NursrEdtuatum CQ Longman

Todq (1991) 11, 147-152 Ltd 1991

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Problem posing vs problem solving Stephen J Happs

This paper addresses the notion of adult education and places it within the context of the literature on adult development. Emphasis is placed on the work of Klaus Riegel(1973) who suggested a different interpretation of adult development. Dialectic operations is perceived to be the final stage of cognitive development, as opposed to formal operational thought, the traditional interpretation. Dialectic operations is a way of thinking which seeks to discover a whole new series of questions to be asked, rather than in finding ‘once and for all’ answers. The concepts put forward by Riegel are used as the foundation for a different interpretation of andragogy, based on the work of the Nottingham Andragogy Group (1983). The educational approach suggested to a large extent is diametrically opposed to the much criticised ‘traditional’ training of nurses. The view is expressed that although this is a different approach it is nonetheless worthwhile and should be embraced, particularly when nurse education is undergoing such major change.

opposed

BACKGROUND Nurse education has endured much criticism within the last few years, with the accusation that it is ‘old fashioned’, restrictive and inappropriate for the needs of adults. This paper is not concerned with covering this ground, but in order to set the scene for a different approach to education some general themes will be explored. One criticism first-level

levelled at the preparation

practitioners

to ‘education’.

Wilshaw

(1985)

states

that;

is that it is ‘training’

‘The mug and jug notion in teaching - the idea of learners being empty receptacles into which tutors pour valuable knowledge - has surely had its day.’ (Wilshaw 1985) Wright (1986) is even more vitriolic and suggests that

of

‘The present system has failed its students and

as

patients. It is cracked and creaking- a suitable case for wholesale demolition. Detonate, don’t renovate!’ (Wright, 1986)

Stephen J Happs MSc BSc RMN RNMH RNT Course Leader, The Norfolk College of Nursing and Midwifery, Department of Nursing Studies (Gen. CC), Adult Nursing and Child Care, Norfolk and Norwich Hospital, Brunswick Road, Norwich, Norfolk NRl 3SR (Requests for offprints to SJH) Manuscript accepted 7 July 1990

Another criticism which is levelled at nurse education is that it has failed to address the issue of

learners

being

‘adults’.

Burnard

(1986)

asserts; ‘Adults are people who are active in their lives: 147

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NURSE EDUCATION

TODAY

they make decisions,

increasingly social roles.

they create. they discuss,

they bring up families. To treat them as empty vessels to be filled is to undermine them.’ (Burnard, These

criticisms

and insult

1986)

are levelled against nurse edu-

cation because it is operating in a ‘mechanistic’ paradigm. The ‘mechanistic’ view of man takes the metaphor of the machine, such that the universe is composed

of discrete parts, and more

complex phenomena are ultimately reducible to these parts. The obvious consequence of this model

is that

it is eminently

susceptible

to

quantification. The human person then is seen as passive, reacting to external forces, rather like a robot. However,

in stark

world view represents interactive developing be discovered Indeed: ‘The nature

from

contrast

the ‘organismic’

the universe as a unitary, organism. Reality cannot a reduction

of elements.

than being

toward the person’s

4. as the person matures the orientation to learn becomes less subject centred and increasingly problem centred. This explanation does not explain adequately why the education of adults is qualitatively different. gested

Indeed

Knowles

that his original

himself

(i.e. pedagogy

and andragogy)

were identified

content or process based courses. This then gives rise to the notion

of a continuum

it’s central involved

concerns

the nature

as well as the nature

of the person of one subject,

irrespective of whatever form it takes. The view presented here is that there it addresses

significant

and fundamental

different depicted

organismic

model

inherently

and

than as a collection forces.

sees the human spontaneously

person

active

of acts initiated

as

rather

by external

Klaus

Riegel

is central

to

differ-

The work of

this,

offering

a

account of cognitive maturity to that in traditional Piagetian thought.

