525
Relationship of Body Size, Physique, and Composition to Physical Performance in Young Boys and Girls D. Docherty, C. A. Gaul School of Physical Education, University of Victoria, P. 0. Box 3015, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P1
D. Docherty and C. A. Gaul, Relationship of Body Size, Physique, and Composition to Physical Performance in Young Boys and Girls. mt J Sports Med, Vol 12,No6,pp525—532, 1991. Accepted after revision: January 25, 1991
The present study examined the aerobic, an-
aerobic and strength performance characteristics of 52 young boys and girls ( age 10.8 and 11.1 yrs, respectively) on selected laboratory measures. Anthropometrically, the boys and girls were similar, with the exception of measures of body fatness. The boys demonstrated greater values in maximal aerobic power, anaerobic performance, (especially related to body weight), and strength relative to lean body mass. Since body size measures, including height, were similar, the functional differences could not be attributed to such factors. The significant but low correlations between the performance variables failed to support the concept of children as "metabolic non-specialists" as proposed by previous authors. In fact, the large amount of variance not accounted for could be interpreted as supporting the unique contribution of genetic endowment or the effect of habitual activity patterns on the performance measures. Canonical correlations indicated a strong relationship between selected anthropometric and performance variables (rc = .94). For boys, height and weight were strongly related
to anaerobic performance, whereas weight and thigh volume were strongly related to all performance measures for the girls.
Key words
Children, metabolic function, strength, anthropometry
Introduction There has been considerable interest in the metabolic capabilities of young children during exercise. Much of this interest has centered on the response of the aerobic sys-
the response of young children to anaerobic and strength training programs (11, 16,26). However, much of the data that have been collected are confined to young boys, specialized sport groups, and often restricted to single measures of either aerobic, anaerobic or strength performance. There is a general lack of information related to laboratory measures of aerobic, anaerobic and strength performance, especially for young girls.
In addition, although there is some suggestion that young children are "metabolic non-specialists" (3, p. 17), the rela-
tionships between measures of aerobic, anaerobic and strength have not been clearly estabilshed.
Body structure has generally been found to have a significant relationship to physical performance (5). In children, body size, as reflected by height and weight, is significantly related to aerobic performance or physical working capacity (1, 15, 19). Body size, as reflected by height, weight and LBM, for 7—12-year-old boys, was found to have only a moderate or low relationship with running tests of 600 and 50 yards (31). Leg volume has been found to account for over 80 percent of the total variance in power output for boys and girls 6— 16 years of age (9). However, leg volume, body weight, and leg weight in college males only accounted for 41, 36 and 26 percent, respectively, of the common variance in short (120 s) an-
aerobic performance (18). Similar studies on the anaerobic performance of children are not available.
The relationship between measures of body size and muscular strength is less clear. In discussing factors that affect performance, Malina and Rarick (23) concluded that the relationships between strength and the measures of weight and height were "quite low" accounting for 30—35 and 10 percent of the variance, respectively. Malina (22) has also reported high correlations between body weight and maximal voluntary isometric strength of elbow flexors and knee extensors for males 9 to 18 years of age. Gilliam eta!. (14) found that age, height and weight for active boys and girls 7 to 13 years of age contributed between 66 and 77 percent of the common variance in isokinetic knee strength. However, the relationship between body size and strength for pediatric females has not been as extensively studied (4). Excess body fat has a negative impact on physical efficiency (28) and especially on physical activities that require "translocation of the body weight either vertically or horizontally" (5). Physique, as reflected by somatotype components, does not appear to influence performance except at extremes (23, 31).
Int.J.SportsMed. 12(1991)525—532 c Georg Thieme Verlag StuttgartNew York
Downloaded by: Queen's University. Copyrighted material.
Abstract
tern and subsequent adaptations to various types of training programs (19, 30, 32, 33). More recently interest has included
526 mt. J. Sports Med. 12(1991)
The purposes of the present study were to obtain comprehensive measures of body structure and standard laboratory measures of aerobic, anaerobic, and strength performance on a group of pre-adolescent boys and girls; to compare their performances on the selected measures; and to explore the relationship between body structure and performance. Methods
Subjects and Testing Schedule Twenty-three boys (10.8 yrs 0.5) and 29 girls (11.1 yrs 0.4) who comprised 95 percent of grades 5 and 6 at
a local elementary school volunteered to participate in the study. Subjects and their parents provided informed consent following explanation of the procedures and objectives of the study.
