Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 24, No. 1, Spring 1985
Religion and Aging C. M A R G A R E T H A L L A B S T R A C T : Life history data and cultural values are used to suggest ways in which personal and social beliefs influence the quality of experiences of aging. Central questions are the extent to which an individual can select beliefs t h a t lead to a longer, more meaningful life and the special influence t h a t religion may have in enhancing aging. Responsiveness to needs of the elderly is a necessary component of enlightened planning for the future. Secularization and industrialization have diminished roles and expectations for the elderly. Religion may be an effective means to identify these concerns and improve the quality of life of older people.
The elderly are the most rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population, also becoming a greater proportion of populations in less developed countries. Currently there are more than 20 million elderly people in the United States. In the next 20 years the number of people over eighty-five years of age in the United States will double, reaching a peak figure of 4 million. The world experienced b y most people in the last years of the life cycle is unrecognizable from the world experienced in their early years. Our rapidly changing secular world perhaps brings with it an increased need for spiritual growth. This need may be particularly strong among the elderly as traditional expectations for them are transformed. 1 Old age in our culture, although described as "the reward of righteousness" in the Judeo-Christian tradition, 2 is generally experienced as a period of loss and stress. Stress, reality-based or not, rapidly accumulates in old age, and resulting strains create a need for energy release. As there are insufficient acceptable outlets for pent-up energy in old age, the stress often becomes anxiety and depression. 3 New goals and new patterns of living are necessary if an older person is to live with dignity. Anticipation of and preparation for later stages of life increase the likelihood that maximum satisfaction will be derived from them. The principal problem of aging may be that we do not know how to be old. 4 As well as having to cope with realities of loss, old people fear neglect and insecurity. Some of these apprehensions are appropriate, in that almost 90 percent of those over seventy-five years of age have conditions or disabilities that are severely handicapping. Secularization and industrialization have diminished the traditional, adaptive roles given to the elderly. Disengagement theory in social science research conceptualizes how role loss and increasing preoccupation with self and with death are common experiences of aging. Geographical and emotional isolation C. Margaret Hall, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Chair, D e p a r t m e n t of Sociology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 70
r 1985 Institutes of Religionand HeaIth
C. Margaret Hall
71
in later life, frequently beyond the complete control of the older person, m a y lead to emotional disorder.5 Any contact with the outside world, even if it appears to be antagonistic, is wholesome. Personal and social integration are closely related, and maximum freedom of choice in selecting beliefs, as well as in decision making and action, appears to be essential for well-being. One of the weaknesses of current gerontological research is that it tends to limit its scope to biological variables, thereby underestimating the significance of social aspects of aging. Health among the elderly may be more a product of the environment than of heredity, however.6 The degree of connectedness of older people with their families has been identified as the most important of life's satisfactions for the elderly which enhances the quality of their lives. 7 As most elderly people live sufficiently close to kin that contact with relatives is a real possibility, s the meaningfulness of these relationships with family becomes critical. 9 Where there is emotional estrangement between family members, the resulting alienation of the aged may do more to damage their dignity than biological or medical causes. Religion can be thought of as a source of spiritual support and freedom at times of difficult adjustment in the life of the elderly, such as approaching death. 10Religion can also give direction and provide a social network of critical importance to older people. 11 Spiritual development and moral virtue enhance the quality of life and make life more satisfying. 12 Social services for the elderly are generally fragmented, uncoordinated, and unknown. Although practically every community has some service that can help the elderly to live outside institutions, virtually none have the array of services needed. Having an aggregate of the elderly in one place m a y be efficient as far as the provision of services is concerned, but this context all too frequently gives rise to pathological preoccupations, where community elders are encouraged t o " think sick." ,3 The older American is an untapped resource. Some evidence that this potential has yet to be realized is the growth in political militancy of the elderly. We need not only to make services and support systems available to the elderly but also to provide older people with opportunities to give services themselves (for example, the foster grandparent program}. Enlightened policy on aging is necessary to assure older people of their basic human rights. Such an enlightened policy would provide opportunities to make a full contribution to society, as well as the means to assure protection in society.
