skin in earlier studies (13, 14, 32). Differences were observed in the predominant species present and species characteristics. The predominant species isolated from animal skin, including S. xylosus, Staphylococcus sp. 3, and S. sciuri, as well as several species with a limited host range, were resistant to novobiocin and produced acid from n-mannitol under aerobic conditions, and representative strains contained the cell wall peptidoglycan types of L-Lys-Gly, or L-Lys-LAla-Gly4 (16; K. H. Schleifer, personal communication). Also, certain species produced acid from D-(+)-xylose, D-(+)-fucose, i-(+)arabinose, 83-gentiobiose, and/or D-(+)-cellobiose under aerobic conditions. On the other hand, the most predominant species isolated from human skin, including S. epidermidis, S. hominis, and S. haemolyticus, were susceptible to novobiocin, usually failed to produce acid from -mannitol, failed to produce acid from n-((+)-xylose, D-(+)-fucose, L-(+)-arabinose, 13gentiobiose, and -(+)-cellobiose, and contained the cell wall peptidoglycan type of L-Lys-Gly,5, L-Sero.,.5 (14, 32). Staphylococcus sp. 2 through 6 were not isolated from human skin, and S. simulans, S. capitis, and S. hominis, isolated from human skin (14), were not isolated from animal skin. The very rare isolation of S. sciuri and uncommon isolation of S. xylosus from human skin,
57
except when contact with pets or farm animals was notable, would suggest that these species are usually contaminants rather than residents on humans. Since S. sciuri and S. xylosus grow very poorly or fail to grow on an agar medium of pH 5.3 or below (6), we might not expect to find colonization of these species on human skin of about pH 5 (18). Both species grow well at pH 7.0 or slightly above, which is characteristic for the skin of several different mammals other than man (5). Conversely, the rare isolation of S. saprophyticus, S. haemolyticus, S. epidermidis, and S. warneri from animal skin would suggest that these species are usually contaminants rather than residents on animals. Differences in host range suggest to us the possibility that many Staphylococcus species may have evolved as a result of adaptation to different cutaneous environments. Of the 12 species reported to occur on human skin (13-16, 32; Kloos et al., in press), seven species appear to be limited in range to man, though we have not yet extended our studies to staphylococci of other closely related primates. Based on this finding and earlier studies illustrating certain species preferences for specific habitats (e.g., nares, axillae, head, legs, etc.) within the human cutaneous environment (13), we would hypothesize that different human Staphylococcus species may have evolved from one or at most a few ancestral species as a result of selective pressures imposed by different niches in the cutaneous environment or, alternatively, became adapted to human skin as a result of secondary contact. Future deoxyribonucleic acid hybridization and genetic recombination studies with the proposed species should help to provide an estimate of genetic relationships. One uncommon human species, S. warneri, appears to be somewhat intermediate between S. haemolyticus and S. hominis and is occasionally confused with these species when using only simple characters for differentiation. Perhaps it represents an ancestral form or a group of staphylococci that is only slightly divergent (or convergent) from S. haemolyticus or S. hominis. Another species that should prove interesting in studying the evolution of human staphylococci is S. saprophyticus. This human species appears to be somewhat intermediate between typical coagulase-negative animal and human staphylococci. Like most animal staphylococci, it is resistant to novobiocin, produces acid from D-mannitol and xylitol under aerobic conditions, and grows well at 15 C but not at 45 C; however, like major human staphylococci, it contains significant levels of L-serine in the cell wall peptidoglycan (14, 32). The
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. KLOOS, ZIMMERMAN, AND SMITH amino acid requirement profile of this species Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the Shriners of North is also intermediate between typical animal America. and human species and, like human species, it LITERATURE CITED grows well at pH 5.3 (6). Since S. saprophy- 1. Baird-Parker, A. C. 1962. The occurrence and enumeraticus appears to link human and animal tion, according to a new classification, of micrococci staphylococci, it might conceivably represent and staphylococci in bacon and on human and pig skin. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 25:352-361. an ancestral form of certain other human speA. C. 1963. A classification of micrococci cies; this, of course, is based on the reasonable 2. Baird-Parker, and staphylococci based on physiological and bioassumption that the more archaic forms of chemical tests. J. Gen. Microbiol. 30:409-427. staphylococci first appeared on animals. 3. Buchanan, R. E., and N. E. Gibbons (ed.). 1974. Bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology, 8th Staphylococcus sp. 5, isolated from only ed. The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore. squirrel monkeys in this study, appears to be 4. Coles, E. H. 1963. Staphylococcus aureus of canine like typical coagulase-negative human staphyorigin. I. Bacteriophage typing and antibiotic senlococci in that it contains significant levels of sitivity of cultures isolated from diseased dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 24:803-807. L-serine in the cell wall peptidoglycan, but like J. H. 1942. The determination of the pH of the certain animal staphylococci it is slightly re- 5. Draize, skin of man and common laboratory animals. J. sistant to novobiocin and produces acid from Invest. Dermatol. 5:77-85. L-(+)-arabinose and r-mannitol under aerobic 6. Emmett, M., and W. E. Kloos. 1975. Amino acid requirements of staphylococci isolated from human conditions. It would be interesting to study skin. Can. J. Microbiol. 21:729-733. additional primates, especially the Pongidae, 7. Evans, J. B., and W. E. Kloos. 