Journal of Primary Prevention,7(2),Winter 1986
Prevention of Prejudice in Elementary School Students PATRICIA ROONEY-REBECK and LEONARD J A S O N A B S T R A C T : This study investigated the effects of cooperative group peer tutoring on the inter-ethnic relations of elementary school age children. Direct observations of social interactions on the playground and sociometric indices were used to measure interethnic associations before and after the eight-week program. For first graders, interethnic interactions and sociometric choices increased and improvements were found in arithmetic and reading grades. However, no significant changes were found among the third grade program children in either inter-ethnic associations or academic performance. These findings suggest that a cooperative peer tutoring classroom structure may improve the inter-ethnic relationships of first grade children who have experienced only a short history of competitive academic exercises and whose overt ethnic prejudice may be less ingrained.
While research has shown the detrimental consequences of ethnic prejudice among children, few intervention programs have attempted to reduce or prevent this serious and widespread problem (Katz, 1976). Intervention efforts that have been reported have tended to focus on adults. This is unfortunate since overt expressions of ethnic prejudice begin in children as young as age nine (Proshansky, 1966). A need exists for early intervention efforts to prevent the development of prejudice among school age youngsters. It is critical to understand conditions that might be effective in preventing or reducing overt ethnic prejudice. Katz (1976) reviewed existing research and identified three characteristics of social settings that have been shown to reduce prejudice: (a) inter-ethnic contact is encouraged by authorities, (b) the participants do not manifest prevailing ethnic stereotypes, and (c) some degree of intimacy is present in the contact. A fourth situational characteristic that can encourage reductions in ethnic prejudice, perhaps by promoting intimacy, is when the participants share common objectives in their interactions (Aronson, Blaney, Sikes, Stephen & Snapp, 1975). These optimizing conditions are generally not found in competitive activities, which tend to have a destructive influence on social interactions (Johnson & Johnson, 1972; 1974). Cooperatively structured settings, on the other Patricia Rooney-Rebeck is with the Community Mental Health Center of Linn County, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Leonard Jason is with DePaul University. 63
© 1986HumanSciencesPress
64
Journal of Primary Prevention
hand, combine several of the optimal conditions that might be effective in preventing or reducing prejudice. Several studies have combined cooperative classroom activities with competitive incentives for academic achievement in order to improve school children's inter-ethnic relations. DeVries, Edwards and Slavin (1978), for example, divided groups of children into cooperative learning teams to help one another study academic material. Each week the teams competed with each other to win recognition in a class newsletter. In their study, since cross-race choices generally did not change relative to the total number of sociometric choices, racial separatism apparently remained the same. In another study, Slavin (1977), devised a group technique that encouraged cooperation among team members. However, competition between children on different teams determined individual scores. A positive treatment effect for children's cross-race choices of friends was attributed to erosion of cross-race choices among the control youngsters. Weigel, Wiser and Cook (1975), divided students into five person heterogeneous study groups. They also used inter-group competition for scholastic achievement and rewarded winning groups with classroom privileges. They found significant changes in white children's acceptance of their Chicano classmates. However, white children's choices of black children were not changed, and Chicano and black children's choices of other ethnic classmates also remained at the same levels. In these studies, the benefits of cooperation within teams may have been offset by the undesirable consequences of rivalries between teams. Competitive activities were considered essential by Slavin (1977) and Weigel, Weiser and Cook (1975), to encourage optimal academic efforts in their students. Alternatives to competitive incentives do exist. Lucker, Rosenfield, Sikes, and Aronson (1976), for example, designed the Jigsaw Method in which white, black and Chicano fifth and sixth graders studied together in four to six person groups. The social studies lessons were divided into separate parts for each group member to learn and teach other group members. This purely cooperative teaching method resulted in significantly higher academic achievement for program youngsters as opposed to those involved in a more traditional class. Although only the academic benefits of this method were evaluated in this study, in another study its effects on inter-ethnic acceptance were also measured. Aronson, et al. (1975), partitioned a sixth grade social studies curriculum into separate parts for members of student groups to teach to one another. The investigators found that black, white and Chicano students in the experimental groups, in comparison to con-
