Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology

ISSN: 1537-4416 (Print) 1537-4424 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hcap20

Relations of Parenting to Adolescent Externalizing and Internalizing Distress Moderated by Perception of Neighborhood Danger Jonathan S. Goldner , Dakari Quimby , Maryse H. Richards , Arie Zakaryan , Steve Miller , Daniel Dickson & Jessica Chilson To cite this article: Jonathan S. Goldner , Dakari Quimby , Maryse H. Richards , Arie Zakaryan , Steve Miller , Daniel Dickson & Jessica Chilson (2014): Relations of Parenting to Adolescent Externalizing and Internalizing Distress Moderated by Perception of Neighborhood Danger, Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2014.958838 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.958838

Published online: 25 Nov 2014.

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Date: 05 November 2015, At: 21:56

Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 0(0), 1–14, 2014 Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1537-4416 print=1537-4424 online DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2014.958838

Relations of Parenting to Adolescent Externalizing and Internalizing Distress Moderated by Perception of Neighborhood Danger Jonathan S. Goldner Downloaded by [Central Michigan University] at 21:56 05 November 2015

Under the Rainbow, Mount Sinai Hospital, Chicago, Illinois

Dakari Quimby, Maryse H. Richards, and Arie Zakaryan Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Steve Miller Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois

Daniel Dickson Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Jessica Chilson Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Parental monitoring and warmth have traditionally been studied in the context of White, middle-class families. This article explores optimal levels of these parenting behaviors in preventing adolescent psychopathology in impoverished, urban high-crime areas while accounting for child perceptions of neighborhood danger. In this study, data were collected longitudinally at 2 time points 1 year apart from a sample of 254 African American young adolescents (T1: M age ¼ 12.6 years, 41% male) and their parents. Parental monitoring and warmth, child perception of neighborhood danger, and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors were measured using questionnaires. Child internalizing behaviors were also measured using a time sampling technique capturing in vivo accounts of daily distress. Findings indicated associations between parental monitoring and children’s externalizing behaviors along with linear and quadratic associations between parental monitoring and internalizing behaviors. Monitoring and warmth were differentially related to symptoms depending on neighborhood danger level. When children perceived less danger, more monitoring related to less externalizing. When children perceived more danger, more warmth related to less internalizing. In addition, adolescents’ perceptions of neighborhood danger emerged as equally strong as monitoring and warmth in predicting symptoms. This study underscores the influence of carefully considering parenting approaches and which techniques optimally prevent adolescents’ externalizing, as well as prevent internalizing difficulties. It also highlights how context affects mental health, specifically how perceptions of danger negatively influence adolescents’ psychopathology, emphasizing the importance of initiatives to reduce violence in communities. Correspondence should be addressed to Maryse H. Richards, Loyola University Chicago, Department of Psychology, 1032 West Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60660. E-mail: [email protected] Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/hcap.

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GOLDNER ET AL.

In her seminal work examining preschool children and their parents, Diana Baumrind (1972) devised a typology of parenting styles. She found that ‘‘authoritative’’ parents, those high in both control and warmth, had better adjusted preschoolers. Extending these findings from preschool into adolescence, numerous studies have testified to the value of authoritative parenting as compared to authoritarian (high in control, low in warmth), permissive (low in control, high in warmth) or disengaged (low in control and warmth) parenting. Authoritative parenting has been linked to higher levels of self-control, reliance, and worth (Steinberg, Brown, & Dornbusch, 1996). Although adolescent behavior has been linked to different components of parenting, the majority of studies have focused on two overarching themes derived from Baumrind’s work: parental control (involving managing and supervision) and warmth (involving communication; Smetana, Crean, & Daddis, 2002). Early studies of parenting have mostly looked at European American, often middle-class, families (Garcia-Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995), prompting researchers to examine the extent to which the dimensions of authoritative parenting are used by members of other ethnicities and socioeconomic statuses. Baumrind (1972) herself examined a small subsample of African American families from her original study and found different emphases of parenting and different correlates. These findings, as well as others like them (Steele, Nesbitt-Daly, Daniel, & Forehand, 2005), have prompted attempts to develop typologies of parenting better suited to African American families and the contexts in which they live (Weis, 2002). The current study examines two important components of authoritative parenting (i.e., behavioral control in the form of parental monitoring, and parental warmth) in an urban, low-income, African American young adolescent sample to determine the extent to which they provide protection from daily internalizing and externalizing behavior (Garcia-Coll et al., 1995; Mistry, Vandewater, Huston, & McLoyd, 2002). Further, in an effort to better understand how adolescents might react differently to parenting when living in high-crime areas, this article examines how children’s perceptions of neighborhood danger affect their reactions to parenting.

PARENTAL MONITORING Parental monitoring appears to be ‘‘critical’’ in the prevention of problem behavior (Hoeve et al., 2009). Low levels of monitoring of adolescents have been associated with a host of problem behaviors: increases in substance

use (Van Ryzin, Fosco, & Dishion, 2012), early sexual activity (Wight, Williamson, & Henderson, 2006), aggression (Graber, Nichols, Lynne, Brooks-Gunn, & Botvin, 2006), and delinquency generally (Hoeve et al., 2009). Although numerous studies have linked parental monitoring strategies to externalizing difficulties in young people, far fewer have examined potential links with internalizing symptoms. Parents’ efforts to be aware of their children’s activities, whereabouts, and companionship can be thought to stem from affection and a desire to protect their children (Simons, Lin, et al., 2002). Thus, low levels may very well convey the opposite—that parents are not concerned about their children. When young people realize this fundamental message, they may experience feelings of sadness and anxiety at being left alone to fend for themselves. Although this possibility has gone virtually unexplored in the literature, the existing evidence seems to support a link. In two cross-sectional studies, low-income Bahamian youth with depressive symptoms perceived significantly lower levels of parental monitoring than nondepressed youth (Yu et al., 2006), whereas behavioral control was negatively associated with internalizing symptoms in a suburban European American sample (Barber, Olsen, & Shagle, 1994).