However, Paterson (1979) is a useful backdrop against which to highlight these views. Paterson uses the term ‘adult’ and expands on the concept and meaning used

of adulthood.

as a noun

The term ‘adult’ is

or an adjective

in different

contexts. When an anthropologist speaks of the average height and weight of adults in some society, he does so in a context is on processes

ADULT LEARNING Recently the notion of ‘andragogy’ has received attention within the literature on nurse education, with Malcolm Knowles (1970) being the most frequently cited author. Knowles operated on four basic assumptions about adult learning, viz: 1. as a person matures the self-concept moves from dependence towards self-direction. 2. maturity brings an accumulating reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. 3. as the person matures

is a

which is truly ‘adult’ because

of the meaning

(Reese & Overton, 1970) Thus the possibility of a predictive and quantiThe fiable is precluded. universe

of pedagogy

from traditional to progressive. Any theory of education must have as one of

ences between adults and children.

of the parts.’

sug-

was prob-

which resulted in

the sum of its parts, is presupposed by the parts and the whole constitutes the condition and existence

later

formulation

lematic in that two approaches

model of education of the whole, rather

oriented

readiness

to learn is

where the accent

of physical growth and develop-

ment. When a critic refers

to an adult novel or

play,

it solicits

he is claiming

that

a certain

maturity of response from the reader or spectator. When a man tells his 16-year-old son he is not yet an adult, he may be reminding some of his claims and expectations priate and premature. Common

him that

are inappro-

to all these usages is the focal con-

trast of the adult with the child. Adulthood is a state into which someone passes, childhood is ended, thus implying a process of growth. In calling someone an ‘adult’ we are not claiming that he has any one empirical characteristic or set of characteristics. We are not describ-

NURSE EDUCATION

ing his appearance, state of mind or behaviour. Rather we are ascribing him a certain ‘status’ gained after relinquishing the status of a child. Status enhances valuation, priorities and estimates of regard, inherent in this are a range of prescriptions and prohibitions, obligations and rights. During the 1970s the study of adult development saw major changes, a contextualist paradigm arrived which argued that whether an adult’s thinking ability declines, remains stable or develops at any age depends on the degree and quality of an individual’s interactions with their social and historical contexts and depends to some extent on the quality of the contexts as well. This notion of adult potential for continuing development came to be called the ‘plasticity’ model of development. To conceptualise adulthood as potentially a period of cognitive growth rather than stability or decline has profound implications for their education.

FORMAL THf NKI NG VS OlALECTlC THINKING Piaget (1972) suggested that formal operational thought was the final period of cognitive growth arrived at, usually, by the ages of 14-15. The formal operational stage implies the ability to engage in abstract thought, that is, to deal with propositions, to generate hypotheses and subject them to empirical investigation. Development is seen by Piaget as removing inconsistencies and reaching toward a coherent, noncontradictory mode of thinking; organisms inherently tending toward equilibriated states. Disequilibrium represents conflict which the organism tries to overcome. Piaget’s theory depicts cognitive development as originating from a dialectic base, but all of the remaining explications in Piaget’s theory characterises development as a progression toward abstract thought away from and toward an element of contradictions. Thus, development represents an alienation of the subject from the object.

TODAY

149

Riegel proposed the view that dialectical logic offered an alternative explanation of mature thought. Dialectical logic recognises contradictions as a basic operation of thinking, contradictions are eliminated by formal logic. In formal logic investigations are built on the premise of noncontradiction and removal of inconsistencies. Rather than searching for final answers, dialectical logic is concerned with the endless sequence of raising questions, Proceeding in such a sequence requires, of course, that at various points answers have to be found. However, these answers are only temporary markings in the continuous process of evolving problems. Riegel notes that even the natural sciences are plagued by implicit contradictions - not to speak of the behavioural and social sciences. It is contended here that the art and science of nursing is too. In consideration of formal logic Riegel notes that only under most exceptional conditions of logical arguments and scholastic disputes is it conceivable that a person would engage in such form of thinking. In his daily activities logics and operations of much lower power will be applied. Indeed, even in their scientific activities researchers will very rarely engage in the proportional logic of Piaget’s fourth state and, for example, systematically calculate all possible outcomes in their search for a solution. Such forms of thinking merely provide one last straw in the process of scientific inquiry which is applied after intuitive thought is exhausted. Creative scientific activities are dominated by playful manipulations of contradictions and by conceiving issues integratively which have been torn apart by formal operational thinking. The theory of dialectic operations portrays a type of thinking which results in discovering important questions and problems rather than in determining answers. In the process of dialectic thinking abstract thoughts, ideas and concepts are reunited with concrete reality and experience. It is from this reunion that contradictions emerge which then become the motivational force, because when one is thinking