65
Rooney-Rebeck and Jason
trols, liked and helped each other significantly more after the six week program. The experimental group members also had significantly more positive attitudes toward school and significantly higher grades t h a n the control youngsters. Since overt expressions of ethnic prejudice are seen as early as age nine it would seem important to document the possible facilitating effects of cooperative structures on children in lower grades. Peer turoring is another purely cooperative teaching method in which children are enlisted to teach one another. Jason and his colleagues (Jason, Ferone & Soucy, 1979; Jason, Frasure & Ferone, 1981; Jason & Frasure, 1981), demonstrated t h a t peer tutoring may benefit entire classes of students as early as first grade on behavioral and academic indices. Oakland and Williams (1975), also found significant improvements in arithmetic and reading achievement in a group of third and fourth graders as a result of peer tutoring. In addition, they found reductions in anxiety in the peer tutored students t h a t they attributed to the non-competitive nature of the experience. The effects of peer tutoring on inter-ethnic relations have not as yet been explored. The present study was undertaken to add to the research establishing pure cooperative structures as effective learning modes not only for academic achievement but also for increased inter-ethnic association among children. The effects of the purely cooperative structures on inter-ethnic relations have been measured only as early as fifth grade although their academic benefits have been demonstrated even among first graders. A peer tutoring technique, chosen for its demonstrated academic value in first and third grades (Jason, Ferone & Soucy, 1979), was adapted to emphasize cooperation and m u t u a l help within ethnically heterogeneous student groups. Since the behavioral manifestations of prejudice can be seen in children as young as nine years, this intervention effort occurred in first and third grades in order to prevent or reduce the early manifestations of prejudice.
Method Participants
First and third grade students in an inner-city parochial school comprised the experimental class. They were compared to second and fourth grade youngsters at the same school who did not receive the program. There were no significant differences between E and C groups on sex or ethnic membership. Among
66
Journal of Primary Prevention
the 22 first graders, 14% were black, 32% were white, and 54% were Latino. Of the 20 children in the second grade comparison group, 15% were black, 40% were white, and 45% were Latino. In the third grade experimental class of twelve children, 8% were black, 33% were white, and 58% were Latino. The fourth grade comparison at the same school had 13 children, of whom 8% were black, 38% were white, and 54% were Latino.
Program First grade children were randomly placed into six person groups, and third grade students were randomly placed into four person groups conforming to the following constraints: (1) all ethnic groups were represented in each group in approximately the same proportion as they were represented in the whole class, (2) each group had approximately equal male and female representation, and (3) each group contained students at all academic ability levels, based on pre-program grades. The comparison classes were taught by a traditional teacher-centered method. The experimental classes participated in the cooperative group tutoring sessions as an adjunct to regular class activities for a period of eight weeks. On Tuesday and Thursday mornings the experimental students met in their small groups for a half hour. Within each group the students tutored each other in pairs switching from the role of "teacher" to "student" at least once during each half hour session. Mathematics equations and reading words were practiced during alternating weeks for the eight-week period. A student from DePaul University supervised each group and administered a quiz each Thursday. In order to motivate the children to interact cooperatively, a team reward contingency was applied for quiz performances. A student contributed six points to the team total for a perfect score on the quiz. For a 90% correct performance, the team received four points; for 80% correct, three points were contributed to the team total, and one point was contributed to the team score for less than 80% correct. Award ribbons were handed out at class presentations immediately following the quizzes. Blue ribbons were given to all members of a group whose combined total responses were 80-100% correct. Red ribbons were given to members of teams whose combined accuracy was 60-80%. Group names, rather than individual's names, were used to identify award winners in the class presentations. Each team's points were added to that team's points earned in previous weeks and were graphically recorded and displayed on a chart in the classroom.
Procedure The cooperative class structure described below was adapted from the peer tutoring technique described by Jason, Frasure and Ferone (1979). The principal difference is that the present program used group rewards for learning.