PARENTAL WARMTH Parental warmth typically refers to the emotional atmosphere created by the caregiver. It ‘‘includes a mother’s responsiveness to her child’s needs, sensitivity to her child’s signals, [and] shared expressions of positive emotions and praise’’ (Weis, 2002, p. 143). Responsive parenting has extensively been shown to protect against internalizing (Hipwell et al., 2008). Yu and colleagues (2006) found that impaired communication between parent and child was associated with higher rates of depressive symptoms. Parental warmth was also associated with lower levels of teacher reported shyness, sadness, anxiety, and withdrawal for African American sixth-grade students (McCabe, Clark, & Barnett, 1999). The provision of warmth by parents has been shown to be effective in warding off child externalizing behavior (McKee, Colletti, Rakow, Jones, & Forehand, 2008). Vazsonyi, Pickering, and Bolland (2006) found that parental warmth (as well as consistent disciplinary practices) significantly accounted for reduced problem behaviors and violence perpetration for early to late adolescent low-income, urban African Americans. In addition, among African American, lower income male adolescents, parental support moderated the relation between racial discrimination and violent delinquency (Simons, Simons, et al., 2002). A literature review of

PARENTING AND ADOLESCENT DISTRESS

parenting behaviors and child outcomes (Fletcher, Steinberg, & Williams-Wheeler, 2004) found that warmth is more closely linked to psychosocial development and internalizing distress than parental monitoring, whereas parental monitoring is more strongly associated with problem behavior.

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NEIGHBORHOOD AND PARENTING The use and effectiveness of different parenting styles may also be a function of the environment in which families live. Living in dangerous communities appears to affect the behavior of young people by stimulating vigilance and possibly problematic behavior (Daly, Shin, Thakral, Selders, & Vera, 2009). Studies of African American urban adolescents have determined that students who felt unsafe in their neighborhoods were more likely to carry a weapon for protection, get into physical fights, and be involved with the police (Dowdell, 2006). Violence exposure increases youth’s threat appraisals or how an individual processes violence exposure and interprets its impact on his or her welfare (Kliewer & Sullivan, 2008). Such appraisals have been theorized to be linked to the significance individuals attach to events, coping efforts, and adjustment difficulties (Kliewer & Sullivan, 2008; Lazarus, 1991). In predominately low-income, urban samples, studies have demonstrated that threat appraisals affect internalizing and externalizing problems independently from violence exposure (Kliewer & Sullivan, 2008; Schwab-Stone et al., 1995). One aspect of threat appraisals—perception of neighborhood danger—is examined in this study. Youth who grow up in dangerous environments experience anticipatory stress levels even when stressors are not present (Kiser, 2007). Beyond the amount or degree of danger present in a community, research has demonstrated one’s perception of neighborhood danger to be integral to one’s functioning. Greater perceived neighborhood danger has been linked to such outcomes as stronger positive beliefs about aggression (Colder, Mott, Levy, & Flay, 2000), as well as less effective coping strategies in high-crime neighborhoods (Rasmussen, Aber, & Bhana, 2004). The negative effects of exposure to violence are more determined by one’s sense of safety than the objective threat alone (Blechman, Dumas, & Prinz, 1994; Rasmussen et al., 2004). How individuals perceive danger, as opposed to the actual danger itself, may be largely responsible for the psychological impact of neighborhood danger. African American parents in low-income, urban areas have demonstrated stricter parenting practices than parents living in rural areas (Steele et al., 2005). Restrictive parenting may be beneficial in neighborhoods where concerns about safety surpass desire for

3

adolescent autonomy (Furstenburg, 1993). Studies on the impact of neighborhood on parenting have not always demonstrated a direct, linear relation between socioeconomic status and levels or effectiveness of monitoring. Some findings indicated that strict parental control benefited African American youth regardless of socioeconomic status (Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Steinberg, 1996), whereas others have shown that a moderate level of behavioral control is optimal in such communities (Mason, Cauce, Gonzales, Hiraga, & Grove, 1994). Warmth, though, has had a linear relationship in protecting children from stressors in low-income areas (Furstenburg, 1993).

THIS STUDY This work aims to address several significant gaps in the literature with regard to parenting behavior, perception of neighborhood danger, and child adjustment. Although parental monitoring appears to benefit adolescents by warding off acting-out behavior, it remains unclear whether extreme (vs. moderate) monitoring in African American families who reside in more dangerous, urban neighborhoods is effective or counterproductive. Thus, both linear and quadratic relations are examined. In addition, the role of parental monitoring has not been studied adequately in relation to internalizing distress, although the few studies available seem to indicate possible benefits. Finally, although some research has examined ways that children respond to their perceptions of neighborhood danger, no study to date has examined how children’s perceptions of neighborhood danger might temper the outcome of parents’ efforts to monitor them. The importance of warmth has generally been established in relation to young people’s internalizing and externalizing distress. Not enough information is known about the effects of child perception of neighborhood danger in relation to parents’ warmth and its outcomes. It is also unclear whether parental warmth would have the same impact as parental monitoring on adolescent externalizing in high-crime, urban areas as has been found in the European American, low-crime areas. The final critical way in which this study breaks from previous work is through the addition of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) to assess feelings related to internalizing distress. None of the parenting behaviors and perceptions reviewed in the aforementioned literature has been studied relative to time sampled reports of adolescents’ daily moods. These reports provide immediate accounts of daily emotion that are unhampered by recall bias. Using both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, this study more clearly elucidates the relations between child perception of neighborhood