A testing room was set up in the elementary school, and subjects were familiarized with the equipment, tests and procedures to be performed. All data were collected within 6 days, and the same sequence of tests was used for all children. On Day 1 all anthropometric measurements were conducted, followed by a maximal oxygen consumption test on the cycle ergometer. The Cybex tests were conducted on Day 2 with the anaerobic cycle test administered on Day 3.
Anthropometric Measurements Weight and height were measured according to the Canadian Standardized Test of Fitness (7). Duplicate skinfolds were taken using Harpenden Calipers (British Indicators Ltd., UK) at eight sites: triceps, biceps, subscapular, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf. All anthropometric variables were taken from the right side, with the exception of the abdominal skinfold. Biepicondylar humeral and femoral diameters were measured using Mitutoyo sliding
steel calipers. Contracted biceps brachii and standing calf girths were measured using a standard anthropometric tape.
Somatotype was calculated according to the anthropometric technique of Heath and Carter (17). Estimation of body adiposity and proportional weight were determined using 0-scale standards described by Ross and Ward (29). In this technique, the sum of 6 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf) is related to subject height in order to compute an Adiposity stanine score while a Proportional Weight score is calculated by correcting body weight by height (29). In addition, percent body fat and lean body mass (LBM) were estimated by the methods of Durnin and Womersley (13) and Parizkova
thigh volume was determined using the anthropometric techniques described by Katch (18).
Maximal Aerobic Power Subjects performed a maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) test on a manually braked Monark cycle ergometer (model 868). Cadence was standardized at 60 revolutions per minute throughout the test. Toe clips with straps were used to improve pedalling efficiency. Step increments in
resistance were applied every minute following a 2-minute warm-up of unloaded pedalling. Resistance was increased every minute by 16 W for small children (< 45 kg) and 32 W for larger children (> 45 kg). Subjects were instructed to remain seated for the duration of the test.
During the VO2max test, all subjects wore a tightly fitted nose clip to prevent the leakage of air from the flares. Expired air was directed via a rubber mouthpiece and corrugated plastic tubing towards a Beckman Metabolic Cart (MMC I). Expired gas was analyzed, with minute ventilation (Ve), V02, and respiratory exchange ratio (R) determined every 30 seconds. The gas analysers were calibrated prior to and after each test using commercial primary standard gases. Heart rate was monitored continuously during the test through the use of a standard 3-lead ECG system.
The children continued to c'cle until 02 ceased to rise (increase of less than 2 ml*g min 1following either a 16 W or 32W increase in workload), or until they could no longer maintain the required pedalling frequency. A plateau of 02 uptake was the major criterion used to establish VO2max. However, when a plateau was not observed, two secondary criteria (HR > 200 b/mm; and R > 1.10) were used. In such a situation peak V02 was considered maximal only when both additional criteria were fulfilled.
Muscular Strength and Power A Cybex II dynamometer (Cybex division, Lumex, NY) was used to measure knee flexor and extensor strength. Each subject was given a familiarization period on the Cybex II isolated joint test as well as a standardized set of verbal instructions. Care was taken to ensure each child was properly positioned in the apparatus, with the lever arm length adjusted for body size.
The test protocol consisted of 4 maximal contractions of knee extension and flexion at an angular velocity of 180 0.5land was considered to reflect muscular power of the legs. Following a rest period of approximately 3 minutes,
the protocol was re?eated on the same limb at an angular velocity of 30 0. to reflect muscular strength. Both legs
(27), respectively. It is realized that the Durnin and Worn ersley
were tested in the same manner, with the initial test leg being randomly chosen. In an attempt to elicit maximum effort, all subjects were verbally encouraged by the testers. Restraining straps were used to eliminate upper body movement. Prior to
prediction equation overestimates the percent body fat for
testing the Cybex II system was calibrated using recom-
children of this age by 5 percent (21). However, percent body fat in the present study has been used for comparison of boys and girls within the study and sum of skinfolds has been used as the measure of adiposity in all correlational analyses. Total
mended procedures.
Downloaded by: Queen's University. Copyrighted material.
Currently there are no studies that have specifically examined the relationship between measures of body structure and the laboratory measures of aerobic, anaerobic and strength performance, especially for young females.