Rooney-Rebeck and Jason
67
D u r i n g t h e first sessions, t h e supervisors instructed t e a m m e m b e r s to select a t e a m n a m e to be used d u r i n g a w a r d p r e s e n t a t i o n s and on classroom progress charts. Then the leaders explained t h a t the purpose of the group sessions was to help each child in the group to practice m a t h and reading. The s t u d e n t s were t h e n told, "When anyone does well, the whole t e a m does well. On the other hand, if anyone has difficulty, the t e a m m e m b e r s should help one another so the t e a m will get more points." In order to l e a r n the components of peer tutoring, and to l e a r n other duties described above, D e P a u l supervisors m e t for a two-hour t r a i n i n g session during the week prior to the first e x p e r i m e n t a l session. They l e a r n e d peer tut o r i n g in the same w a y t h a t t h e y were to teach the procedure to the children. T e a m supervisors t a u g h t the t h r e e components of peer t u t o r i n g by modeling t h e i r correct use. The children were first to lift each i n d i v i d u a l t u t o r i n g file card and ask, " W h a t is this?" (For first graders, recognizing a l e t t e r or number, for t h i r d graders, recognizing a word or a d d i n g up two numbers). Given a correct answer, the t u t o r was told to praise the tutee, saying, "That's right" or "Good." After a n incorrect a n s w e r the t u t o r was to say, "This is a (answer)" (corrective feedback), t h e n re-present the question, " W h a t is it?"
Dependent measures A v a r i e t y of pre-post criterion m e a s u r e s were employed to assess the effects of the i n t e r v e n t i o n including: direct observation of social interactions d u r i n g u n s t r u c t u r e d p l a y periods, sociometric friendship and helping choices, academic indices, and classroom b e h a v i o r a l a d j u s t m e n t measures. All pretests were a d m i n i s t e r e d one week prior to the study; post-tests were a d m i n i s t e r e d one week following the completion of the study. Sociometric tests. Sociometric tests were a d m i n i s t e r e d by a white female und e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t before and after the e x p e r i m e n t a l intervention. The t h i r d and fourth grade classes filled out the sociometric questionnaires in a group a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , b u t t h e first and second g r a d e r s were tested i n d i v i d u a l l y because m a n y of these y o u n g e r students could not write n a m e s on the forms. The peer n o m i n a t i o n forms showed the questions, "Who in this class do you like to work with?" from Singleton & A s h e r (1977). On each of these pages were six b l a n k spaces, b u t t h e children were told t h a t t h e y could list a n y n u m b e r of o t h e r children.
Direct observations. Interactions were assessed by two pre and two post 45 m i n u t e o b s e r v a t i o n a l sessions of the children on a 33.5 m by 33.5 m playground. The a s p h a l t p l a y g r o u n d was equipped with twelve swings, one j u n g l e gym, a four-person t e e t e r totter, and a slide. A white female u n d e r g r a d u a t e obs e r v e r recorded occurrences of interactions between classmates in the experim e n t a l and comparison classes one week before a n d one week after the intervention. A s e q u e n t i a l t i m e - s a m p l i n g method of observation was used. D u r i n g the observation sessions, the first child on the recording form was observed
68
Journal of Primary Prevention
for six seconds. For the following 24 seconds, the observer recorded the code (L = Latino, B = black, W = white) representing the ethnic groups of the children with whom interactions took place, and then located the next child on the list. If the child did not interact with any other children while being observed, a dash was printed in the appropriate box. Stopwatches were used to m a r k the 30-second intervals. The children were each observed four times per session, or a total of eight times before and eight times after the intervention. Interactions were defined as: (a) talking or listening to another child, (b) positively touching or being touched by another child, (c) playing in the same game or in parallel play, and (d) sharing materials. A second observer provided reliability assessments during at least 15 consecutive minutes of each observation session. Agreements were defined as having the same ethnic code in the same time sampling boxes. Reliability was total agreements divided by disagreements plus agreements x 100. After four practice sessions of five minutes each, reliability reached 85%. A check of the observer's naivete, after post-point data were gathered, showed t h a t the observer was unaware of the hypotheses. Two methods were used in tabulating the data. First, a frequency count was taken for the number of inter-ethnic sociometric choices and for the number of inter-ethnic interactions. The second method of data tabulation involved the Percent-of-Expected (PE) scores. To compute the PE for observation data, for each child, the number of inter-ethnic interactions was divided by the total number of interactions and multiplied by 100. For example, if a white child had a total of 10 observed interactions, of which five were with black and Latino children, then that child had 5/10 × 100, or 50% inter-ethnic interactions. In order to control for unequal representation