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4

GOLDNER ET AL.

danger, parental monitoring, parental warmth, and child internalizing and externalizing distress. The following hypotheses are proposed. First, parental monitoring is expected to show a curvilinear relation to child internalizing and externalizing such that control will lead to decreases in distress and problem behaviors, except at the highest levels of monitoring, where adolescents are expected to exhibit greater psychological difficulties in rebellion against such tight control. Second, child perception of neighborhood danger is expected to moderate the relation between parental monitoring and child internalizing and externalizing. Specifically, at the highest level of parental monitoring, adolescents will exhibit greater sadness and anxiety as well as problem behaviors, except when they perceive especially high neighborhood danger. It is hypothesized that high levels of parental warmth will be associated with less child psychological distress and fewer behavioral difficulties. Child perception of neighborhood danger, however, will moderate this relation such that at the highest levels of child perception of danger, warmth will be less effective at warding off child distress.

METHODS Participants Data were collected as part of a larger 3-year longitudinal study aimed at examining African American students’ exposure to violence from sixth grade (1999–2000 school year) to eighth grade (2001–2002 school year). Participants were enrolled in six urban Chicago public schools located in high-crime neighborhoods according to Chicago Police Department statistics obtained in the year prior to the study’s inception. During recruitment, staff went into the student’s classrooms and verbally reviewed the study design and what was needed from participants, answered questions, and sent home materials for the parents to consent. Each young person had to return both a parent= guardian consent and a child assent form to be involved in the study. Consistent with recruitment rates of youth from similar demographics (e.g., Cooley-Quille & Lorion, 1999), 301 (58%) of the 519 sixth-grade students asked to take part in the study agreed to participate. Students received up to $40 in Year 1 as a reward for participation, with an increase of $15 in each subsequent year. Parents received $25 for each time they completed a packet of questionnaires. This specific study examined the latter 2 years of the larger project, beginning in the seventh grade with a sample of 254 African American seventh-grade students, 41% of whom were male and 59% of whom were female.

The average age of these students at Time 1 was 12.6 years old. There were 222 students (87%) retained in the eighth grade at Time 2, 41% of whom were male, with an average age of 13.6 years. No significant group differences were found between the retained sample and the group of participants lost due to attrition in parental education, annual household income, or parents’ marital status. In addition, among the outcome variables, a significant group difference between retained and nonretained youth was only found for the externalizing questionnaire with nonretained individuals reporting higher externalizing (t ¼ 2.64, p < .01). The majority of the participants lived in lower income households. Median family income was between $10,000 and $20,000 according to parents or guardians. Eighty-three percent of parents had, at minimum, a high school degree, and 10% reported having a college or graduate=professional degree. Nearly half of the participants (48%) lived in single-parent households, and the median household size was five. Procedures The ESM was used to collect information from the participants about their location, activities, companionship, thoughts, and emotions. Participants carried programmable watches and small notebooks with them over the course of a 1-week period. When not in school, the adolescents received random signals approximately every 1½ hours on average. To minimize classroom disruption, only two signals were programmed during each school day. Trained research assistants instructed participants on how to complete the forms properly, and research staff members went to the school every day to answer participants’ questions and ensure compliance with ESM standards. Students received 51 signals throughout the week. Consistent with previous literature using the same sample, if the adolescents responded to fewer than 15 of these signals (less than 30%), they were removed from the analysis (Larson, Richards, Sims, & Dworkin, 2001). The median number of responses was 42 (82% of the total). This rate falls within established, satisfactory parameters of ESM responding (Larson, 1989). Each day during the week of ESM data gathering, youth were asked to complete different small packets of questionnaires. These measures assessed a number of domains such as child functioning, family relationships, and perceptions of neighborhood. Parents were also asked to answer several short questionnaires on similar topics, as well as on family socioeconomic status. Youth completed the child perception of neighborhood danger measure, parental warmth measure, internalizing symptoms questionnaire report, externalizing symptoms questionnaire report, and daily internalizing ESM

PARENTING AND ADOLESCENT DISTRESS

report. Parents completed the parental monitoring measure and one of the externalizing measures.

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Measures Child perception of neighborhood danger. This scale was derived from the items most relevant to neighborhood danger from Mason and colleagues’ (1994) Neighborhood Environment Scale. This measure has demonstrated good reliability and validity in a sample of young African American adolescents. The items include statements about the extent to which different things happened in the community that include ‘‘Violent crime with a weapon’’ and ‘‘Kids belong to street gangs.’’ Youth responded on a 4-point scale from (0) never happens to (3) happens very often. Cronbach’s alphas were .93 at Time 1 and .93 at Time 2. Parental warmth. The Feeling of Closeness Measure assesses the adolescents’ relationship with their parents with seven items (Blyth & Foster-Clark, 1987). This measure has demonstrated good internal reliability and validity with a sample of young African American adolescents (Hammack, Robinson, Crawford, & Li, 2004). A sample question is, ‘‘How much do you go to your mother for advice?’’ Youth provided answers on a 5-point scale from (1) not at all to (5) very much. The same questions were asked regarding mother and father, separately. Reports of maternal warmth and paternal warmth were significantly correlated (Time 1 r ¼ .33, p < .001; Time 2 r ¼ .23, p ¼ .001). Thus, when both mother and father reports were available they were averaged to obtain the parental warmth score. The Cronbach’s alphas for the Maternal Warmth scale were .85 at both Time 1 and Time 2; for the Paternal Warmth scale, it was .93 at Time 1 and .91 at Time 2. Parental monitoring. A questionnaire used seven items to assess how much control parents tried to assert in monitoring, supervising, and being aware of their children’s activities (Lamborn et al., 1996). A sample item was, ‘‘How often do you know if your child comes home by curfew on weekend nights?’’ Parents responded on a 5-point scale from (1) almost never to (5) almost always. Cronbach’s alphas were .80 and .78 for Time 1 and Time 2, respectively. Internalizing symptoms (questionnaire report). The internalizing measure was formed from the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI), developed to measure the cognitive, social, and behavioral symptoms of distress in young people ages 8 through 17 (Kovacs, 1985) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC;

