NursrEdtuatum CQ Longman
Todq (1991) 11, 147-152 Ltd 1991
GroupUK
Problem posing vs problem solving Stephen J Happs
This paper addresses the notion of adult education and places it within the context of the literature on adult development. Emphasis is placed on the work of Klaus Riegel(1973) who suggested a different interpretation of adult development. Dialectic operations is perceived to be the final stage of cognitive development, as opposed to formal operational thought, the traditional interpretation. Dialectic operations is a way of thinking which seeks to discover a whole new series of questions to be asked, rather than in finding ‘once and for all’ answers. The concepts put forward by Riegel are used as the foundation for a different interpretation of andragogy, based on the work of the Nottingham Andragogy Group (1983). The educational approach suggested to a large extent is diametrically opposed to the much criticised ‘traditional’ training of nurses. The view is expressed that although this is a different approach it is nonetheless worthwhile and should be embraced, particularly when nurse education is undergoing such major change.
opposed
BACKGROUND Nurse education has endured much criticism within the last few years, with the accusation that it is ‘old fashioned’, restrictive and inappropriate for the needs of adults. This paper is not concerned with covering this ground, but in order to set the scene for a different approach to education some general themes will be explored. One criticism first-level
levelled at the preparation
practitioners
to ‘education’.
Wilshaw
(1985)
states
that;
is that it is ‘training’
‘The mug and jug notion in teaching - the idea of learners being empty receptacles into which tutors pour valuable knowledge - has surely had its day.’ (Wilshaw 1985) Wright (1986) is even more vitriolic and suggests that
of
‘The present system has failed its students and
as
patients. It is cracked and creaking- a suitable case for wholesale demolition. Detonate, don’t renovate!’ (Wright, 1986)
Stephen J Happs MSc BSc RMN RNMH RNT Course Leader, The Norfolk College of Nursing and Midwifery, Department of Nursing Studies (Gen. CC), Adult Nursing and Child Care, Norfolk and Norwich Hospital, Brunswick Road, Norwich, Norfolk NRl 3SR (Requests for offprints to SJH) Manuscript accepted 7 July 1990
Another criticism which is levelled at nurse education is that it has failed to address the issue of
learners
being
‘adults’.
Burnard
(1986)
asserts; ‘Adults are people who are active in their lives: 147
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NURSE EDUCATION
TODAY
they make decisions,
increasingly social roles.
they create. they discuss,
they bring up families. To treat them as empty vessels to be filled is to undermine them.’ (Burnard, These
criticisms
and insult
1986)
are levelled against nurse edu-
cation because it is operating in a ‘mechanistic’ paradigm. The ‘mechanistic’ view of man takes the metaphor of the machine, such that the universe is composed
of discrete parts, and more
complex phenomena are ultimately reducible to these parts. The obvious consequence of this model
is that
it is eminently
susceptible
to
quantification. The human person then is seen as passive, reacting to external forces, rather like a robot. However,
in stark
world view represents interactive developing be discovered Indeed: ‘The nature
from
contrast
the ‘organismic’
the universe as a unitary, organism. Reality cannot a reduction
of elements.
than being
toward the person’s
4. as the person matures the orientation to learn becomes less subject centred and increasingly problem centred. This explanation does not explain adequately why the education of adults is qualitatively different. gested
Indeed
Knowles
that his original
himself
(i.e. pedagogy
and andragogy)
were identified
content or process based courses. This then gives rise to the notion
of a continuum
it’s central involved
concerns
the nature
as well as the nature
of the person of one subject,
irrespective of whatever form it takes. The view presented here is that there it addresses
significant
and fundamental
different depicted
organismic
model
inherently
and
than as a collection forces.
sees the human spontaneously
person
active
of acts initiated
as
rather
by external
Klaus
Riegel
is central
to
differ-
The work of
this,
offering
a
account of cognitive maturity to that in traditional Piagetian thought.