of the various ethnic groups in each class, the percentage of inter-ethnic interactions for each child was divided by the percentage of other ethnic group members in the class and multiplied by 100. For example, in the third grade 66% of the class was nonwhite, so the expected percentage of inter-ethnic interactions for all white children was 66%. In the example used above, if a white third grader had 50% inter-ethnic interactions while the expected percentage for white children is 66%, then the PE for that child would be 50/66 × 100 = 76%. Percentages below 100% indicate less inter-ethnic interactions than would be expected by chance and percentages above 100% indicate higher inter-ethnic interactions than would be expected by chance. The same method was used for deriving PE scores using sociometric data. Academic Indices. Before and after the intervention, teachers assessed each student's arithmetic and reading skills, assigning them a number on the following scale: 1 = below average, 2 = average, and 3 = above average. Classroom adjustment. Pre-post changes in classroom adjustment were assessed by having teachers complete the AML (Cowen, Door, Clarfield, Kreling, McWilliams, Pokracki, Pratt, Terrell, and Wilson, 1973). This eleven item behavioral problem checklist taps problems in three areas: acting out, moodiness, and learning. Each item has a five point scale with higher numbers indi-
69
Rooney-Rebeck and Jason
cating more serious problems. In addition to this scale, one scale from the CARS (Lorion, Cowen & Caldwell, 1975), a seven-point scale for rating the seriousness of classroom adjustment problems, was filled out at the beginning and end of the program. On this scale, lower scores indicated more problematic classroom adjustment.
Results
The major criterion measures were evaluated using an analysis of co-variance, with pre-program measures as co-variates. The two grouping variables were experimental/control, and ethnic group. Analyses were done for the following variables: inter-ethnic association, measured by direct observation and sociometric questionnaires; academic grades; and classroom adjustment as measured by the AML and one scale of the CARS. In discussing the results of each measure, the first versus second grade comparisons will be considered first, followed by the third versus fourth grade comparisons.
Inter-ethnic Association Measures - First versus Second Grades
The number and Percent-of-Expected inter-ethnic interactions observed at playtime were both significantly higher among E youngsters than C youngsters after the program (F(1,34) = 19.02, p < .01; F(1,34) = 5.61, p < .05; respectively). A significant Treatment X Ethnic group effect emerged for Percent-ofExpected inter-ethnic interactions (F(2,34)= 3.19, p
Prevention of Prejudice in Elementary School Students PATRICIA ROONEY-REBECK and LEONARD J A S O N A B S T R A C T : This study investigated the effects of cooperative group peer tutoring on the inter-ethnic relations of elementary school age children. Direct observations of social interactions on the playground and sociometric indices were used to measure interethnic associations before and after the eight-week program. For first graders, interethnic interactions and sociometric choices increased and improvements were found in arithmetic and reading grades. However, no significant changes were found among the third grade program children in either inter-ethnic associations or academic performance. These findings suggest that a cooperative peer tutoring classroom structure may improve the inter-ethnic relationships of first grade children who have experienced only a short history of competitive academic exercises and whose overt ethnic prejudice may be less ingrained.
While research has shown the detrimental consequences of ethnic prejudice among children, few intervention programs have attempted to reduce or prevent this serious and widespread problem (Katz, 1976). Intervention efforts that have been reported have tended to focus on adults. This is unfortunate since overt expressions of ethnic prejudice begin in children as young as age nine (Proshansky, 1966). A need exists for early intervention efforts to prevent the development of prejudice among school age youngsters. It is critical to understand conditions that might be effective in preventing or reducing overt ethnic prejudice. Katz (1976) reviewed existing research and identified three characteristics of social settings that have been shown to reduce prejudice: (a) inter-ethnic contact is encouraged by authorities, (b) the participants do not manifest prevailing ethnic stereotypes, and (c) some degree of intimacy is present in the contact. A fourth situational characteristic that can encourage reductions in ethnic prejudice, perhaps by promoting intimacy, is when the participants share common objectives in their interactions (Aronson, Blaney, Sikes, Stephen & Snapp, 1975). These optimizing conditions are generally not found in competitive activities, which tend to have a destructive influence on social interactions (Johnson & Johnson, 1972; 1974). Cooperatively structured settings, on the other Patricia Rooney-Rebeck is with the Community Mental Health Center of Linn County, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Leonard Jason is with DePaul University. 63
© 1986HumanSciencesPress
64
Journal of Primary Prevention