150

NURSE EDUCATION

TODAY

dialectically contradictions are even excite the thinking process. Riegel contended

tolerated

and

that the most effective

type

The potential for continuing development of thoughts, feeling and self during adulthood entails qualitative change in thinking and

of thinking is not that which provides immediate answers but that which discovers the important

thought

structures

which

adult’s

development

of

questions

competent

and/or poses important

If we entertain tive structural

problems. cogni-

adolescent.

of adult life,

Creative uncritical

the notion that further

change

is a feature

then the notion of adult development pertains equally to teachers and learners. This demands a fundamentally

different

thinking

relationship

between

adult teachers and adult learners, and it is this relationship which initiates a new climate in which the learning and development can be more effectively realised.

of all adults

preferable

from

because

these

Learning

re-integration domains

involves

enquiry, critical reflection

It is asserted

rather

as

well

as

nurses. In order to consider these views and draw them together to form a coherent strategy Andragogy

Group

the work of the Nottingham (1983)

provides

a useful

basis. ‘Andragogy

the total embodiment philosophy approach

of

and

education

is aimed

as an approach expression for

adults.

at enabling

-

of a This

people

to

become the originators of their own thinking and feelings.’ (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983)

Some basic assumptions this model:

of group and

of the cognitive

is an essential

ingre-

is not

thinking, discovery, and creative response.

about

it is about selection,

From

underpin

Human beings are social beings, which means that their nature derives from their interactions or transactions within their social and historical contexts; therefore, whilst contributing towards

these

basic

features are generated gic process. It should centred.

transmission, synthesis,

be

assumptions

but

discovery

direction,

a series

of

which aid in the androgo-

non-prescriptive,

This is about exploration than

can be defined

are most appro-

and dialogue.

quantitatively

different from childhood and adolescence should be addressed in the preparation of

for nurse education

thinking

adult learning.

ANDRAGOGY - A NEW PERSPECTIVE?

Education

of

of the adult.

and critical thinking

A continuing

here that the notion of ‘adulthood’

modes

priately fostered by a combination individual self-directed learning.

dient for effective

qualitatively

of

that of the child or

foster the full development Creative

the

forms

and critical thinking rather than the reception of others’ thinking is

and the affective

being

distinguishes various

and

and deduction

transmission

or

issuerather

prescription.

The prescribed content can be made into a series of questions or problems. Problem - posing is the dynamic of the andragogic process - not such that problems are resolved ‘once and for all’ but that further issues are highlighted, Reflection

and

Action

-

ideas

need

to be

adjusted and refined through applying them to concrete or real experience. There may be an alteration in values, attitudes knowledge or understanding. Continuous Negotiation - facilitates the ongoing development of the group - decisions about content etc.

the creation of self, society and history, they are, in turn, influenced by what they and others have

group,

created.

cedures,

Within

and process,

presentation,

usefulness,

the andragogic process the learning including the tutor, negotiates proobjectives/learning

outcomes,

methods

NURSE EDUCATION

and means by which process and product evaluated.

The term negotiation

ing of power by all members than an abrogation This

will be

implies a shar-

of the group rather

of power by the tutor.

approach

does

not

suggest

that

any

methods - lecture, experiential, T-groups, project, etc., are better than any other, the key lies in the

way they

are

used

i.e.

pedagogically

or

and perspectives

on, the common

they have ostensibly

gathered

All the above are dependent

15 1

TODAY

reality which

to confront. to some extent on

the establishment, within the learning group, equality, openness, trust, care and commitment. One way this can be achieved is by a series of ground

rules which the group negotiate,

lish and adhere

estab-

to.

andragogically. Shared individual and group for learning - all members learn,

responsibility including the

tutor, when responsibility is shared no member should attempt to control the learning of others. Paterson

makes

tutor’s knowledge

the

point

that;

while

the

of his subject obviously places

him in a special position, he should be on an equal footing with his students, many of whom may be older

than he is, wiser, perhaps

more

sophisticated, and indeed sometimes simply better educated than he is, although their specialist knowledge of the subject in hand falls short of his: the atmosphere in an adult class should be one of shared

endeavour.