D. Docherty, C. A. Gaul
mt. J. Sports Med. 12(1991) 527
Relationship of Body Size, Physique, and Composition to Physical Performance
Anaerobic Power and Capacity
Table 1 Mean (± SD) anthropometric measures for all boys and girls
seated. Toe clips were used to prevent feet from slipping off the
pedals. Following a 2-mm warm-up without resistance, the subjects were given the command to start pedalling as fast as they could and the resistance increased within 2—3 sees to a predetermined level. The resistance load was adjusted relative to body weight (75 gkg body weight 1) as suggested by BarOr (2). Revolutions were counted electronically using a chart recorder connected to a switch triggered by one of the pedals. Once the prescribed load had been reached, a deflection was made on the chart recorder and a stopwatch was started. The test administrators gave verbal encouragement throughout the 30 sees of the test. Subjects were asked to continue to pedal unloaded for 1—2 mm immediately following the test to avoid diz-
ziness, syncope and muscle soreness. Peak power (PP) over any given 5-sec interval (watts) was used as a measure of anaerobic power. Mean power (MP) over the 30 sees of the test (watts) and total work (J) were used to represent anaerobic capacity.
Statistical Analysis
Boys (n=23)
Weight (kg) Height (cm) Sum of skinfolds (mm) Body fat (%) Lean body mass (kg) Total thigh volume (I) Endomorphy Mesomorphy
Ectomorphy
Adiposity Proportional weight •
( 7.4) ( 7.3)
55.9
(28.7)
16.3
( 5.4) ( 4.6)
31.2 3.5 2.8 4.1
( 0.9)
(1.4)
4.0 3.9
( 0.8) ( 0.9) ( 2.4)
4.1
(1.8)
39.7
( 7.7)
148.0
( 6.9)
74.5 24.4 29.8 3.7 3.7 3.9 3.3 4.5 5.4
(24.5)*
( 4.4) ( 4.5) ( 0.8)
(1.21* ( 0.9)
(1.3) (1.8)
( 1.7)
+ Stanine score. Table 2 Mean (±SD) aerobic measurements and power output for boys and girls who fulfilled the criteria for reaching VO2max
I-jR max
yE max VO2max VO2max VO2max
(b-min)
(kmin (Imini
(ml-kg1min')
(mlkg LBM1min) R
pendent variable and all anthropometric and performance
*
scores as dependent variables. When F ratios indicated significance (p < 0.05), a univariate analysis was used to determine the specific variables responsible for the gender main effect.
148.3
Girls (n=29)
Significantly different from boys, p
Relationship of Body Size, Physique, and Composition to Physical Performance in Young Boys and Girls D. Docherty, C. A. Gaul School of Physical Education, University of Victoria, P. 0. Box 3015, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3P1
D. Docherty and C. A. Gaul, Relationship of Body Size, Physique, and Composition to Physical Performance in Young Boys and Girls. mt J Sports Med, Vol 12,No6,pp525—532, 1991. Accepted after revision: January 25, 1991
The present study examined the aerobic, an-
aerobic and strength performance characteristics of 52 young boys and girls ( age 10.8 and 11.1 yrs, respectively) on selected laboratory measures. Anthropometrically, the boys and girls were similar, with the exception of measures of body fatness. The boys demonstrated greater values in maximal aerobic power, anaerobic performance, (especially related to body weight), and strength relative to lean body mass. Since body size measures, including height, were similar, the functional differences could not be attributed to such factors. The significant but low correlations between the performance variables failed to support the concept of children as "metabolic non-specialists" as proposed by previous authors. In fact, the large amount of variance not accounted for could be interpreted as supporting the unique contribution of genetic endowment or the effect of habitual activity patterns on the performance measures. Canonical correlations indicated a strong relationship between selected anthropometric and performance variables (rc = .94). For boys, height and weight were strongly related
to anaerobic performance, whereas weight and thigh volume were strongly related to all performance measures for the girls.
Key words
Children, metabolic function, strength, anthropometry
Introduction There has been considerable interest in the metabolic capabilities of young children during exercise. Much of this interest has centered on the response of the aerobic sys-
the response of young children to anaerobic and strength training programs (11, 16,26). However, much of the data that have been collected are confined to young boys, specialized sport groups, and often restricted to single measures of either aerobic, anaerobic or strength performance. There is a general lack of information related to laboratory measures of aerobic, anaerobic and strength performance, especially for young girls.
In addition, although there is some suggestion that young children are "metabolic non-specialists" (3, p. 17), the rela-
tionships between measures of aerobic, anaerobic and strength have not been clearly estabilshed.