1972. Use of shake to see if their staphylococci are more closely recultures in a semisolid thioglycolate medium for lated to those of humans than other mammals. differentiating staphylococci from micrococci. Appl. Microbiol. 23:326-331. Individual animal hosts in this study did not V., and E. MarMlek. 1969. A study of staphycontain as large a variety of different Staphy- 8. Hajek, of bovine origin. Staphylococcus aureus var. lococci lococcus species as human hosts (13) and most bovis. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infekanimal staphylococci did not demonstrate protionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. 209:154-160. nounced skin site specificity. According to our 9. Hajek, V., and E. Marsalek. 1970. A study of staphylococci isolated from the upper respiratory tract of hypothesis, these results may be related to (i) different animal species. III. Physiological properties increased habitat uniformity, and/or (ii) reof Staphylococcus aureus strains of porcine origin. stricted skin area of the small animals. The Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parsitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. 214:68-74. several examples of host specificity reported in V., and E. MarMalek. 1971. A study of staphthis study should provide an impetus to explore 10. Hajek, ylococci isolated from the upper respiratory tract of additional animal species in search of new different animal species. IV. Physiological properties Staphylococcus species or subspecies. of Staphylococcus aureus strains of hare origin. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Micrococcus species populations isolated from animal skin contained only the two species 11. Abt. 1 Orig. 216:168-174. Hajek, V., E. MarMalek, and J. HubaMek. 1972. A M. varians and M. luteus. M. lylae, M. study of staphylococci isolated from the upper sedentarius, M. roseus, M. kristinae, and M. respiratory tract of different animal species. V. Communication: physiological properties of Staphynishinomiyaensis, isolated from human skin in lococcus aureus strains from mink. Zentralbl. Bakearlier studies (16), were not isolated from teriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1. Orig. animals. Reihe A 222:194-199. This preliminary study should be followed by 12. Holmberg, 0. 1973. Staphylococcus epidermidis isomore comprehensive studies for more complete lated from bovine milk. Acta Vet. Scand. Suppl. 45:1-144. characterization of the staphylococci and micro- 13. Kloos, W. E., and M. S. Musselwhite. 1975. Distribucocci of specific animal host species. As in this tion and persistence of Staphylococcus and Micrococstudy, only a small number of individuals were cus species and other aerobic bacteria on human skin. Appl. Microbiol. 30:381-395. sampled per host species; some of the uncommon Staphylococcus and Micrococcus species or 14. Kloos, W. E., and K. H. Schleifer. 1975. Isolation and characterization of staphylococci from human skin. subspecies may not have been isolated. II. Descriptions of four new species: Staphylococcus
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are greatly indebted to M. Musselwhite and D. Blasi for their excellent technical assistance throughout this study. We are also thankful for the helpful advice provided by Lawrence E. Mettler and the help and facilities provided by M. Huish, B. S. Martof, C. H. Bostian, H. R. Perry, L. Platner, L. Goode, and B. H. Johnson for trapping animals and collecting specimens. This research was supported by Public Health Service research grant Al 08255 from the National Institute of
warneri, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus hominis, and Staphylococcus simulans. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 25:62-79. 15. Kloos, W. E., and K. H. Schleifer. 1975. Simplified scheme for routine identification of human Staphylococcus species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1:82-88. 16. Kloos, W. E., T. G. Tornabene, and K. H. Schleifer. 1974. Isolation and characterization of micrococci from human skin, including two new species: Micrococcus lylae and Micrococcus kristinae. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 24:79-101.
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17. Kocur, M., and K. H. Schleifer. 1975. Taxonomic status of Micrococcus agilis Ali-Cohen 1889. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 25:294-297. 18. Live, I. 1972. Differentiation of Staphylococcus aureus of human and of canine origins: coagulation of human and of canine plasma, fibrinolysin activity and serologic reaction. Am. J. Vet. Res. 33:385-391. 19. Live, I. 1972. Staphylococci in animals: differentiation and relationship to human staphylococcosis, p. 443456. In J. Cohen (ed.), The staphylococci. WileyInterscience Publications, New York. 20. Marples, M. J. 1965. The ecology of the human skin. Charles C Thomas, Publishers, Springfield, Ill. 21. Marsilek, E., and V. Hajek. 1973. The classification of pathogenic staphylococci, p. 30-37. In J. Jelaszewicz (ed.), Staphylococci and staphylococcal infections: recent progress. S. Karger, Basel. 22. Meyer, W. 1967. A proposal for subdividing the species Staphylococcus aureus. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 17:387389. 23. Mitchell, R. G., V. G. Alder, and K. Rosendal. 1974. The clawification of coagulase-negative Micrococcaceae from human and animal sources. J. Med. Microbiol. 7:131-135. 24. Oeding, P. 1973. Wall teichoic acids in animal Staphylococcus aureus strains determined by precipitation. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 81:327-336. 25. Oeding, P., V. Hijek, and E. Marblek. 1973. A comparison of antigenic structure and phage pattern with biochemical properties of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from hares and mink. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 81:567-570. 26. Oeding, P., J. L. Marandon, V. Hijek, and E. Mar&lek. 1970. Comparison of antigenic structure and phage pattern with biochemical properties of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from dogs and pigeons. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 78:414420. 27. Oeding, P., J. L. Marandon, V. Hajek, and E.