However, Paterson (1979) is a useful backdrop against which to highlight these views. Paterson uses the term ‘adult’ and expands on the concept and meaning used
of adulthood.
as a noun
The term ‘adult’ is
or an adjective
in different
contexts. When an anthropologist speaks of the average height and weight of adults in some society, he does so in a context is on processes
ADULT LEARNING Recently the notion of ‘andragogy’ has received attention within the literature on nurse education, with Malcolm Knowles (1970) being the most frequently cited author. Knowles operated on four basic assumptions about adult learning, viz: 1. as a person matures the self-concept moves from dependence towards self-direction. 2. maturity brings an accumulating reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. 3. as the person matures
is a
which is truly ‘adult’ because
of the meaning
(Reese & Overton, 1970) Thus the possibility of a predictive and quantiThe fiable is precluded. universe
of pedagogy
from traditional to progressive. Any theory of education must have as one of
ences between adults and children.
of the parts.’
sug-
was prob-
which resulted in
the sum of its parts, is presupposed by the parts and the whole constitutes the condition and existence
later
formulation
lematic in that two approaches
model of education of the whole, rather
oriented
readiness
to learn is
where the accent
of physical growth and develop-
ment. When a critic refers
to an adult novel or
play,
it solicits
he is claiming
that
a certain
maturity of response from the reader or spectator. When a man tells his 16-year-old son he is not yet an adult, he may be reminding some of his claims and expectations priate and premature. Common
him that
are inappro-
to all these usages is the focal con-
trast of the adult with the child. Adulthood is a state into which someone passes, childhood is ended, thus implying a process of growth. In calling someone an ‘adult’ we are not claiming that he has any one empirical characteristic or set of characteristics. We are not describ-
NURSE EDUCATION
ing his appearance, state of mind or behaviour. Rather we are ascribing him a certain ‘status’ gained after relinquishing the status of a child. Status enhances valuation, priorities and estimates of regard, inherent in this are a range of prescriptions and prohibitions, obligations and rights. During the 1970s the study of adult development saw major changes, a contextualist paradigm arrived which argued that whether an adult’s thinking ability declines, remains stable or develops at any age depends on the degree and quality of an individual’s interactions with their social and historical contexts and depends to some extent on the quality of the contexts as well. This notion of adult potential for continuing development came to be called the ‘plasticity’ model of development. To conceptualise adulthood as potentially a period of cognitive growth rather than stability or decline has profound implications for their education.
FORMAL THf NKI NG VS OlALECTlC THINKING Piaget (1972) suggested that formal operational thought was the final period of cognitive growth arrived at, usually, by the ages of 14-15. The formal operational stage implies the ability to engage in abstract thought, that is, to deal with propositions, to generate hypotheses and subject them to empirical investigation. Development is seen by Piaget as removing inconsistencies and reaching toward a coherent, noncontradictory mode of thinking; organisms inherently tending toward equilibriated states. Disequilibrium represents conflict which the organism tries to overcome. Piaget’s theory depicts cognitive development as originating from a dialectic base, but all of the remaining explications in Piaget’s theory characterises development as a progression toward abstract thought away from and toward an element of contradictions. Thus, development represents an alienation of the subject from the object.
TODAY
149
Riegel proposed the view that dialectical logic offered an alternative explanation of mature thought. Dialectical logic recognises contradictions as a basic operation of thinking, contradictions are eliminated by formal logic. In formal logic investigations are built on the premise of noncontradiction and removal of inconsistencies. Rather than searching for final answers, dialectical logic is concerned with the endless sequence of raising questions, Proceeding in such a sequence requires, of course, that at various points answers have to be found. However, these answers are only temporary markings in the continuous process of evolving problems. Riegel notes that even the natural sciences are plagued by implicit contradictions - not to speak of the behavioural and social sciences. It is contended here that the art and science of nursing is too. In consideration of formal logic Riegel notes that only under most exceptional conditions of logical arguments and scholastic disputes is it conceivable that a person would engage in such form of thinking. In his daily activities logics and operations of much lower power will be applied. Indeed, even in their scientific activities researchers will very rarely engage in the proportional logic of Piaget’s fourth state and, for example, systematically calculate all possible outcomes in their search for a solution. Such forms of thinking merely provide one last straw in the process of scientific inquiry which is applied after intuitive thought is exhausted. Creative scientific activities are dominated by playful manipulations of contradictions and by conceiving issues integratively which have been torn apart by formal operational thinking. The theory of dialectic operations portrays a type of thinking which results in discovering important questions and problems rather than in determining answers. In the process of dialectic thinking abstract thoughts, ideas and concepts are reunited with concrete reality and experience. It is from this reunion that contradictions emerge which then become the motivational force, because when one is thinking
150
NURSE EDUCATION
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dialectically contradictions are even excite the thinking process. Riegel contended
tolerated
and
that the most effective
type
The potential for continuing development of thoughts, feeling and self during adulthood entails qualitative change in thinking and
of thinking is not that which provides immediate answers but that which discovers the important
thought
structures
which
adult’s
development
of
questions
competent
and/or poses important
If we entertain tive structural
problems. cogni-
adolescent.