Body structure has generally been found to have a significant relationship to physical performance (5). In children, body size, as reflected by height and weight, is significantly related to aerobic performance or physical working capacity (1, 15, 19). Body size, as reflected by height, weight and LBM, for 7—12-year-old boys, was found to have only a moderate or low relationship with running tests of 600 and 50 yards (31). Leg volume has been found to account for over 80 percent of the total variance in power output for boys and girls 6— 16 years of age (9). However, leg volume, body weight, and leg weight in college males only accounted for 41, 36 and 26 percent, respectively, of the common variance in short (120 s) an-
aerobic performance (18). Similar studies on the anaerobic performance of children are not available.
The relationship between measures of body size and muscular strength is less clear. In discussing factors that affect performance, Malina and Rarick (23) concluded that the relationships between strength and the measures of weight and height were "quite low" accounting for 30—35 and 10 percent of the variance, respectively. Malina (22) has also reported high correlations between body weight and maximal voluntary isometric strength of elbow flexors and knee extensors for males 9 to 18 years of age. Gilliam eta!. (14) found that age, height and weight for active boys and girls 7 to 13 years of age contributed between 66 and 77 percent of the common variance in isokinetic knee strength. However, the relationship between body size and strength for pediatric females has not been as extensively studied (4). Excess body fat has a negative impact on physical efficiency (28) and especially on physical activities that require "translocation of the body weight either vertically or horizontally" (5). Physique, as reflected by somatotype components, does not appear to influence performance except at extremes (23, 31).
Int.J.SportsMed. 12(1991)525—532 c Georg Thieme Verlag StuttgartNew York
Downloaded by: Queen's University. Copyrighted material.
Abstract
tern and subsequent adaptations to various types of training programs (19, 30, 32, 33). More recently interest has included
526 mt. J. Sports Med. 12(1991)
The purposes of the present study were to obtain comprehensive measures of body structure and standard laboratory measures of aerobic, anaerobic, and strength performance on a group of pre-adolescent boys and girls; to compare their performances on the selected measures; and to explore the relationship between body structure and performance. Methods
Subjects and Testing Schedule Twenty-three boys (10.8 yrs 0.5) and 29 girls (11.1 yrs 0.4) who comprised 95 percent of grades 5 and 6 at
a local elementary school volunteered to participate in the study. Subjects and their parents provided informed consent following explanation of the procedures and objectives of the study.
A testing room was set up in the elementary school, and subjects were familiarized with the equipment, tests and procedures to be performed. All data were collected within 6 days, and the same sequence of tests was used for all children. On Day 1 all anthropometric measurements were conducted, followed by a maximal oxygen consumption test on the cycle ergometer. The Cybex tests were conducted on Day 2 with the anaerobic cycle test administered on Day 3.
Anthropometric Measurements Weight and height were measured according to the Canadian Standardized Test of Fitness (7). Duplicate skinfolds were taken using Harpenden Calipers (British Indicators Ltd., UK) at eight sites: triceps, biceps, subscapular, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf. All anthropometric variables were taken from the right side, with the exception of the abdominal skinfold. Biepicondylar humeral and femoral diameters were measured using Mitutoyo sliding
steel calipers. Contracted biceps brachii and standing calf girths were measured using a standard anthropometric tape.
Somatotype was calculated according to the anthropometric technique of Heath and Carter (17). Estimation of body adiposity and proportional weight were determined using 0-scale standards described by Ross and Ward (29). In this technique, the sum of 6 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf) is related to subject height in order to compute an Adiposity stanine score while a Proportional Weight score is calculated by correcting body weight by height (29). In addition, percent body fat and lean body mass (LBM) were estimated by the methods of Durnin and Womersley (13) and Parizkova
thigh volume was determined using the anthropometric techniques described by Katch (18).
Maximal Aerobic Power Subjects performed a maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) test on a manually braked Monark cycle ergometer (model 868). Cadence was standardized at 60 revolutions per minute throughout the test. Toe clips with straps were used to improve pedalling efficiency. Step increments in
resistance were applied every minute following a 2-minute warm-up of unloaded pedalling. Resistance was increased every minute by 16 W for small children (< 45 kg) and 32 W for larger children (> 45 kg). Subjects were instructed to remain seated for the duration of the test.
During the VO2max test, all subjects wore a tightly fitted nose clip to prevent the leakage of air from the flares. Expired air was directed via a rubber mouthpiece and corrugated plastic tubing towards a Beckman Metabolic Cart (MMC I). Expired gas was analyzed, with minute ventilation (Ve), V02, and respiratory exchange ratio (R) determined every 30 seconds. The gas analysers were calibrated prior to and after each test using commercial primary standard gases. Heart rate was monitored continuously during the test through the use of a standard 3-lead ECG system.