5

Spielberger, 1973), a 20-item questionnaire report that includes such statements as ‘‘I worry too much.’’ The STAIC is answered by choosing from 3 responses including hardly ever, sometimes, and often. Cronbach’s alphas for STAIC were .91 at Time 1 and .90 at Time 2. Cronbach’s alphas for the CDI were .88 at Time 1 and .83 at Time 2. Because these two scales are correlated (Time 1 r ¼ .51, p < .001; Time 2 r ¼ .48, p < .001) and tap into similar constructs, they were standardized and then averaged to form the internalizing distress scale. This is consistent with previous literature (Li, Nussbaum, & Richards, 2007). Internalizing was measured using child self-report due to generally low correlations between parent and child report on this construct (Achenbach, McConaughy, & Howell, 1987). Both the CDI (Wong, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2003) and STAIC (Bannon, McKay, Chacko, Rodriguez, & Cavaleri, 2009) had good internal reliability and validity with African American youth. In this study, the internal reliability for the internalizing symptoms (questionnaire) composite was .93 at Time 1 and .92 at Time 2. Externalizing symptoms. This scale was created using the Externalizing scale of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991) and the Juvenile Delinquency Scale (JDS; Tolan, 1988). A sample item on the CBCL is ‘‘gets in many fights.’’ These items are answered on a 3-point scale from (0) not true to (2) very true or often true. The internal consistency for the Externalizing scale of the CBCL was .94 at Time 1 and .91 at Time 2. The JDS is a 23-item scale that includes such statements as ‘‘I have used a weapon to rob someone. Youth responded on a 6-point scale from (0) never to (5) 5 times or more. The internal consistency for the JDS was .88 at Time 1 and .83 at Time 2. Upon determining that the two subscales were significantly correlated (Time 1 r ¼ .23, p < .01; Time 2 r ¼ .28, p < .001) and tap into similar constructs, they were then standardized and averaged to create the externalizing symptoms questionnaire report. Both the CBCL (Nyborg & Curry, 2003) and JDS (Li et al., 2007) demonstrated good internal reliability and validity with a sample of African American youth. In this study, the internal reliability for the externalizing symptoms composite was .91 at Time 1 and .88 at Time 2. Daily internalizing (ESM report). This scale was derived from ESM report of emotional experience. At each signal, youth were asked to what extent they felt different emotions on a 4-point scale from (1) not at all to (4) very much. The emotion was considered present at a given signal point when respondents indicated they were feeling it more than ‘‘not at all.’’ A mean score of each internalizing-related feeling state was calculated

— .20 .05 .24 .03 .05 .05 .53 .18 .05 .24

— .20 .34 .20 .21 .17 .11 .59 .27 .22

— .09 .07 .05 .01 .01 .09 .46 .05

— .25 .20 .13 .25 .43 .10 .54

— .85 .02 .10 .26 .10 .28

— .01 .07 .31 .09 .24

— .20 .25 .03 .05

— .24 .08 .40

— .30 .38

— .13

—

4.75 22.81 17.81 1.10 .00 1.11 .00 4.73 22.63 17.43 1.24 .00 1.09 .00 Variable was standardized and thus mean is 0. p < .05.  p < .01.  p < .001. 

All hierarchical regressions were conducted with gender controlled in the first step, the linear parental monitoring in the next step, and quadratic parental monitoring in the third step. These analyses revealed that within both seventh grade (b ¼ .27, p < .01) and eighth grade (b ¼ .28, p < .001), higher levels of linear parental monitoring were associated with lower levels of externalizing symptoms; however, the expected relation between quadratic parental monitoring and externalizing symptoms was not found. When testing the hypothesized interaction between linear and quadratic parental monitoring with perception of neighborhood danger, interaction terms were created by centering the linear

a

Parental Monitoring and Child Perception of Neighborhood Danger: Externalizing Symptoms

— .004 .37 .04 .04 .06 .04 .53 .05 .27 .16 .00

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Bivariate correlations among all variables, as well as means and standard deviations for each variable, are presented in Table 1. The regression analyses are presented in Table 2. They were conducted with the default software setting (i.e., listwise deletion). Missing data were analyzed using Little’s Missing Completely at Random test. The analysis revealed that the data did not deviate from what would be expected if it was missing completely at random, v2(477) ¼ 444.095, p ¼ .858); thus, parameter estimates are not likely to be biased due to missingness. All regression analyses were conducted cross-sectionally in seventh and eighth grades and then longitudinally from seventh to eighth grade. In all longitudinal analyses, the Time 1 measure of the outcome variable was placed into an initial step to control for it and assess change over time. Each hierarchical regression analysis was run first with the linear parental monitoring term and followed by the addition of the quadratic parental monitoring term in the subsequent step predicting the dependent variable. Third, perception of neighborhood danger was entered as a main effect. Next the interaction of linear parental monitoring and neighborhood danger was entered. In the final step, the interaction of quadratic parental monitoring and neighborhood danger was entered.