Dialogue - this is of major importance process

not only implies

what others

and the

but hearing

are saying and responding

other’s ideas, thoughts Friere

listening,

(1972)

to the

and feelings.

suggested

that

much

of edu-

cation seen today was based on a ‘banking’ concept, such that knowledge is dished out from deposits

held by teachers.

The key to reversing

this process and helping people to move from being controlled by education to be in control of education

is the

process

achieves exchanging scriber, domesticator

of

dialogue.

This

the role of depositor, prefor the role of student

among students. Paterson too speaks of dialogue and asserts that it has an intrinsic value namely a direct living encounter of consciousness with consciousness in the face of some objective reality which it is their

common

purpose

to

explore

and

PERSONAL PERSPECTIVES One drawback often highlighted by teachers in this, ‘pinko-marxist clap-trap’ is the fact that nurse learners

are employees

not ‘real’ students.

It is felt that this approach belittles and degrades students - it almost implies that in studentcentred learning, andragogy, adult education or whatever label we attach to it no boundaries are in existence.

Even the most liberal educational

establishment have lines drawn somewhere. If we assume that learners are adults that means that they carry with them rights and obligations associated with adult life. You are an adult, however you do not have free range to do things (for if you do you incur some form of sanction) therefore it is a conscious decision to cross those lines. It is not learners personal

the

business

of education

to put

through ‘therapy’ in order to achieve growth - personal growth may be the

result of education but it is not it’s prime objective, nor is it our explicit duty to be their ‘friend’ or ally against a cruel taskmaster.

It is our

quest to undergo alongside them an educational experience. If the process is established from the start then learners can recognise the difference between education and employment. Honesty and respect are called popularity competition. Another

criticism

for

-

not

votes

in a

often heard is, ‘ah but they

don’t deserve to be treated as adults’. If an adult does not fulfil the obligations associated with adulthood then we cannot simply reascribe to

understand.

him the status of child. Adults

Of course there are classes where what passes for ‘discussion’ is nothing like it. All it amounts to

deserve to be treated inalienable right.

is; rambling and incoherent chatter, screening rather than revealing the students’ relations to,

There is much talk of allowing learners freedom. The implication is that if they don’t come

do not have to

as an adult

it is their

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NURSE EDUCATION

up to scratch

TODAY

then it can be reclaimed.

Adult

education is not about allowing freedom approach because of freedom.

it is an

It is conceded that this process takes time to achieve, it cannot be achieved overnight. Mistakes are made, falling back on the power and perceived expertise inherent in the tutors role. Mistakes however do not negate the importance or effectiveness of such a strategy. Major reforms in nurse education are taking place, one crucial area to address is the interface between learner

and teacher.

If we can start to

remove the shackles of anachronistic practice perceiving the potential of adulthood then we can make significant steps into health care for the 2 1st century. Project 2000 offers us the chance of embracing a new approach to teaching/learning. It will give us the chance to treat them as ‘real students’ is a phrase often heard. Treating them as adults would be preferable.

References Burnard P 1986 Encountering Adults. Senior Nurse 4, 4: 30-31 Friere P 1972 Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Penguin, Harmondsworth Knowles M S 1970 The modern practice of adult education. Associated press, New York Nottingham Andragogy Group (1983) Towards a developmental theory of andragogy. Adults: Psychological and education perspectives. University of Nottingham Paterson R 1979 Values, education and the adult. Routledge, Kegan and Paul, London Piaget J 1972 Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development 16: l-12 Reese H W, Overton W F 1970 Models of development and theories of development. In: Goulet L R, Baltes P B Eds Life-span Development Pyschology. Academic press, New York Riegel K F 1973 Dialectic operations: The final period of cognitive growth. Human Development 16: 346 370 Wilshaw G 1985 Challenging classroom traditions. Nursing Mirror 16 I, 2: 23 Wright S G 1986 Burn all schools of nursing. Tradimus. Summer Issue 2: 18-19.

Problem posing vs problem solving.

This paper addresses the notion of adult education and places it within the context of the literature on adult development. Emphasis is placed on the ...
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