The children continued to c'cle until 02 ceased to rise (increase of less than 2 ml*g min 1following either a 16 W or 32W increase in workload), or until they could no longer maintain the required pedalling frequency. A plateau of 02 uptake was the major criterion used to establish VO2max. However, when a plateau was not observed, two secondary criteria (HR > 200 b/mm; and R > 1.10) were used. In such a situation peak V02 was considered maximal only when both additional criteria were fulfilled.
Muscular Strength and Power A Cybex II dynamometer (Cybex division, Lumex, NY) was used to measure knee flexor and extensor strength. Each subject was given a familiarization period on the Cybex II isolated joint test as well as a standardized set of verbal instructions. Care was taken to ensure each child was properly positioned in the apparatus, with the lever arm length adjusted for body size.
The test protocol consisted of 4 maximal contractions of knee extension and flexion at an angular velocity of 180 0.5land was considered to reflect muscular power of the legs. Following a rest period of approximately 3 minutes,
the protocol was re?eated on the same limb at an angular velocity of 30 0. to reflect muscular strength. Both legs
(27), respectively. It is realized that the Durnin and Worn ersley
were tested in the same manner, with the initial test leg being randomly chosen. In an attempt to elicit maximum effort, all subjects were verbally encouraged by the testers. Restraining straps were used to eliminate upper body movement. Prior to
prediction equation overestimates the percent body fat for
testing the Cybex II system was calibrated using recom-
children of this age by 5 percent (21). However, percent body fat in the present study has been used for comparison of boys and girls within the study and sum of skinfolds has been used as the measure of adiposity in all correlational analyses. Total
mended procedures.
Downloaded by: Queen's University. Copyrighted material.
Currently there are no studies that have specifically examined the relationship between measures of body structure and the laboratory measures of aerobic, anaerobic and strength performance, especially for young females.
D. Docherty, C. A. Gaul
mt. J. Sports Med. 12(1991) 527
Relationship of Body Size, Physique, and Composition to Physical Performance
Anaerobic Power and Capacity
Table 1 Mean (± SD) anthropometric measures for all boys and girls
seated. Toe clips were used to prevent feet from slipping off the
pedals. Following a 2-mm warm-up without resistance, the subjects were given the command to start pedalling as fast as they could and the resistance increased within 2—3 sees to a predetermined level. The resistance load was adjusted relative to body weight (75 gkg body weight 1) as suggested by BarOr (2). Revolutions were counted electronically using a chart recorder connected to a switch triggered by one of the pedals. Once the prescribed load had been reached, a deflection was made on the chart recorder and a stopwatch was started. The test administrators gave verbal encouragement throughout the 30 sees of the test. Subjects were asked to continue to pedal unloaded for 1—2 mm immediately following the test to avoid diz-
ziness, syncope and muscle soreness. Peak power (PP) over any given 5-sec interval (watts) was used as a measure of anaerobic power. Mean power (MP) over the 30 sees of the test (watts) and total work (J) were used to represent anaerobic capacity.
Statistical Analysis
Boys (n=23)
Weight (kg) Height (cm) Sum of skinfolds (mm) Body fat (%) Lean body mass (kg) Total thigh volume (I) Endomorphy Mesomorphy
Ectomorphy
Adiposity Proportional weight •
( 7.4) ( 7.3)
55.9
(28.7)
16.3
( 5.4) ( 4.6)
31.2 3.5 2.8 4.1
( 0.9)
(1.4)
4.0 3.9
( 0.8) ( 0.9) ( 2.4)
4.1
(1.8)
39.7
( 7.7)
148.0
( 6.9)
74.5 24.4 29.8 3.7 3.7 3.9 3.3 4.5 5.4
(24.5)*
( 4.4) ( 4.5) ( 0.8)
(1.21* ( 0.9)
(1.3) (1.8)
( 1.7)
+ Stanine score. Table 2 Mean (±SD) aerobic measurements and power output for boys and girls who fulfilled the criteria for reaching VO2max
I-jR max
yE max VO2max VO2max VO2max
(b-min)
(kmin (Imini
(ml-kg1min')
(mlkg LBM1min) R
pendent variable and all anthropometric and performance
*
scores as dependent variables. When F ratios indicated significance (p < 0.05), a univariate analysis was used to determine the specific variables responsible for the gender main effect.
148.3
Girls (n=29)
Significantly different from boys, p
![[Stability of body composition in boys and girls 12 through 15 years of age].](/assets/img/hold.png)