28.
29. 30.
31.
32.
33. 34.
35.
59
Mar&lek. 1971. A comparison of phage pattern and antigenic structure with biochemical properties of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from cattle. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 79:.357-364. Oeding, P., J. L. Marandon, W. Meyer, V. Htjek, and E. Marsalek. 1972. A comparison of phage pattern and antigenic structure with biochemical properties of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from swine. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 80:.525-533. Parisi, J. T., and J. N. Baldwin. 1963. The incidence and persistence of certain strains of Staphylococcus aureus in dairy herds. Am. J. Vet. Res. 24:551-556. Reeder, W. J., and R. D. Ekstedt. 1973. Unique teichoic acid isolated from the cell walls of a strain of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Immun. 7:586588. Rische, H., W. Meyer, H. TschBpe, W. Voigt, D. Ziomek, and R. Hummel. 1973. The taxonomy of Staphylococcus aureus, p. 24-29. In J. JeUaszewicz (ed.), Staphylococci and staphylococcal infections: recent progress. S. Karger, Basel. Schleifer, K. H., and W. E. Kloos. 1975. Isolation and characterization of staphylococci from human skin. I. Amended descriptions of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus and descriptions of three new species: Staphylococcus cohnii, Staphylococcus haemolyticu8, and Staphylococcus xylosus. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 25:50-61. Schleifer, K. H.. and W. E. Kloos. 1975. Simple test system for the separation of staphylococci from micrococci. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1:337-338. Smith, R. F., and C. L. Bettge. 1972. Comparative characteristics of human and porcine staphylococci and their differentiation in burn xenografting procedures. Appl. Microbiol. 24:929-932. Williamson, P. 1965. Quantitative estimation of cutaneous bacteria, p. 3-11. In H. I. Maibach and G. Hildick-Smith (ed.), Skin bacteria and their role in infection. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Jan. 1976, p. 53-59 Copyright C 1976 American Society for Microbiology
Preliminary Studies on the Characterization and Distribution of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus Species on Animal Skin1 WESLEY E. KLOOS,* RAYMOND J. ZIMMERMAN,
AND
RODNEY F. SMITH
Department of Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, and Public Health Laboratory Services, Contra Costa County Health Department, Martinez, California 94553
Received for publication 7 July 1975
A total of 221 strains of staphylococci and 98 strains of micrococci isolated from the skins of Eastern gray squirrels, Southern flying squirrels, raccoons, opossums, squirrel monkeys, swine, sheep, horses, cattle, and dogs were characterized in a preliminary attempt to resolve their natural relationships and distribution in nature. Staphylococci demonstrating the widest host range included Staphylococcus xylosus and unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 3. Unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 2 was isolated only from sheep, Staphylococcus sp. 4 only from opossums, Staphylococcus sp. 5 only from squirrel monkeys, and Staphylococcus sp. 6 only from swine. The predominant species isolated from human skin, including S. epidermidis, S. hominis, S. haemolyticus, and S. capitis, were either not isolated or only rarely isolated from animal skin. Micrococcus varians was the predominant Micrococcus species isolated from animal skin. M. luteus was only occasionally isolated. M. lylae, M. sedentarius, M. roseus, M. kristinae, and M. nishinomiyaensis, species occasionally isolated from human skin, were not isolated from animal skin.
Numerous studies have characterized animal strains of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus biotypes and possible subspecies. The majority of these studies have been conducted with strains isolated from bovine (8, 27, 29) and canine (4, 18, 26) sources. A few studies have been conducted with strains isolated from swine (9, 28), horses (24), hares (10, 25), mink (11, 25), sheep (21), and other animals. S. aureus strains isolated from humans and certain animals could be distinguished on the basis of specific biochemical, nutritional, phage typing, and serological properties (19, 22, 24, 31). Studies characterizing animal coagulasenegative staphylococci and their distribution on animal skin have been reported infrequently in the literature. Most investigators used the system of biotyping proposed by Baird-Parker (1, 2, 12, 23) which is not aimed at resolving the majority of staphylococci at a species or subspecies level. Also, by using this system, many staphylococci producing weak acid from glucose under anaerobic conditions would have been misclassified as micrococci. Since methods are now available to clearly separate staphylococci
from micrococci (16, 32, 33) and comprehensive systematic studies have resolved up to 12 Staphylococcus and 8 Micrococcus species isolated from human skin (14-17, 32; W. E. Kloos, K. H. Schleifer, and R. F. Smith, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., in press), we have proceeded in the present study to begin to explore the characterization and distribution of staphylococci and micrococci isolated from animal skin. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling. A total of 14 Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), nine from Sunbury and five from Raleigh, N.C.; five Southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) from Raleigh, N.C.; three raccoons (Procyon lotor) and 11 opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from Sunbury, N.C.; and four horses (Equus caballus) and five cattle (Bos taurus) from farms in Chapel Hill, N.C., were sampled once during August through December, 1972. Five pigs (Sus scrofa) from farms in Chapel Hill and three pigs and five sheep (Ovis aries) from the North Carolina State University farms in Raleigh, N.C., were sampled once in November, 1972, and March, 1975, respectively. Two dogs (Canis familiarus), one from Raleigh, N.C., and one from New Brunswick, N.J., were sampled once in November and October, 1971, respectively. Two squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciurea), freshly captured from Columbia, South America, and maintained in cages at the Burroughs Wellcome Company, Research Triangle Park, N.C.,
I Paper no. 4808 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh, N.C. 27607.