TABLE 1 Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations

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Analysis Plan

— .16 .10 .08 .22 .16 .23 .24 .09 .03 .08 .03 .05

11

RESULTS

— .88 .12 .13 .14 .11 .25 .42 .37 .13 .11 .19 .02 .14

12

13

14

M

SD

across daily ESM reports. The scale is composed of the overall average of the mean levels for the following different internalizing-related feeling states: nervous, ignored, worried, disappointed, sad, and embarrassed (Sweeney, Goldner, & Richards, 2011). Cronbach’s alphas for the scale were .69 at Time 1 and .80 at Time 2.

.51 4.11 6.54 .85 1.76 .20 1.38 .52 4.10 5.83 .84 1.73 .17 1.50

GOLDNER ET AL.

1. Parental Monitoring (7th) 2. Quadratic Parental Monitoring (7th) 3. Parental Warmth (7th) 4. Child Perception of Neighborhood Danger (7th) 5. Questionnaire-Internalizing Symptoms (7th)a 6. ESM Report of Internalizing (7th) 7. Questionnaire-Externalizing Symptoms (7th)a 8. Parental monitoring (8th) 9. Quadratic Parental Monitoring (8th) 10. Parental Warmth (8th) 11. Child Perception of Neighborhood Danger (8th) 12. Questionnaire-Internalizing Symptoms (8th)a 13. ESM Report of Internalizing (8th) 14. Questionnaire-Externalizing Symptoms (8th)

6

7

SE

DV: Qrre Report EXT 7th-grade Gender .06 .25 7th-grade PM 7th-grade PM quadratic Child Danger PM  Child Danger PM Quad  Child Danger R2 ¼ .004 DV: Qrre Report EXT 8th-grade Gender .02 .24 8th-grade PM 8th-grade PM quadratic Child Danger PM  Child Danger PM Quad  Child Danger R2 ¼ .000 DV: Child report ESM INT 7th-grade Gender .12 .02 7th-grade PM 7th-grade PM quadratic Child Danger PM  Child Danger PM Quad  Child Danger R2 ¼ .01 DV: Child report Qrre INT 8th-grade .27 Gender .15 8th-grade PM 8th-grade PM quadratic Child Danger PM  Child Danger PM Quad  Child Danger R2 ¼ .02 DV: Child report Qrre INT 8th-grade Gender .24 .31 Qrre INT 7th-grade 7th-grade PM 7th-grade PM quadratic Child Danger PM  Child Danger PM Quad  Child Danger R2 ¼ .06

b

Step 1

.23 .22



.24 .24

SE

.27 .24

.02 .03

.27 .08

DR2 ¼ .26

.12 .53

DR2 ¼ .07

.17  .27

DR2 ¼ .02

.11 .13

DR2 ¼ .08

.03 .28

DR2 ¼ .07

.04 .27

b

Step 2

.23 .41 .20

.02 .05 .03

.26 .46 .23

.27 .08 .27

DR2 ¼ .01

.13 .50 .12

DR2 ¼ .03

.16 .02 .34

DR2 ¼ .05

.11 .21 .41

DR2 ¼ .000

.03 .29 .01

SE

.24 .49 .29

DR2 ¼ .02

.05 .53 .29

b

Step 3

.23 .48 .29 .14

SE

.22 .39 .19 .13

.26 .45 .22 .16

.02 .05 .03 .01

DR2 ¼ .01

.12 .49 .34 .25

.27 .08 .58 .32

DR2 ¼ .04

.12 .07 .36 .21

DR2 ¼ .01

.11 .22 .41 .09

DR2 ¼ .13

.04 .22 .03 .37

DR2 ¼ .04

.05 .49 .28 .21

b

Step 4

TABLE 2 Results from Regression Analyses

.24 .48 .30 .14 .28

SE

.22 .38 .19 .13 .34

.02 .05 .04 .01 .04

.26 .46 .23 .16 .41

.27 .08 .58 .33 .15

DR2 ¼ .003

.12 .47 .33 .24 .05

DR2 ¼ .003

.11 .08 .39 .20 .07

DR2 ¼ .02

.08 .36 .60 .07 .22

DR2 ¼ .04

.05 .18 .14 .32 .22

DR2 ¼ .005

.04 .48 .24 .21 .08

b

Step 5

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SE

.02 .05 .05 .02 .06 .04

DR2 ¼ .000

.12 .47 .33 .24 .05 .002

.27 .08 .58 .33 .15 .30

.12 .26 .06 .46 .34 .25 .15 .19 .16 .64 .14 .37 DR2 ¼ .005

.08 .36 .81 .16 .03 .40 DR2 ¼ .01

.07 .22 .14 .38 .27 .20 .45 .16 .002 .52 .31 .33 DR2 ¼ .03

.04 .24 .47 .50 .22 .32 .23 .17 .02 .66 .08 .36 DR2 ¼ .001

b

Step 6

—

—

—

—

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

SE

(Continued )