Life history data The primary source of data for the generalizations and propositions made in this paper is a series of about 500 family histories. These data were collected in research and clinical settings. The descriptive material reflects rich detail in patterns of family interaction and documents how relationships in primary groups can strongly influence the quality of aging experience. Exchanges in
72
Journal of Religion and Health
past and present dependencies tend to repeat in the future unless conscious efforts are made to interrupt and change ongoing processes. One of the special characteristics of this data base is that individual life history findings tend to contradict patterns identified in broad social trends and in the shared experiences of different social classes and different ethnic groups of elderly Americans. Research in the social sciences has documented that older people do not become more religious as they age. 14In general, the elderly participate less in religious groups than younger people, owing to increasing physical disabilities and their inability to travel to places of worship. The supportive function of religion in old people's lives has traditionally been a low priority in research on aging. Life history data can begin to document how individual older persons have been able to break through their social isolation and create a more meaningful life through reexamining their religious and general beliefs and by belonging to a religious community. 15 A significant finding in life history research is that religious beliefs may transform the quality of aging experience by transcending ever-present negative stereotypes of aging. This transcendence gives autonomy to the older person. Other supportive functions of religion are the provision of a positive direction in life and the increased possibility of having meaningful relationships. At a more general level, religion may be a means to counter the power of destructive cultural sentiments and negative general trends. For example, the media, cartoons, and birthday cards abound with negative views of the aging process. 16Religion can heighten awareness of options, and older persons may move to a more advantageous position by choosing the quality of their aging experience.
Cultural c o n t e x t s
To a large extent, national cultural values reflect traditional values in predominant "denominational" religions. Traditional values are also manifested in the life-style of upper classes in a society. Social science research suggests that cultural context--including membership in particular social classes and ethnic groups--to a large extent determines the quality of experience of aging. Although this influence has been empirically demonstrated to be significant, life history data suggest that individual differences, particularly individual family differences, must be taken into account in understanding quality of experience in aging. Social expectations strongly influence the experience of the majority of older people within a given culture--for example, the contrasting influences of the Protestant ethic and Confucian ethiclT--but individual choice still remains as the most critical factor that defines the quality of life course of an older person. is Cultural influences may be neutralized by individual autonomy or by the ability of an individual older person to maintain a personal stand in relation to
C. Margaret Hall $
73
particular values. It is personal or social values that largely determine a person's feelings toward life in general, whatever the cultural context. 19 Life history data suggest that bonding 2~or social integration 21 are essential for individual well-being. The probability that an older person will be able to live a long life meaningfully is enhanced b y the related, although seemingly contradictory, experiences of autonomy and interdependence, together with an awareness of the existence of this paradox in orientations. Freedom from negative stereotypes in the social system is increased when both older and younger persons in the same family select their own beliefs and motivations for behavior, without undue conformity to others' expectations. Intergenerational contact alone creates more positive perceptions of aging between young and old, 22 and the many shared experiences of old and young can be emphasized. Although the elderly report more unhappiness and less fear of aging than the young, social science research has shown that there are not many differences in the fear of death as expressed by old and young. 23 Religion can play an important role in increasing older people's awareness of and participation in the interaction processes of autonomy and interdependence. An older person can begin to transcend the facts of a situation of loss, for example, by broadening horizons toward a more universalistic vision. 24
Religion: Personal and social beliefs Religion can be thought of as a context for the formulation of a meaningful self-concept. To the extent that personal beliefs are congruent with social beliefs, a person will have a life orientation that will be integrative with society at large rather than isolating. 25 From an alienating self-estrangement of "I don't need people" or "I don't need religion," integrated personal, social, and religious beliefs can increase social connectedness: " M y life has a purpose." Life history data suggest that an older person needs a strong self-concept and a positive world view in order to transcend and survive negative cultural stereotypes. Individual beliefs are strengthened by connecting with others who share their beliefs. For example, young family members can be effectively supportive to an older person by counteracting negative stereotypes of aging. Western culture generally devalues the older person, whereas Eastern culture frequently identifies aging with social honor. 26 The Protestant ethic, a major source of U.S. values and norms, encourages autonomy and independence in beliefs. Strong family connectedness is more characteristic of the Confucian ethic, 27 and this also contributes to the survival of the elderly. Both autonomy and interdependence are essential for survival and influence the quality of life of the elderly. Dependence on others must be acknowledged for wholesome living. Many problems in Western society flow from the strength of the value placed on independence. The elderly in Western societies resist becoming a "burden" to others. 28 Integration with others is essential, and this can be accomplished by linking self to the traditions of society through religion and other belief or ethical systems. 29Durkheim substantiated
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Journal of Religion and Health
the importance of social solidarity for individual well-being in his study of suicide2 ~ Life history data suggest that older persons thrive most when family connectedness is a baseline for community participation. Beliefs motivate behavior; and when action can extend to others, the isolation, meaninglessness, normlessness, powerlessness, and self-estrangement of alienation are resolved. ~1 Although religious participation does not preclude the experience of stress, and stress can only be anticipated intellectually, religious activities and exchanges can reduce anxiety and alleviate stress. Life history data suggest that it is only when anxiety is sufficiently low and autonomy sufficiently marked that older people have the individual and social strength to resist the influence of negative stereotypes, passive roles, and negative attitudes in wider society.