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54
KLOOS, ZIMMERMAN, AND SMITH
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were
sp. 1. These strains were similar to those previ-
Characterization of Staphylococcus species isolated from animal skin. The five coagulasepositive S. aureus strains isolated from animal skin were similar in most characteristics to strains isolated from human skin (14, 15). A second group of eight coagulase-positive staphylococci isolated from animal skin that were distinguishable from the above S. aureus strains by a number of characters were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus
ously described by Reeder and Ekstedt (30), Oeding (24), and Kloos and Schleifer (14, 15) which differed from typical S. aureus strains by having glycerol and galactosamine as components of teichoic acid, usually weaker anaerobic growth in a thioglycolate medium, no or only weak hemolysin activity on bovine blood agar, usually no or only weak acid produced, aerobically, from maltose and n-mannitol, and lack of pigmentation. Thirty S. sciuri strains isolated in this study were described earlier in a proposal for new species status (Kloos et al., in press). Strains isolated from members of the squirrel family Sciuridae could be distinguished from strains isolated from most other animals in having a higher resistance to lysostaphin. Sixty-four S. xylosus strains isolated from animals had very similar character parameters to those isolated from human skin (14, 32; Kloos et al., in press). Five strains of staphylococci isolated from sheep skin appeared to be related to S. xylosus and S. sciuri and were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 2. These strains could be distinguished from either of the above species by their orange pigment and small colony diameter, unique umbonate colony profile, lack of acid production from n-((+)-galactose, and a combination of other characteristics. Like S. sciuri, they produced acid aerobically from n-(+)-fucose, D-(+)cellobiose, and B3-gentiobiose. Twenty S. cohnii strains isolated from animals were similar to those isolated from human skin in many character parameters (14, 16, 32); however, several noteworthy discrepancies were observed that might suggest some divergence and a separate subspecies status. Hence, their classification here as S. cohnii is only tentative. Strains isolated from several different animals produced slightly larger colonies and usually more intense anaerobic growth in a thioglycolate medium, and more strains produced acid aerobically from -( + )-galactose, n-(+)-mannose, maltose, a-lactose, and Dmannitol as compared to strains isolated from human skin. Forty-eight strains of staphylococci isolated from a variety of animal species that appeared to be somewhat intermediate in relationship between S. xylosus and S. cohnii were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus sp. 3. These strains were different from S. xylosus in having only glistening colonies with an entire edge, no or occasionally very weak anaerobic growth in a thioglycolate medium, no reduction of nitrates, no or only weak pro-
sampled once in March, 1973. Samples were taken from healthy skin at one site on the forehead, one anterior naris, inner and outer sides of the forelimbs and hindlimbs, abdomen, and back of each animal. Samples were also taken from the marsupium (ventral pouch) in female opossums. Sampling procedures. Sterile cotton swabs were moistened with a detergent containing 0.1% Triton X-100 in 0.075 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.9 (35), and rubbed vigorously, with rotation, over approximately 8-cm2 sites. Sites on the body were exposed for swabbing by parting the pelage away from the site area. Swabbing was performed for 5 on sites in the anterior nares and ventral pouch (opossums only) that usually contained large populations of bacteria and for 15 s on sites of the forehead, forelimbs, hindlimbs, abdomen, and back that usually contained relatively small populations (13). Swabs taken from the forehead, forelimbs, hindlimbs, abdomen, and back were immediately applied directly on agar media by rubbing, with rotation, over the entire surface for two consecutive times. Swabs taken from the anterior naris and ventral pouch were immediately rinsed once in 5 ml of detergent and then applied to the surface of agar media. Isolation medium. The original isolating medium (P agar) (16) was nonselective for bacteria, but contained the mold inhibitor cycloheximide (50 lAg/ml). Later, we also employed an additional isolating medium that was similar in composition to the above, but contained 7.5% NaCl to inhibit the development of common large or spreading Bacillus colonies. Bacteriological analysis. Inoculated agar media were incubated aerobically at 34 C. After 4 days, colonies were counted and their morphology and pigment were recorded. In most instances, one representative of each colony type per site was picked and isolated on P agar. Subcultures were stored at 4 C. Identification of bacteria. Subcultures of bacteria were first tentatively identified or grouped on the basis of colony and cell morphology, pigmentation (when present), Gram stain, catalase activity, growth pattern in a semisolid thioglycolate medium, and growth rate (3, 7, 13, 14, 16, 33). Those suspected of being staphylococci or micrococci were tested further for specific genus and species characteristics by previously described procedures and current schemes (14-16, 32-34; Kloos et al., in press). s