hand, combine several of the optimal conditions that might be effective in preventing or reducing prejudice. Several studies have combined cooperative classroom activities with competitive incentives for academic achievement in order to improve school children's inter-ethnic relations. DeVries, Edwards and Slavin (1978), for example, divided groups of children into cooperative learning teams to help one another study academic material. Each week the teams competed with each other to win recognition in a class newsletter. In their study, since cross-race choices generally did not change relative to the total number of sociometric choices, racial separatism apparently remained the same. In another study, Slavin (1977), devised a group technique that encouraged cooperation among team members. However, competition between children on different teams determined individual scores. A positive treatment effect for children's cross-race choices of friends was attributed to erosion of cross-race choices among the control youngsters. Weigel, Wiser and Cook (1975), divided students into five person heterogeneous study groups. They also used inter-group competition for scholastic achievement and rewarded winning groups with classroom privileges. They found significant changes in white children's acceptance of their Chicano classmates. However, white children's choices of black children were not changed, and Chicano and black children's choices of other ethnic classmates also remained at the same levels. In these studies, the benefits of cooperation within teams may have been offset by the undesirable consequences of rivalries between teams. Competitive activities were considered essential by Slavin (1977) and Weigel, Weiser and Cook (1975), to encourage optimal academic efforts in their students. Alternatives to competitive incentives do exist. Lucker, Rosenfield, Sikes, and Aronson (1976), for example, designed the Jigsaw Method in which white, black and Chicano fifth and sixth graders studied together in four to six person groups. The social studies lessons were divided into separate parts for each group member to learn and teach other group members. This purely cooperative teaching method resulted in significantly higher academic achievement for program youngsters as opposed to those involved in a more traditional class. Although only the academic benefits of this method were evaluated in this study, in another study its effects on inter-ethnic acceptance were also measured. Aronson, et al. (1975), partitioned a sixth grade social studies curriculum into separate parts for members of student groups to teach to one another. The investigators found that black, white and Chicano students in the experimental groups, in comparison to con-
65
Rooney-Rebeck and Jason
trols, liked and helped each other significantly more after the six week program. The experimental group members also had significantly more positive attitudes toward school and significantly higher grades t h a n the control youngsters. Since overt expressions of ethnic prejudice are seen as early as age nine it would seem important to document the possible facilitating effects of cooperative structures on children in lower grades. Peer turoring is another purely cooperative teaching method in which children are enlisted to teach one another. Jason and his colleagues (Jason, Ferone & Soucy, 1979; Jason, Frasure & Ferone, 1981; Jason & Frasure, 1981), demonstrated t h a t peer tutoring may benefit entire classes of students as early as first grade on behavioral and academic indices. Oakland and Williams (1975), also found significant improvements in arithmetic and reading achievement in a group of third and fourth graders as a result of peer tutoring. In addition, they found reductions in anxiety in the peer tutored students t h a t they attributed to the non-competitive nature of the experience. The effects of peer tutoring on inter-ethnic relations have not as yet been explored. The present study was undertaken to add to the research establishing pure cooperative structures as effective learning modes not only for academic achievement but also for increased inter-ethnic association among children. The effects of the purely cooperative structures on inter-ethnic relations have been measured only as early as fifth grade although their academic benefits have been demonstrated even among first graders. A peer tutoring technique, chosen for its demonstrated academic value in first and third grades (Jason, Ferone & Soucy, 1979), was adapted to emphasize cooperation and m u t u a l help within ethnically heterogeneous student groups. Since the behavioral manifestations of prejudice can be seen in children as young as nine years, this intervention effort occurred in first and third grades in order to prevent or reduce the early manifestations of prejudice.
Method Participants
First and third grade students in an inner-city parochial school comprised the experimental class. They were compared to second and fourth grade youngsters at the same school who did not receive the program. There were no significant differences between E and C groups on sex or ethnic membership. Among
66
Journal of Primary Prevention
the 22 first graders, 14% were black, 32% were white, and 54% were Latino. Of the 20 children in the second grade comparison group, 15% were black, 40% were white, and 45% were Latino. In the third grade experimental class of twelve children, 8% were black, 33% were white, and 58% were Latino. The fourth grade comparison at the same school had 13 children, of whom 8% were black, 38% were white, and 54% were Latino.