Religion: Intervention and change The particular kind of influence religion has depends on the substance of its belief system and its organizational structure. 32 Through religious participation, older people can minister to one another. 33 To the extent that religion motivates action and interaction, thereby breaking down isolation, religion can be supportive and an essential element in a reorienting process. Religion is a source of more or less coherent belief systems and particular world views, which serve as meaningful contexts for individual action. Although aging is not generally considered to be a social movement, the degree of shared experiences and beliefs that derive from growing proportions of older people in industrialized and industrializing societies will ultimately demand social attention and policy responses. Owing to its unique functions in society, religion can be in the forefront of planned efforts to enhance the quality of experience of older people and to help the elderly to understand and deal with their spirituality. 34 Historically religions have not always been responsive to new social needs. Religion has tended to be a conservative force in society at large, following behind general social awareness and social action. In the United States many established religions have resisted sexual equality and gay rights, for example. It is perhaps religious sects that m a y be more easily able to respond to particular social needs than the relatively crystallized denominations and maj ority religions. To the extent that aging is a latent social movement without organization or leadership, needs will have to be identified by wider society. Religion may be effective in identifying and addressing the complexity of the physical, emotional, and spiritual needs of the elderly. Expensive one-on-one crisis intervention therapy cannot be resorted to by most aging Americans. Therapy may be very effective in addressing the particular needs of the elderly and can be thought of as a supportive secular religion. From a more pragmatic standpoint, however, religion can become a therapeutic support for the elderly in these rapidly changing secular times.
C. Margaret Hall
75
Religion can be a source of strength in times of social and personal crisis. Participation in religion is a mainstream activity of the population at large, and identification with traditional and institutional values can neutralize some of the isolating characteristics of aging currently experienced by most older people in our society. As both sectarian and denominational religions are generally in the wake of societal levels of awareness of human well-being, private religion m a y necessarily become a sustaining strength and inspiration for older people. 35 Private religion can motivate individuals to move in the direction of social connectedness and can give some degree of coherence and consistency to individual and social beliefs. Private religion derives from traditional sources and is not idiosyncratic in its nature. An individual's construction of a socially unrelated world is characteristic of insanity, not private religion. As many older persons may not physically be able to be active participants in community worship, the most available and most realistic means of becoming more integrated in society m a y be through private religion. When motivation and purposeful action flow from private religion, the most acute isolation experienced by the elderly can be neutralized. Another aspect of the particular social conditions of older people in the United States and rapid change in a highly industrialized society is the influence of the "electronic church" on the beliefs and practices of the elderly. A large proportion of older people use televised religious services as a source of religious beliefs and practices. Estimates from data of viewing audiences are that about 60 percent of viewers of the "electronic church" are over fifty years old and are predominantly women. 36 This information suggests that devotional practices or private religion of older people in the United States are influenced b y the content of this kind of broadcasting.
Religion: Quality of life In order for there to be improved life conditions for older people, conscious effort needs to be moved in the direction of problem solving. 37Data collection for effective planned intervention and change should optimally include selfreports of older people. 38 Life history data add critical dimensions to knowledge about the social construction of reality of older people. 39 Religion is an important mechanism for understanding more fully the complexity of the interrelationship of subjective and objective aspects of human experience. It is only when both subjective and objective conditions are integrated in some way that there can be improved quality of day-to-day living. Religion can serve as a productive mechanism in this adjustment process. 4~ Increased person-to-person contact with the elderly, especially in a religious context, can help to decrease effectively the anxiety and alienation of the elderly, thereby increasing quality of life. Moral responsibility includes planned intervention for the common good. Although there have been some experimental a t t e m p t s on the part of religious
76
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groups to meet the particular needs of the elderly, 41 these efforts are still not sufficiently widespread nor sufficiently effective to have a noticeable impact on society at large. If the public conscience is to be influential in improving the human condition, responsiveness to the physical, emotional, and spiritual needs of the elderly must be given a high priority. Religion may be one of the most effective and most practical mechanisms through which these moral concerns can be identified and implemented. Life history data suggest that self can be strengthened only through interaction with others. 42 Reminiscence is one way in which pastoral care, through the sharing of experience, has been able to help the elderly use their past to contribute to current growth processes. 43 Quality of life is a product of the degree of satisfying connectedness a person has with others, and religion and religious activity can enhance these bonds. When science and technology go hand in hand with freeing more time for individual person-to-person contacts rather than decreasing the possibility of these kinds of exchanges, we will have social progress. 44 Religious sects rather than religious denominations may respond more fully to personal needs of the elderly, but any spiritual resource can give support and direction to the alienated life experience that currently characterizes most older people in the United States. An interesting research finding is that spiritual life may be potentially stronger for the elderly than for others, owing to the limitations of their lives. 4~ Improving the lives of the elderly is ultimately in the interests of the young and of society itself: effective role models are critical for effective survival, and no one escapes the relentlessness of time in his or her own life. Religion can assist in the propagation of more positive attitudes about aging, and many of the religious resources needed could be mobilized. 46 Older people are more law-abiding and more active in politics. Old people are active volunteers and better workers, having fewer accidents and living more carefully than other segments of the population. 47 Acknowledgment of these special contributions of the elderly in religious communities could lead to broader social recognition and acceptance. Efforts are needed to meet the unique spiritual needs of the elderly. 4s Prayer can give older people increased feelings of self-worth and hope, giving them a place and a function in the community.49 A religious focus will give more importance to what life has made of oneself rather than to accomplishments, s0 At an international level there are efforts to recognize that old age represents the ultimate and most advanced phase of development in human experience. 51No society can be advanced if the old are not respected, and perhaps religions can establish and implement guidelines that move in the direction of enhancing the quality of life for all.