RESULTS
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CHARACTERIZATION OF ISOLATED ANIMAL STRAINS
duction of acid aerobically from >-(+)-galactose, and no acid from i-(+)-mannose, D-(+)-xylose, a-lactose, sucrose, or D-(+)-turanose. On the other hand, these strains were different from S. cohnii on the basis of pigmentation pattern, no or occasionally very weak anaerobic growth (as mentioned above), weak-to-moderate phosphatase activity, no lecithinase activity or hydrolysis of Tween 80, no or only weak production of acid aerobically from -(+)-galactose, no acid from -(+)-mannose, a-lactose, or xylitol, and often producing acid from -(+)arabinose and n-(-)-ribose. The three S. saprophyticus strains isolated from animal skin were very similar to those isolated from human skin (14, 32), with the one exception that they produced acid aerobically from -(+)-galactose. Different clusters of eight strains of staphylococci isolated from opossum skin, eight strains from squirrel monkey skin, and six strains from pig skin could not be identified with currently recognized Staphylococcus species or the unnamed species mentioned above and were tentatively designated as unnamed Staphylococcus spp. 4, 5, and 6, respectively. Staphylococcus sp. 4 was resistant (-1.6 ,ug/ml) and Staphylococcus sp. 5 was slightly resistant (0.4 to 0.8 gg/ml) to novobiocin, which together with certain other characteristics would suggest a relationship to the novobiocin-resistant species group composed of S. sciuri, S. xylosus, S. cohnii, and S. saprophyticus. Staphylococcus sp. 4, isolated from opossums, possessed the unique character combination of nitrate reduction, resistance to novobiocin, weak-to-moderate deoxyribonuclease, caseinolytic, and gelatinase activities, moderate phosphatase activity and lipolytic activity on triolein, production of acid aerobically from -(+)-mannose, sucrose, and 8-gentiobiose, but no acid produced from maltose, n-(+)-cellobiose, D-(+)-fucose, D-(+)xylose, or L-(+)-arabinose. Staphylococcus sp. 5, isolated from squirrel monkeys, demonstrated a unique colony morphology and pigment pattern and possessed the unique character combination of nitrate reduction, slight resistance to novobiocin, moderate caseinolytic, gelatinase, lecithinase, and phosphatase activities and lipolytic activities on triolein and tributyrin, production of acid aerobically from maltose, sucrose, D-mannitol, n-((+)-turanose, D-(+)-trehalose, and usually L-(+)-arabinose, but no acid was produced from n-(-)-ribose, D-(+)-xylose, or 83-gentiobiose. This species also contained a cell wall peptidoglycan similar to the L-Lys-Gly,5, L-Sero.&1.5 type found in predominately human Staphylococcus species (K. H. Schleifer, personal communication). Strains
55
of Staphylococcus sp. 6 appeared to be similar to a group of porcine staphylococci described by Baird-Parker (2) and Smith and Bettge (34). The seven S. haemolyticus, two S. warneri, and three S. epidermidis strains isolated from animal skin were very similar to those isolated from human skin (14, 33). Characterization of Micrococcus species isolated from animal skin. M. luteus strains isolated from animal skin were very similar to those isolated from human skin (16). M. varians strains isolated from animal skin were similar to those isolated from human skin in most character parameters (16); however, one group of 10 strains isolated predominantly from Eastern gray squirrels and occasionally from opossums living in the Dismal Swamp area around Sunbury, N.C., were different from human strains in that they produced orange-yellow to orange pigmented colonies and all strains tested produced acid aerobically from D-(+)-xylose. The latter strains may represent a distinct geographical race. Distribution of Staphylococcus species on various animal skins. The most widely distributed Staphylococcus species isolated from animal skin in this study was S. xylosus, followed by Staphylococcus sp. 3, S. sciuri, and Staphylococcus sp.1 (Table 1). Other staphylococci were isolated from only one or, at most, three different animal species and, therefore, appear to be exhibiting some degree of host specificity. S. aureus was isolated from only two out of 14 Eastern gray squirrels and one out of eight pigs. The closely related species Staphylococcus sp. 1 was isolated from a slightly larger variety of animal species including Eastern gray squirrels, raccoons, squirrel monkeys, and dogs. In general, the coagulase-positive staphylococci were found on a relatively small-to-moderate percentage of individuals within a species and usually composed only a small-to-moderate percentage of the total staphylococci isolated from skin. S. sciuri was one of the major species isolated from the Eastern gray squirrel and Southern flying squirrel. All of the squirrels sampled contained moderate to relatively large populations of this species. S. sciuri was also occasionally isolated from opossums, raccoons, sheep and dogs. The related species Staphylococcus sp. 2 was only found in sheep. S. xylosus was isolated from a wide variety of animal species and was often present in a large percentage of individuals within a species. It also usually composed a moderate-tolarge percentage of the total staphylococci isolated from skin. Very high percentages of this