Program First grade children were randomly placed into six person groups, and third grade students were randomly placed into four person groups conforming to the following constraints: (1) all ethnic groups were represented in each group in approximately the same proportion as they were represented in the whole class, (2) each group had approximately equal male and female representation, and (3) each group contained students at all academic ability levels, based on pre-program grades. The comparison classes were taught by a traditional teacher-centered method. The experimental classes participated in the cooperative group tutoring sessions as an adjunct to regular class activities for a period of eight weeks. On Tuesday and Thursday mornings the experimental students met in their small groups for a half hour. Within each group the students tutored each other in pairs switching from the role of "teacher" to "student" at least once during each half hour session. Mathematics equations and reading words were practiced during alternating weeks for the eight-week period. A student from DePaul University supervised each group and administered a quiz each Thursday. In order to motivate the children to interact cooperatively, a team reward contingency was applied for quiz performances. A student contributed six points to the team total for a perfect score on the quiz. For a 90% correct performance, the team received four points; for 80% correct, three points were contributed to the team total, and one point was contributed to the team score for less than 80% correct. Award ribbons were handed out at class presentations immediately following the quizzes. Blue ribbons were given to all members of a group whose combined total responses were 80-100% correct. Red ribbons were given to members of teams whose combined accuracy was 60-80%. Group names, rather than individual's names, were used to identify award winners in the class presentations. Each team's points were added to that team's points earned in previous weeks and were graphically recorded and displayed on a chart in the classroom.
Procedure The cooperative class structure described below was adapted from the peer tutoring technique described by Jason, Frasure and Ferone (1979). The principal difference is that the present program used group rewards for learning.
Rooney-Rebeck and Jason
67
D u r i n g t h e first sessions, t h e supervisors instructed t e a m m e m b e r s to select a t e a m n a m e to be used d u r i n g a w a r d p r e s e n t a t i o n s and on classroom progress charts. Then the leaders explained t h a t the purpose of the group sessions was to help each child in the group to practice m a t h and reading. The s t u d e n t s were t h e n told, "When anyone does well, the whole t e a m does well. On the other hand, if anyone has difficulty, the t e a m m e m b e r s should help one another so the t e a m will get more points." In order to l e a r n the components of peer tutoring, and to l e a r n other duties described above, D e P a u l supervisors m e t for a two-hour t r a i n i n g session during the week prior to the first e x p e r i m e n t a l session. They l e a r n e d peer tut o r i n g in the same w a y t h a t t h e y were to teach the procedure to the children. T e a m supervisors t a u g h t the t h r e e components of peer t u t o r i n g by modeling t h e i r correct use. The children were first to lift each i n d i v i d u a l t u t o r i n g file card and ask, " W h a t is this?" (For first graders, recognizing a l e t t e r or number, for t h i r d graders, recognizing a word or a d d i n g up two numbers). Given a correct answer, the t u t o r was told to praise the tutee, saying, "That's right" or "Good." After a n incorrect a n s w e r the t u t o r was to say, "This is a (answer)" (corrective feedback), t h e n re-present the question, " W h a t is it?"
Dependent measures A v a r i e t y of pre-post criterion m e a s u r e s were employed to assess the effects of the i n t e r v e n t i o n including: direct observation of social interactions d u r i n g u n s t r u c t u r e d p l a y periods, sociometric friendship and helping choices, academic indices, and classroom b e h a v i o r a l a d j u s t m e n t measures. All pretests were a d m i n i s t e r e d one week prior to the study; post-tests were a d m i n i s t e r e d one week following the completion of the study. Sociometric tests. Sociometric tests were a d m i n i s t e r e d by a white female und e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t before and after the e x p e r i m e n t a l intervention. The t h i r d and fourth grade classes filled out the sociometric questionnaires in a group a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , b u t t h e first and second g r a d e r s were tested i n d i v i d u a l l y because m a n y of these y o u n g e r students could not write n a m e s on the forms. The peer n o m i n a t i o n forms showed the questions, "Who in this class do you like to work with?" from Singleton & A s h e r (1977). On each of these pages were six b l a n k spaces, b u t t h e children were told t h a t t h e y could list a n y n u m b e r of o t h e r children.