.12 .28 .47 .08 .33 .63 .24 .37 .05 .19 .01 .76 .01 .39 D R2 ¼ .000

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

b

Step 7

8

SE

.24 .02

.03 .10

SE

.02 .06

DR2 ¼ .21

.04 .46

DR2 ¼ .06

.11 .25

DR2 ¼ .07

.09 .26

b

Step 2

.03 .10 .03

SE

.24 .02 .14

.02 .06 .002

DR2 ¼ .03

.03 .46 .16

DR2 ¼ .03

.09 .21 .18

DR2 ¼ .001

.09 .27 .04

b

Step 3 SE

.03 .10 .06 .04

.2 .06 .002 .01 DR2 ¼ .004

.03 .46 .16 .06

.10 .23 .21 .02 .16 .14 .13 .02 DR2 ¼ .02

DR2 ¼ .002

.09 .28 .04 .09

b

Step 4

—

— — — —

.02 .02 .45 .06 .16 .002 .07 .01 .09 .002 DR2 ¼ .009

— — — —

SE

.03 .10 .06 .04 .02

DR2 ¼ .04

.11 .26 .01 .08 .20

b

Step 5

— — — — —

— — — —

—

—

DR2 ¼ .001

.12 .27 .01 .14 .21 .07

b

Step 6

— — — — —

— — — —

.03 .03 .06 .05 .02 .05

SE

SE

— — — — —

— — — —

—

— — — — — —

— — — —

.11 .03 .29 .10 .12 .07 .49 .06 .07 .02 .31 .08 .63 .05 D R2 ¼ .03

b

Step 7

Note. DV ¼ dependent variable; Qrre ¼ Questionnaire report; EXT ¼ externalizing; INT ¼ internalizing; PM ¼ parental monitoring; Quad ¼ quadratic term; Child Danger ¼ child perception of neighborhood danger; PW ¼ parental warmth.  p < .05.  p < .01.  p < .001.

DV: Child report ESM INT 8th-grade Gender .05 .03 ESM INT 7th-grade 7th-grade PM 7th-grade PM quadratic Child Danger PM  Child Danger PM Quad  Child Danger R2 ¼ .003 DV: Child Report Qrre INT 8th-grade .24 Gender .15 8th-grade PW Child Danger PW  Child Danger R2 ¼ .02 DV: Child Report ESM INT 8th-grade Gender .03 .03 7th-grade ESM INT 7th-grade PW Child Danger PW  Child Danger R2 ¼ .001

b

Step 1

TABLE 2 Continued

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and quadratic monitoring variables along with the perception of neighborhood danger variable and multiplying them together, respectively. Perception of neighborhood danger (the moderator) was added in the fourth step and the interaction terms were entered separately in the last two steps, to predict externalizing symptoms. When students were in both seventh grade (b ¼ .21, p < .01) and eighth grade (b ¼ .37, p < .001), their perception of neighborhood danger predicted greater levels of externalizing symptoms. In eighth grade, the addition of perception of neighborhood danger into the regression actually led to the nonsignificance of parental monitoring variables in relation to externalizing symptoms (although this did not hold true for these students in seventh grade). This suggests the importance of perception of neighborhood danger over and beyond monitoring for externalizing. Longitudinally, these variables did not predict externalizing symptoms. When students were in eighth grade, initially the interaction between perception of neighborhood danger and linear parental monitoring in predicting externalizing symptoms was found to be significant (b ¼ .22, p < .01). However, this relation was no longer significant when a quadratic monitoring term was entered and emerged as significant (b ¼ .33, p < .01; Figure 1). A simple slopes analysis was conducted (Aiken & West, 1991), inputting values for parental monitoring at 1 standard deviation above and below the mean of perception of danger to determine effects on externalizing symptoms. This analysis revealed that for those students who perceived low levels of danger in their community, a curvilinear trend emerged where lowest levels of

FIGURE 1 Child perception of neighborhood danger as a moderator of the relation between quadratic parental monitoring and questionnaire report of externalizing symptoms, among eighth-grade students.

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parental monitoring predicted higher externalizing, moderate levels of monitoring predicted the lowest levels of externalizing, and highest levels of monitoring were related to midrange externalizing (t ¼ 3.46, p < .001; Figure 1). Among adolescents who perceived the highest levels of neighborhood danger, monitoring was not related to externalizing (t ¼ 1.48, p ¼ .14). No significant longitudinal results emerged for externalizing. Parental Monitoring and Child Perception of Neighborhood Danger: Internalizing Symptoms When internalizing was examined, among students in seventh grade, the quadratic monitoring term emerged as significant, such that both the lowest and highest levels of parental monitoring predicted higher levels of ESM report of internalizing distress (b ¼ .41, p < .01), and moderate monitoring predicted the lowest levels of ESM report of internalizing. In the final step of the regression analysis, there were no significant interactions between parental monitoring, either linear or quadratic, and child perception of neighborhood danger to predict ESM report of internalizing distress. Similar to seventh grade, when in eighth grade, as expected, parental monitoring predicted lower levels of questionnaire report of internalizing symptoms when entered into the regression equation (b ¼ .27, p < .001). However, this relation was no longer significant when a quadratic monitoring term was entered and emerged as significant, such that both the lowest and highest levels of parental monitoring predicted higher levels of questionnaire reported internalizing distress (b ¼ .34, p < .05), and moderate monitoring predicted the lowest levels of questionnaire report of internalizing. Among the students in eighth grade, when perception of neighborhood danger was entered into hierarchical regressions, with these two parental monitoring variables as main effects, higher levels of perceived danger significantly predicted higher levels of questionnaire reported internalizing symptoms (b ¼ .21, p < .01). No interactions were found between perception of neighborhood danger and parental monitoring in predicting internalizing symptoms. No significant cross-sectional results emerged for eighth-grade ESM internalizing. Longitudinally, when examining ESM report of internalizing distress, higher perception of neighborhood danger in seventh grade longitudinally predicted more daily internalizing (ESM report) in eighth grade (b ¼ .20, p < .05). As shown in Figure 2, a significant interaction was found between perception of neighborhood danger and the quadratic parental monitoring when predicting ESM report of internalizing from seventh to eighth grade (b ¼ .63, p < .05). A simple slopes analysis revealed that for the low-danger perception group, as parental monitoring increased, adolescents’

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FIGURE 3 Child perception of neighborhood danger as a moderator of the relation between parental warmth and questionnaire report of internalizing symptoms, among eighth-grade students.