56
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KLOOS, ZIMMERMAN, AND SMITH
TABLE 1. Occurrence of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus species on the skins of various animals Animal host Eas- South-
tern
Genus and species
gray
SquirRac- Opos- rel S
ern
flying
squir- squirrel (14)a
rel (5)
(14)C C7 100 0 64 86 0 (7) 0 0 0 (7) 0 0
0 0 100 0 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
coon
sum
(3)
(11)
mon-
key
Swine Sheep (8) (5)
Total wild and domes- Humans tic ani- studiedb Horse Cattle Dog mals tud- (40) (4) (5) (2) ied (9
(2)
Staphylococcus: S. aureus Staphylococcus sp. S. sciuri Staphylococcus sp. S. xylosus Staphylococcus sp. S. cohnii S. saprophyticus Staphylococcus sp. Staphylococcus sp. Staphylococcus sp. S. haemolyticus S. warneri S. epidermidis Micrococcus: M. Iuteus M. varians
1
2 3 4 5 6
21 64
0 0
0 0 0 12 0 B 33 0 A 50 0 0 33 36 0 0 C 20 0 0 0 0 100 33 36 0 12 100 100 100 0 12 20 0 C 45 B 100 D 12 0 0 0 0 (12) 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 (33) 0 0 12 0 0 67
0 100
0 50
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 100 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 (20) (20) 0
0 A 50 50 0 50 0 0 (50) 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 7 44 8 59 58 14 5 19 3 14 5 2 3
52 12 10 0 42 0 35 70 0 0 0 78 52 100
0 25
20 40
50 50
8 46
95 83
Number of individuals sampled per animal host species. References 13, 14, 16, and Kloos et al., in press. Percentages of individuals from which Staphylococcus or Micrococcus species were isolated. Parentheses around percentages denote that only one or two colonies of the species were isolated from an individual. Capital letters preceding percentages signify different suspected unnamed subspecies within the designated species. S. simulans, S. hominis, and S. capitis were not isolated from animals but were isolated from 12, 100, and 65%, respectively, of the 40 humans studied previously. M. lylae, M. sedentarius, M. kristinae, M. roseus, and M. nishinomiyaensis were not isolated from animals but were isolated from 35, 20, 35, 10, and 38%, respectively, of the 40 humans. a
I c
species were found in sheep, horses, and cattle. contained moderate-to-large populations of these Staphylococcus sp. 3 was isolated primarily organisms. from wild animals and occasionally from doS. haemolyticus, S. epidermidis, and S. mestic animals. This species usually composed warneri were isolated from only three, two, and a moderate percentage of the total staphylococci one of the 59 animals sampled, respectively.
isolated from skin in wild animals and a small S. haemolyticus was represented by a single isolated colony in one individual and two coloStrains tentatively identified as various S. nies in another. This species was represented cohnii subspecies were found on three different by 28 colonies in a head site and 12 colonies in a animal species, namely, opossums, squirrel naris site of one pig. S. epidermidis and S. monkeys, and pigs. These organisms composed warneri were each represented by two colonies only a small-to-moderate percentage of the in one individual and in one pig; S. epidermidis total staphylococci isolated from skin. was represented by 49 colonies in a naris site. S. saprophyticus was isolated from only three As previously mentioned above for S. saproout of the 59 animals sampled in this study phyticus, very small frequencies of isolation and in each case was represented by a single and numbers of isolates do raise a question as isolated colony. For this reason, a serious ques- to the original source of these species. By tion should be raised as to the original source comparison, out of 40 humans sampled in an of this species, i.e., whether it is indigenous earlier study (13), S. haemolyticus was isolated or represents a contaminant from another from 78%, S. epidermidis from 100%, and S. source. warneri from 52% of the individuals. Staphylococcus sp. 4 was only isolated from Most of the various Staphylococcus species opossums, Staphylococcus sp. 5 only from found on animal skin in this study did not apsquirrel monkeys, and Staphylococcus sp. 6 pear to exhibit significant skin site specificity only from pigs. These species were among the in those areas sampled. However, S. aureus major staphylococci isolated from each of the was isolated predominantly from the nares and respective animal species and all individuals abdomen, and S. sciuri was only occasionally
percentage in domestic animals.