of adult life,
Creative uncritical
the notion that further
change
is a feature
then the notion of adult development pertains equally to teachers and learners. This demands a fundamentally
different
thinking
relationship
between
adult teachers and adult learners, and it is this relationship which initiates a new climate in which the learning and development can be more effectively realised.
of all adults
preferable
from
because
these
Learning
re-integration domains
involves
enquiry, critical reflection
It is asserted
rather
as
well
as
nurses. In order to consider these views and draw them together to form a coherent strategy Andragogy
Group
the work of the Nottingham (1983)
provides
a useful
basis. ‘Andragogy
the total embodiment philosophy approach
of
and
education
is aimed
as an approach expression for
adults.
at enabling
-
of a This
people
to
become the originators of their own thinking and feelings.’ (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983)
Some basic assumptions this model:
of group and
of the cognitive
is an essential
ingre-
is not
thinking, discovery, and creative response.
about
it is about selection,
From
underpin
Human beings are social beings, which means that their nature derives from their interactions or transactions within their social and historical contexts; therefore, whilst contributing towards
these
basic
features are generated gic process. It should centred.
transmission, synthesis,
be
assumptions
but
discovery
direction,
a series
of
which aid in the androgo-
non-prescriptive,
This is about exploration than
can be defined
are most appro-
and dialogue.
quantitatively
different from childhood and adolescence should be addressed in the preparation of
for nurse education
thinking
adult learning.
ANDRAGOGY - A NEW PERSPECTIVE?
Education
of
of the adult.
and critical thinking
A continuing
here that the notion of ‘adulthood’
modes
priately fostered by a combination individual self-directed learning.
dient for effective
qualitatively
of
that of the child or
foster the full development Creative
the
forms
and critical thinking rather than the reception of others’ thinking is
and the affective
being
distinguishes various
and
and deduction
transmission
or
issuerather
prescription.
The prescribed content can be made into a series of questions or problems. Problem - posing is the dynamic of the andragogic process - not such that problems are resolved ‘once and for all’ but that further issues are highlighted, Reflection
and
Action
-
ideas
need
to be
adjusted and refined through applying them to concrete or real experience. There may be an alteration in values, attitudes knowledge or understanding. Continuous Negotiation - facilitates the ongoing development of the group - decisions about content etc.
the creation of self, society and history, they are, in turn, influenced by what they and others have
group,
created.
cedures,
Within
and process,
presentation,
usefulness,
the andragogic process the learning including the tutor, negotiates proobjectives/learning
outcomes,
methods
NURSE EDUCATION
and means by which process and product evaluated.
The term negotiation
ing of power by all members than an abrogation This
will be
implies a shar-
of the group rather
of power by the tutor.
approach
does
not
suggest
that
any
methods - lecture, experiential, T-groups, project, etc., are better than any other, the key lies in the
way they
are
used
i.e.
pedagogically
or
and perspectives
on, the common
they have ostensibly
gathered
All the above are dependent
15 1
TODAY
reality which
to confront. to some extent on
the establishment, within the learning group, equality, openness, trust, care and commitment. One way this can be achieved is by a series of ground
rules which the group negotiate,
lish and adhere
estab-
to.
andragogically. Shared individual and group for learning - all members learn,
responsibility including the
tutor, when responsibility is shared no member should attempt to control the learning of others. Paterson
makes
tutor’s knowledge
the
point
that;
while
the
of his subject obviously places
him in a special position, he should be on an equal footing with his students, many of whom may be older
than he is, wiser, perhaps
more
sophisticated, and indeed sometimes simply better educated than he is, although their specialist knowledge of the subject in hand falls short of his: the atmosphere in an adult class should be one of shared
endeavour.