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References 1. Giuri, A., "Aging and the Spiritual Life," Spiritual Life, 1980, 26, 41-46. 2. Shapero, S.M., "The Vintage Years: General View and Jewish Challenge," J. Religion and Health, 1975, 14, 130-141. 3. Bowen, M., Family Therapy in ClinicalPractice. New York, Aronson, 1978. 4. Goodman, E., "Solving the Problem of Aging," Washington Post, October 11, 1983, A15. 5. Hall, C.M., The Bowen Family Theory and Its Uses. New York, Aronson, 1981. 6. Riley, M.W., and Foner, A., Aging and Society. New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. 7. Ibid. 8. See inter alia, Shanas, E., Old People in Three Industrial Societies. New York, Atherton Press, 1968; Sussman, M.B., Sourcebook in Marriage and the Family. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1974. 9. Bowen, op. cit. 10. Ktlbler-Ross, E., On Death and Dying. New York, Macmillan, 1969. 11. Lemke, D.W., and Redmann, I., "Worship! A Means to Involve and Counsel the Alienated Person." Paper presented at 34th annual conference of The National Council on the Aging, Inc., Washington, D.C., April 1984. 12. Hiltner, S., "A Theology of Aging." In LeFevre, S., and LeFevre, P., eds., Aging and The Human Spirit. Chicago, Exploration Press, 1981. 13. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The Aging: Trends and Policies. New York, United Nations, 1975. 14. Nelsen, H.M., "Life Without Afterlife: Toward a Congruency of Belief Across Generations," J. Scientific Study of Religion, 1981,20, 109-118. 15. Pierik, B., "A Parish Ministry to the Elderly," Sisters Today, 1982, 53, 611-617. 16. House of Representatives, "Media Portrayal of the Elderly." Hearing before the Select Committee of Aging, April 26, 1980. 17. Lewis, M., "Aging in the People's Republic of China," InternationalJ. of Aging and Human Development, 1982,15, 79-105. 18. Raguin, Y., "Spirituality of the Third Age," EastAsian PastoriaIReview, 1982, 19, 74-80. 19. Grundstrom, V.F., "Cross-cultural Comparison of Gerontological Life Satisfaction in the Far East and the United States." Paper presented at 34th annual conference of The National Council on the Aging, Inc., Washington, D.C., April 1984. 20. Turner, R.H., Family Interaction. New York, Wiley, 1970. 21. Durkheim, E., Suicide. Glencoe, Ill., The Free Press, 1951. 22. Downs, C., and Walz, P., "Escape From the Rocking Chair: Young Adults' Changing Perceptions of Elderly Persons as a Function of Intergenerational Contact," Psychological Reports, 1981, 49, 187-189. 23. Lester, D., et al., "Attitudes Toward Life and Aging: An Explanatory Comparison of Elderly and Young Adults," PsychologicalReports, 1979, 45, 562. 24. Payne, B., "Religion and the Elderly in Today's World." In Clements, W.M., ed., Ministry With TheAging. San Francisco, Harper & Row, 1981. 25. Durkheim, op. cir. 26. See inter alia, Palmore, E., The Honorable Elders: A Crosscultural Analysis of Aging in Japan. Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 1975; Osako, M.M., "Aging and Family Among Japanese Americans: The Role of Ethnic Tradition in the Adjustment to Old Age," The Gerontologist, 1979, 19, 448-485. 27. Lewis, op. cit. 28. McKenzie, S.C., Aging and OldAge. Glenview, Ill., Scott, Foresman and Company, 1980. 29. Cull, J.G., and Hardy, R.E., The Neglected OlderAmerican. Springfield, Ill., Thomas, 1973. 30. Durkheim, op. cir. 31. Seeman, M., "On the Meaning of Alienation," Amer. SociologicalReview, 1959, 24, 783-791. 32. Bainbridge, W.S., and Hatch, L.R., "Women's Access to Elite Careers: In Search of a Religious Effect,"J. Scientific Study of Religion, 1982, 21, 242-255. 33. Dunn, P.J., and Helminjak, D.A., "Spiritual Practices for the Elderly," Spirituality Today, 1981, 33, 122-136. 34. John Paul II, "The Elderly," The Pope Speaks, 1982, 27, 257-265. 35. Luckmann, T., The Invisible Religion. New York, Macmillan, 1967. 36. Manager of Broadcast Ratings, NBC {Correspondence}, February 9, 1984. 37. Skinner, B.F., Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management. New York, Norton, 1983. 38. Harris, L., "Who the Senior Citizens Really Are." In LeFevre, C., and LeFevre, P., eds., Aging and the Human Spirit. Chicago, Exploration Press, 1981.