Direct observations. Interactions were assessed by two pre and two post 45 m i n u t e o b s e r v a t i o n a l sessions of the children on a 33.5 m by 33.5 m playground. The a s p h a l t p l a y g r o u n d was equipped with twelve swings, one j u n g l e gym, a four-person t e e t e r totter, and a slide. A white female u n d e r g r a d u a t e obs e r v e r recorded occurrences of interactions between classmates in the experim e n t a l and comparison classes one week before a n d one week after the intervention. A s e q u e n t i a l t i m e - s a m p l i n g method of observation was used. D u r i n g the observation sessions, the first child on the recording form was observed
68
Journal of Primary Prevention
for six seconds. For the following 24 seconds, the observer recorded the code (L = Latino, B = black, W = white) representing the ethnic groups of the children with whom interactions took place, and then located the next child on the list. If the child did not interact with any other children while being observed, a dash was printed in the appropriate box. Stopwatches were used to m a r k the 30-second intervals. The children were each observed four times per session, or a total of eight times before and eight times after the intervention. Interactions were defined as: (a) talking or listening to another child, (b) positively touching or being touched by another child, (c) playing in the same game or in parallel play, and (d) sharing materials. A second observer provided reliability assessments during at least 15 consecutive minutes of each observation session. Agreements were defined as having the same ethnic code in the same time sampling boxes. Reliability was total agreements divided by disagreements plus agreements x 100. After four practice sessions of five minutes each, reliability reached 85%. A check of the observer's naivete, after post-point data were gathered, showed t h a t the observer was unaware of the hypotheses. Two methods were used in tabulating the data. First, a frequency count was taken for the number of inter-ethnic sociometric choices and for the number of inter-ethnic interactions. The second method of data tabulation involved the Percent-of-Expected (PE) scores. To compute the PE for observation data, for each child, the number of inter-ethnic interactions was divided by the total number of interactions and multiplied by 100. For example, if a white child had a total of 10 observed interactions, of which five were with black and Latino children, then that child had 5/10 × 100, or 50% inter-ethnic interactions. In order to control for unequal representation of the various ethnic groups in each class, the percentage of inter-ethnic interactions for each child was divided by the percentage of other ethnic group members in the class and multiplied by 100. For example, in the third grade 66% of the class was nonwhite, so the expected percentage of inter-ethnic interactions for all white children was 66%. In the example used above, if a white third grader had 50% inter-ethnic interactions while the expected percentage for white children is 66%, then the PE for that child would be 50/66 × 100 = 76%. Percentages below 100% indicate less inter-ethnic interactions than would be expected by chance and percentages above 100% indicate higher inter-ethnic interactions than would be expected by chance. The same method was used for deriving PE scores using sociometric data. Academic Indices. Before and after the intervention, teachers assessed each student's arithmetic and reading skills, assigning them a number on the following scale: 1 = below average, 2 = average, and 3 = above average. Classroom adjustment. Pre-post changes in classroom adjustment were assessed by having teachers complete the AML (Cowen, Door, Clarfield, Kreling, McWilliams, Pokracki, Pratt, Terrell, and Wilson, 1973). This eleven item behavioral problem checklist taps problems in three areas: acting out, moodiness, and learning. Each item has a five point scale with higher numbers indi-
69
Rooney-Rebeck and Jason
cating more serious problems. In addition to this scale, one scale from the CARS (Lorion, Cowen & Caldwell, 1975), a seven-point scale for rating the seriousness of classroom adjustment problems, was filled out at the beginning and end of the program. On this scale, lower scores indicated more problematic classroom adjustment.
Results
The major criterion measures were evaluated using an analysis of co-variance, with pre-program measures as co-variates. The two grouping variables were experimental/control, and ethnic group. Analyses were done for the following variables: inter-ethnic association, measured by direct observation and sociometric questionnaires; academic grades; and classroom adjustment as measured by the AML and one scale of the CARS. In discussing the results of each measure, the first versus second grade comparisons will be considered first, followed by the third versus fourth grade comparisons.
Inter-ethnic Association Measures - First versus Second Grades
The number and Percent-of-Expected inter-ethnic interactions observed at playtime were both significantly higher among E youngsters than C youngsters after the program (F(1,34) = 19.02, p < .01; F(1,34) = 5.61, p < .05; respectively). A significant Treatment X Ethnic group effect emerged for Percent-ofExpected inter-ethnic interactions (F(2,34)= 3.19, p