Dialogue - this is of major importance process
not only implies
what others
and the
but hearing
are saying and responding
other’s ideas, thoughts Friere
listening,
(1972)
to the
and feelings.
suggested
that
much
of edu-
cation seen today was based on a ‘banking’ concept, such that knowledge is dished out from deposits
held by teachers.
The key to reversing
this process and helping people to move from being controlled by education to be in control of education
is the
process
achieves exchanging scriber, domesticator
of
dialogue.
This
the role of depositor, prefor the role of student
among students. Paterson too speaks of dialogue and asserts that it has an intrinsic value namely a direct living encounter of consciousness with consciousness in the face of some objective reality which it is their
common
purpose
to
explore
and
PERSONAL PERSPECTIVES One drawback often highlighted by teachers in this, ‘pinko-marxist clap-trap’ is the fact that nurse learners
are employees
not ‘real’ students.
It is felt that this approach belittles and degrades students - it almost implies that in studentcentred learning, andragogy, adult education or whatever label we attach to it no boundaries are in existence.
Even the most liberal educational
establishment have lines drawn somewhere. If we assume that learners are adults that means that they carry with them rights and obligations associated with adult life. You are an adult, however you do not have free range to do things (for if you do you incur some form of sanction) therefore it is a conscious decision to cross those lines. It is not learners personal
the
business
of education
to put
through ‘therapy’ in order to achieve growth - personal growth may be the
result of education but it is not it’s prime objective, nor is it our explicit duty to be their ‘friend’ or ally against a cruel taskmaster.
It is our
quest to undergo alongside them an educational experience. If the process is established from the start then learners can recognise the difference between education and employment. Honesty and respect are called popularity competition. Another
criticism
for
-
not
votes
in a
often heard is, ‘ah but they
don’t deserve to be treated as adults’. If an adult does not fulfil the obligations associated with adulthood then we cannot simply reascribe to
understand.
him the status of child. Adults
Of course there are classes where what passes for ‘discussion’ is nothing like it. All it amounts to
deserve to be treated inalienable right.
is; rambling and incoherent chatter, screening rather than revealing the students’ relations to,
There is much talk of allowing learners freedom. The implication is that if they don’t come
do not have to
as an adult
it is their
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up to scratch
TODAY
then it can be reclaimed.
Adult
education is not about allowing freedom approach because of freedom.
it is an
It is conceded that this process takes time to achieve, it cannot be achieved overnight. Mistakes are made, falling back on the power and perceived expertise inherent in the tutors role. Mistakes however do not negate the importance or effectiveness of such a strategy. Major reforms in nurse education are taking place, one crucial area to address is the interface between learner
and teacher.
If we can start to
remove the shackles of anachronistic practice perceiving the potential of adulthood then we can make significant steps into health care for the 2 1st century. Project 2000 offers us the chance of embracing a new approach to teaching/learning. It will give us the chance to treat them as ‘real students’ is a phrase often heard. Treating them as adults would be preferable.
References Burnard P 1986 Encountering Adults. Senior Nurse 4, 4: 30-31 Friere P 1972 Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Penguin, Harmondsworth Knowles M S 1970 The modern practice of adult education. Associated press, New York Nottingham Andragogy Group (1983) Towards a developmental theory of andragogy. Adults: Psychological and education perspectives. University of Nottingham Paterson R 1979 Values, education and the adult. Routledge, Kegan and Paul, London Piaget J 1972 Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development 16: l-12 Reese H W, Overton W F 1970 Models of development and theories of development. In: Goulet L R, Baltes P B Eds Life-span Development Pyschology. Academic press, New York Riegel K F 1973 Dialectic operations: The final period of cognitive growth. Human Development 16: 346 370 Wilshaw G 1985 Challenging classroom traditions. Nursing Mirror 16 I, 2: 23 Wright S G 1986 Burn all schools of nursing. Tradimus. Summer Issue 2: 18-19.