FIGURE 2 Child perception of neighborhood danger in seventh grade as a moderator of the relation between seventh-grade quadratic parental monitoring and eighth-grade ESM report of internalizing symptoms. Note. ESM ¼ Experience Sampling Method.

internalizing symptoms decreased (t ¼ 2.08, p < .05; Figure 2). Among the high-danger perception group, there was no significant relation between parental monitoring and internalizing (t ¼ .250, p ¼ .80). Finally, no significant longitudinal results emerged for questionnaire report of internalizing distress.

warmth increased, adolescents’ internalizing symptoms decreased precipitously (t ¼ 3.11, p < .001; Figure 3). Among the low danger perception group, there was no significant relation between parental warmth and internalizing (t ¼ 1.58, p ¼ .18). In longitudinal analyses, seventh grade parental warmth significantly predicted a decrease in eighth grade ESM-reported internalizing distress (b ¼ .16, p < .05). The main effect of child perception of neighborhood danger and the interaction between parental warmth and child perception of neighborhood danger were not significant. DISCUSSION

Parental Warmth and Child Perception of Neighborhood Danger Gender was controlled in the first step of a regression equation; the centered main effect of parental warmth was added in the second step; the centered main effect of perception of neighborhood danger was entered into the next step; and an interaction term, comprising the product of these two variables, was entered into the final step. No significant results were found for externalizing symptoms. For eighth grade internalizing distress, perception of neighborhood danger moderated the effects of parental warmth. Hierarchical regressions revealed higher levels of warmth (b ¼ .25, p < .001) predicted lower levels of questionnaire report of internalizing, whereas perception of neighborhood danger (b ¼ .18, p < .01) predicted higher levels of internalizing. In addition, among eighth-grade students, an interaction emerged between parental warmth and perception of neighborhood danger in predicting questionnaire report of internalizing symptoms, although not as hypothesized (b ¼ .13, p < .05). A simple slopes analysis revealed that for the highest danger perception group, as parental

This study examined the effects of parental monitoring and warmth on adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing distress, while taking into account the ramifications of the children’s perceptions of neighborhood danger. These inquiries were addressed using a sample of African American adolescents from public middle schools located in low-income Chicago neighborhoods. Parental monitoring was associated with children’s externalizing behavior, although a hypothesized quadratic relation between parents’ monitoring and externalizing did not materialize. In contrast, quadratic relations were discovered between parental monitoring and children’s internalizing distress. This quadratic relation was moderated by neighborhood danger for daily internalizing feeling states; under perceived high danger, monitoring had no effect, but under low danger, high monitoring appeared to reduce the daily feelings of internalizing distress. Parental warmth predicated a decrease in daily internalizing feelings from seventh to eighth grade. Adolescents’ perception of neighborhood danger was significantly associated with higher levels of both adolescent internalizing and externalizing. Perception

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of neighborhood danger was initially viewed as a potential moderator for parental warmth and monitoring. In the case of parental warmth, warmth actually appeared to serve as a moderator that protected against the harmful effects of neighborhood danger. As danger increased, high levels of warmth protected adolescents from high levels of internalizing.

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Parental Monitoring As hypothesized, greater parental monitoring predicted less child externalizing symptoms in both seventh and eighth grades. However, contrary to expectation, a curvilinear relation did not manifest between parental monitoring and child externalizing distress, except for youth perceiving their neighborhood to be lower in danger. Thus, as parents’ monitoring increased so too did the protective effects on externalizing symptoms, even to the highest levels of monitoring. The current study may have demonstrated that, in these neighborhoods, young people do not rebel against parents when their parents take a more active role in ensuring that they are cognizant of their children’s whereabouts and companions. A quadratic relation did, however, manifest itself in relation to internalizing distress. Among seventh- and eighth-grade students, both the lowest and highest levels of parental monitoring were associated with higher levels of ESM report of daily internalizing, as well as symptoms reported on questionnaires. The diminishing effect of higher levels of monitoring for internalizing, but not externalizing, makes some sense intuitively. If parents are successful in exerting very high levels of monitoring, their children will have less opportunity to engage in problem behavior. Even if these young people feel rebellious and want to act out in frustration or anger, they will have fewer opportunities to do so than children whose parents are more lax (Hoeve et al., 2009). Frustration at not being allowed out more could be turned inward, manifesting itself in more daily feeling of anxiety and dysphoria. The highest levels of monitoring also typically indicate a great deal of time inside the home, under the watchful eye of guardians, and fewer opportunities to engage in unsupervised activities with peers. Given the crucial influence peers begin to have in early adolescence, significant limits on these opportunities may lead to lower self-worth and feelings of sadness (Baumrind, 1991). In addition, high parental supervision reduces the opportunity to explore the world independently, which may lead to more insecurity and anxiety (Chorpita & Barlow, 1998). Child Perception of Neighborhood Danger We found a substantial impact of adolescents’ perception of neighborhood danger on their psychological