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CHARACTERIZATION OF ISOLATED ANIMAL STRAINS
isolated from the nares. We believe that a more comprehensive study involving additional animals and skin sites would be required to clearly resolve any subtle site specificity that might be present. Distribution of Micrococcus species on various animal skins. Micrococci were commonly isolated as relatively large populations from the nine Eastern gray squirrels living in the Dismal Swamp area around Sunbury, N.C., but were found as very small populations on the five Eastern gray squirrels living in Raleigh, N.C., and the three raccoons, eleven opossums, two squirrel monkeys, four horses, five cattle, and two dogs. Members of the genus Micrococcus were not isolated from Southern flying squirrels, pigs, or sheep in this preliminary study. The most widely distributed Micrococcus species isolated from animal skin was M. varians (Table 1). M. luteus was isolated from only three different animal species. Micrococci were isolated from a wide variety of skin sites, but were seldom isolated from the nares. DISCUSSION Staphylococcus species populations isolated from animal skin were remarkably different from those isolated from human skin in earlier studies (13, 14, 32). Differences were observed in the predominant species present and species characteristics. The predominant species isolated from animal skin, including S. xylosus, Staphylococcus sp. 3, and S. sciuri, as well as several species with a limited host range, were resistant to novobiocin and produced acid from n-mannitol under aerobic conditions, and representative strains contained the cell wall peptidoglycan types of L-Lys-Gly, or L-Lys-LAla-Gly4 (16; K. H. Schleifer, personal communication). Also, certain species produced acid from D-(+)-xylose, D-(+)-fucose, i-(+)arabinose, 83-gentiobiose, and/or D-(+)-cellobiose under aerobic conditions. On the other hand, the most predominant species isolated from human skin, including S. epidermidis, S. hominis, and S. haemolyticus, were susceptible to novobiocin, usually failed to produce acid from -mannitol, failed to produce acid from n-((+)-xylose, D-(+)-fucose, L-(+)-arabinose, 13gentiobiose, and -(+)-cellobiose, and contained the cell wall peptidoglycan type of L-Lys-Gly,5, L-Sero.,.5 (14, 32). Staphylococcus sp. 2 through 6 were not isolated from human skin, and S. simulans, S. capitis, and S. hominis, isolated from human skin (14), were not isolated from animal skin. The very rare isolation of S. sciuri and uncommon isolation of S. xylosus from human skin,
57
except when contact with pets or farm animals was notable, would suggest that these species are usually contaminants rather than residents on humans. Since S. sciuri and S. xylosus grow very poorly or fail to grow on an agar medium of pH 5.3 or below (6), we might not expect to find colonization of these species on human skin of about pH 5 (18). Both species grow well at pH 7.0 or slightly above, which is characteristic for the skin of several different mammals other than man (5). Conversely, the rare isolation of S. saprophyticus, S. haemolyticus, S. epidermidis, and S. warneri from animal skin would suggest that these species are usually contaminants rather than residents on animals. Differences in host range suggest to us the possibility that many Staphylococcus species may have evolved as a result of adaptation to different cutaneous environments. Of the 12 species reported to occur on human skin (13-16, 32; Kloos et al., in press), seven species appear to be limited in range to man, though we have not yet extended our studies to staphylococci of other closely related primates. Based on this finding and earlier studies illustrating certain species preferences for specific habitats (e.g., nares, axillae, head, legs, etc.) within the human cutaneous environment (13), we would hypothesize that different human Staphylococcus species may have evolved from one or at most a few ancestral species as a result of selective pressures imposed by different niches in the cutaneous environment or, alternatively, became adapted to human skin as a result of secondary contact. Future deoxyribonucleic acid hybridization and genetic recombination studies with the proposed species should help to provide an estimate of genetic relationships. One uncommon human species, S. warneri, appears to be somewhat intermediate between S. haemolyticus and S. hominis and is occasionally confused with these species when using only simple characters for differentiation. Perhaps it represents an ancestral form or a group of staphylococci that is only slightly divergent (or convergent) from S. haemolyticus or S. hominis. Another species that should prove interesting in studying the evolution of human staphylococci is S. saprophyticus. This human species appears to be somewhat intermediate between typical coagulase-negative animal and human staphylococci. Like most animal staphylococci, it is resistant to novobiocin, produces acid from D-mannitol and xylitol under aerobic conditions, and grows well at 15 C but not at 45 C; however, like major human staphylococci, it contains significant levels of L-serine in the cell wall peptidoglycan (14, 32). The
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. KLOOS, ZIMMERMAN, AND SMITH amino acid requirement profile of this species Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the Shriners of North is also intermediate between typical animal America. and human species and, like human species, it LITERATURE CITED grows well at pH 5.3 (6). Since S. saprophy- 1. Baird-Parker, A. C. 1962. The occurrence and enumeraticus appears to link human and animal tion, according to a new classification, of micrococci staphylococci, it might conceivably represent and staphylococci in bacon and on human and pig skin. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 25:352-361. an ancestral form of certain other human speA. C. 1963. A classification of micrococci cies; this, of course, is based on the reasonable 2. Baird-Parker, and staphylococci based on physiological and bioassumption that the more archaic forms of chemical tests. J. Gen. Microbiol. 30:409-427. staphylococci first appeared on animals. 3. Buchanan, R. E., and N. E. Gibbons (ed.). 1974. Bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology, 8th Staphylococcus sp. 5, isolated from only ed. The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore. squirrel monkeys in this study, appears to be 4. Coles, E. H. 1963. Staphylococcus aureus of canine like typical coagulase-negative human staphyorigin. I. Bacteriophage typing and antibiotic senlococci in that it contains significant levels of sitivity of cultures isolated from diseased dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 24:803-807. L-serine in the cell wall peptidoglycan, but like J. H. 1942. The determination of the pH of the certain animal staphylococci it is slightly re- 5. Draize, skin of man and common laboratory animals. J. sistant to novobiocin and produces acid from Invest. Dermatol. 5:77-85. L-(+)-arabinose and r-mannitol under aerobic 6. Emmett, M., and W. E. Kloos. 1975. Amino acid requirements of staphylococci isolated from human conditions. It would be interesting to study skin. Can. J. Microbiol. 21:729-733. additional primates, especially the Pongidae, 7. Evans, J. B., and W. E. Kloos. 1972. Use of shake to see if their staphylococci are more closely recultures in a semisolid thioglycolate medium for lated to those of humans than other mammals. differentiating staphylococci from micrococci. Appl. Microbiol. 23:326-331. Individual animal hosts in this study did not V., and E. MarMlek. 1969. A study of staphycontain as large a variety of different Staphy- 8. Hajek, of bovine origin. Staphylococcus aureus var. lococci lococcus species as human hosts (13) and most bovis. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infekanimal staphylococci did not demonstrate protionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. 209:154-160. nounced skin site specificity. According to our 9. Hajek, V., and E. Marsalek. 1970. A study of staphylococci isolated from the upper respiratory tract of hypothesis, these results may be related to (i) different animal species. III. Physiological properties increased habitat uniformity, and/or (ii) reof Staphylococcus aureus strains of porcine origin. stricted skin area of the small animals. The Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parsitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. 214:68-74. several examples of host specificity reported in V., and E. MarMalek. 1971. A study of staphthis study should provide an impetus to explore 10. Hajek, ylococci isolated from the upper respiratory tract of additional animal species in search of new different animal species. IV. Physiological properties Staphylococcus species or subspecies. of Staphylococcus aureus strains of hare origin. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Micrococcus species populations isolated from animal skin contained only the two species 11. Abt. 1 Orig. 216:168-174. Hajek, V., E. MarMalek, and J. HubaMek. 1972. A M. varians and M. luteus. M. lylae, M. study of staphylococci isolated from the upper sedentarius, M. roseus, M. kristinae, and M. respiratory tract of different animal species. V. Communication: physiological properties of Staphynishinomiyaensis, isolated from human skin in lococcus aureus strains from mink. Zentralbl. Bakearlier studies (16), were not isolated from teriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1. Orig. animals. Reihe A 222:194-199. This preliminary study should be followed by 12. Holmberg, 0. 1973. Staphylococcus epidermidis isomore comprehensive studies for more complete lated from bovine milk. Acta Vet. Scand. Suppl. 45:1-144. characterization of the staphylococci and micro- 13. Kloos, W. E., and M. S. Musselwhite. 1975. Distribucocci of specific animal host species. As in this tion and persistence of Staphylococcus and Micrococstudy, only a small number of individuals were cus species and other aerobic bacteria on human skin. Appl. Microbiol. 30:381-395. sampled per host species; some of the uncommon Staphylococcus and Micrococcus species or 14. Kloos, W. E., and K. H. Schleifer. 1975. Isolation and characterization of staphylococci from human skin. subspecies may not have been isolated. II. Descriptions of four new species: Staphylococcus
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are greatly indebted to M. Musselwhite and D. Blasi for their excellent technical assistance throughout this study. We are also thankful for the helpful advice provided by Lawrence E. Mettler and the help and facilities provided by M. Huish, B. S. Martof, C. H. Bostian, H. R. Perry, L. Platner, L. Goode, and B. H. Johnson for trapping animals and collecting specimens. This research was supported by Public Health Service research grant Al 08255 from the National Institute of
warneri, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus hominis, and Staphylococcus simulans. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 25:62-79. 15. Kloos, W. E., and K. H. Schleifer. 1975. Simplified scheme for routine identification of human Staphylococcus species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1:82-88. 16. Kloos, W. E., T. G. Tornabene, and K. H. Schleifer. 1974. Isolation and characterization of micrococci from human skin, including two new species: Micrococcus lylae and Micrococcus kristinae. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 24:79-101.
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17. Kocur, M., and K. H. Schleifer. 1975. Taxonomic status of Micrococcus agilis Ali-Cohen 1889. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 25:294-297. 18. Live, I. 1972. Differentiation of Staphylococcus aureus of human and of canine origins: coagulation of human and of canine plasma, fibrinolysin activity and serologic reaction. Am. J. Vet. Res. 33:385-391. 19. Live, I. 1972. Staphylococci in animals: differentiation and relationship to human staphylococcosis, p. 443456. In J. Cohen (ed.), The staphylococci. WileyInterscience Publications, New York. 20. Marples, M. J. 1965. The ecology of the human skin. Charles C Thomas, Publishers, Springfield, Ill. 21. Marsilek, E., and V. Hajek. 1973. The classification of pathogenic staphylococci, p. 30-37. In J. Jelaszewicz (ed.), Staphylococci and staphylococcal infections: recent progress. S. Karger, Basel. 22. Meyer, W. 1967. A proposal for subdividing the species Staphylococcus aureus. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 17:387389. 23. Mitchell, R. G., V. G. Alder, and K. Rosendal. 1974. The clawification of coagulase-negative Micrococcaceae from human and animal sources. J. Med. Microbiol. 7:131-135. 24. Oeding, P. 1973. Wall teichoic acids in animal Staphylococcus aureus strains determined by precipitation. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 81:327-336. 25. Oeding, P., V. Hijek, and E. Marblek. 1973. A comparison of antigenic structure and phage pattern with biochemical properties of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from hares and mink. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 81:567-570. 26. Oeding, P., J. L. Marandon, V. Hijek, and E. Mar&lek. 1970. Comparison of antigenic structure and phage pattern with biochemical properties of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from dogs and pigeons. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 78:414420. 27. Oeding, P., J. L. Marandon, V. Hajek, and E.
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