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distress. This article originally conceptualized child perception of neighborhood danger as a moderator of the relation between parental monitoring and children’s outcomes; however, child perception of danger appeared to be as strong as, or stronger than, parental monitoring in predicting externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Remarkably, adolescents’ perception of high levels of danger in their communities weighs approximately as heavily as one of the most potent activities parents can engage in, monitoring, to affect problem behavior among young adolescents. Perception of neighborhood danger was strongly positively related to child externalizing and accounted for about 13% of the variance (p < .001). Although common method variance might be a concern with youth reporting on both neighborhood danger and problem behaviors, the externalizing behavior measure also included parents as informants. This relation is consistent with sparse previous research available in this area, which determined that feeling unsafe in one’s neighborhood is associated with more weapon carrying and involvement in physical fights and with police (Dowdell, 2006). Given these crosssectional findings, the direction of the relation remains unclear. It may be that feeling unsafe leads to hypervigilance and increased likelihood of seeing and responding to perceived threats in a hostile way. Conversely, engaging in more problem behaviors could confirm a more frequent perception of danger. Finally, it may be that these variables are transactional and influence one other. Parents’ monitoring interacted with their children’s perception of neighborhood danger to affect adolescents’ externalizing distress. Among eighth-grade students who perceived the lowest levels of danger, moderate monitoring was related to the fewest externalizing symptoms, whereas higher levels of monitoring were related to a middle level of externalizing symptoms; among students with high levels of perceived neighborhood danger, no relation emerged. This finding supported this article’s hypothesis that externalizing would decrease in response to monitoring, except at the highest levels of monitoring, where externalizing symptoms would increase due to rebellion. The highest levels of parental monitoring are effective in preventing problem behavior only among adolescents who do not perceive high levels of danger, consistent with the pattern of a vulnerable-reactive moderator variable (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000). Under conditions of perceived high danger, monitoring did not seem to make a difference. Child perception of neighborhood danger was similarly related to adolescents’ internalizing distress as it was to their externalizing. When adolescents perceived more danger in seventh and eighth grades, they exhibited more internalizing symptoms. Further, as seventh

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graders believed more danger was present in their neighborhoods, they showed increases in daily experience of internalizing over one year. Several possible mechanisms could explain why this would occur. First, and most evidently, awareness of chronic sources of danger can raise levels of anxiety. Research has demonstrated a clear link between exposure to community violence and anxious and depressive symptoms (Edlynn, Gaylord-Harden, Richards, & Miller, 2008). The danger that is present in these young people’s communities is largely out of their control, which may contribute to feelings of hopelessness and helplessness (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). It is possible that this longitudinal relation is transactional, because youth who are more anxious tend to fear their environment more and magnify the dangers around them (Muris, Rapee, Meesters, Shouten, & Geers, 2003). Parental Warmth and Child Perception of Neighborhood Danger High levels of child perception of neighborhood danger were expected to serve as a risk factor in the relation between parental warmth and child outcome, such that adolescents with high levels of perceived danger would still have higher levels of internalizing symptoms, even at the highest levels of parental warmth. Contrary to expectation, the results revealed that, among eighthgrade students, as well as longitudinally from seventh to eighth grade, parents’ provision of warmth served to ward off the internalizing distress associated with adolescents’ heightened awareness of danger in their neighborhood. It is encouraging to find that warmth serves as a ‘‘protective-stabilizing’’ factor according to the criteria set forth by Luthar and colleagues (2000). Even as the adolescents perceived greater danger, parents’ warmth prevented greater levels of internalizing. Strengths and Limitations This study attempts to provide a description of the effects of parenting in an urban, high-crime community that takes into account the ramifications of the degree of danger that young adolescents perceive around them. Much of the literature thus far has examined parental monitoring and warmth without addressing contextual factors within the analyses. This study brings a new perspective as it examines adolescents’ view of their neighborhood, not just in relation to distress, but also in how it influences their response to parenting. This study also employs the ESM technique, which is able to gather an in vivo snapshot of young adolescents’ daily experience of sadness, worry, loneliness, and other internalizing related feelings. In addition, the design allowed for analyses to be conducted cross-sectionally

for seventh- and eighth-grade students and longitudinally from seventh to eighth grade. The study was conducted in a low-income, urban, African American community, where high crime rates make perception of neighborhood danger a particularly salient topic to study. Finally, the use of multiple informants and methods also enhanced the value of this work. Despite many strengths, some limitations existed. Parental monitoring was measured from the parents’ point of view, which might not have captured the child’s perspective. Further, the parental monitoring measure may have pulled for a social desirability effect from parents, potentially skewing the data and creating a ceiling effect. Specifically, the questions asked may imply a ‘‘correct’’ answer (e.g., ‘‘how often do you know if you child comes home by [curfew] on school days?’’). The high means and standard deviations may be indicative of this, rather than high levels of parental monitoring. It is also unclear how well these results will generalize to samples of other demographics. Implications These findings have several implications for how interventions might be developed to help parents negotiate the difficult circumstances inherent in impoverished communities. Interventions aimed at helping parents, and others working with adolescents, recognize where danger exists in their community, pathways that early adolescents take to become involved in it, and how to divert adolescents’ courses toward constructive activities may be of great utility in preventing the development of externalizing symptoms. Also, this study points to the importance of carefully considering which monitoring techniques will best walk the line between preventing adolescents’ externalizing and still allowing enough autonomy to prevent their internalizing. One of the clearest messages to emerge from this article is the negative impact of perceived danger on young people. It emerged as similar in strength, or even stronger, than parental warmth and monitoring. As such, efforts must be made at the local, state, and national levels to prevent the conditions that foster the development of violence in communities. Adolescents have little choice in where they are raised. The fact that they must be burdened by poverty, crime, and violence is fundamentally unjust in a country that prides itself on equal opportunity. Programs ought to be aimed at decreasing overall crime rates by eliminating the perceived need to commit crimes through jobs programs, community business growth incentives, and other neighborhood-level programs. Community-level initiatives that bolster a community’s collective efficacy would also be helpful to this end (Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997).

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Future Directions Future research could expand upon the current project in several ways. This research points to the importance of parental monitoring. But it also appears to indicate that there may be certain monitoring amounts or techniques that are optimal. Further examination of where optimal levels might be in preventing externalizing and internalizing are warranted, as well as if certain aspects of monitoring are especially helpful or even possibly counterproductive. Gender differences were not examined in this study. Later work could examine the impact of gender on the perception of neighborhood danger and parenting behaviors, as well as their interaction. Finally, qualitative research that allows members of inner-city communities to have their voices heard and utilizes the wealth of knowledge gained by these citizens would help inform work and bridge the gap between researchers and community members.

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