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39. See inter alia. Berger, P.L., and Luckmann, T., The Social Construction of Reality. Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1966; Berger, P.L., The Sacred Canopy. Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1967. 40. Blazer, D., and Palmore, E., "Religion and Aging in a Longitudinal Panel." In LeFevre, C., and LeFevre, P , eds., A g i n g and the H u m a n Spirit, op. cir. 41. Maguire, G.H., "Training Church Workers to Interact With the Aged and the Ill." Paper presented at 34th annual conference of The National Council on the Aging, Washington, D.C., April 1984. 42. See inter alia, Turner, o19. cir., Bowen, ot). cir. 43. Clements, W.N., "Reminiscence as the Cure of Souls in Early Old Age," J. Religion and Health, 1981,20, 41-46. 44. K~bler-Ross, op. cit. 45. Giuri, op. cir. 46. Buxbaum, R.E., "The Use of Religious Resources in the Care of the Aged," J. Religion and Health, 1969,8, 143-162. 47. Palmore, E., "Advantages of Aging," The Gerontologist, 1979, 19, 220-223. 48. Gram, C.J., "The Church and the Third Age," America" 1982, 147, 46-49. 49. Green, P., "The Pastoral Care of the Aged," The Furrow, 1980, 30, 90-94. 50. Raguin, op. cit. 51. U.N. Committee, Holy See Delegation, "Questions of the Elderly," Issue, 1981, 46, 11.
Religion and Aging C. M A R G A R E T H A L L A B S T R A C T : Life history data and cultural values are used to suggest ways in which personal and social beliefs influence the quality of experiences of aging. Central questions are the extent to which an individual can select beliefs t h a t lead to a longer, more meaningful life and the special influence t h a t religion may have in enhancing aging. Responsiveness to needs of the elderly is a necessary component of enlightened planning for the future. Secularization and industrialization have diminished roles and expectations for the elderly. Religion may be an effective means to identify these concerns and improve the quality of life of older people.
The elderly are the most rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population, also becoming a greater proportion of populations in less developed countries. Currently there are more than 20 million elderly people in the United States. In the next 20 years the number of people over eighty-five years of age in the United States will double, reaching a peak figure of 4 million. The world experienced b y most people in the last years of the life cycle is unrecognizable from the world experienced in their early years. Our rapidly changing secular world perhaps brings with it an increased need for spiritual growth. This need may be particularly strong among the elderly as traditional expectations for them are transformed. 1 Old age in our culture, although described as "the reward of righteousness" in the Judeo-Christian tradition, 2 is generally experienced as a period of loss and stress. Stress, reality-based or not, rapidly accumulates in old age, and resulting strains create a need for energy release. As there are insufficient acceptable outlets for pent-up energy in old age, the stress often becomes anxiety and depression. 3 New goals and new patterns of living are necessary if an older person is to live with dignity. Anticipation of and preparation for later stages of life increase the likelihood that maximum satisfaction will be derived from them. The principal problem of aging may be that we do not know how to be old. 4 As well as having to cope with realities of loss, old people fear neglect and insecurity. Some of these apprehensions are appropriate, in that almost 90 percent of those over seventy-five years of age have conditions or disabilities that are severely handicapping. Secularization and industrialization have diminished the traditional, adaptive roles given to the elderly. Disengagement theory in social science research conceptualizes how role loss and increasing preoccupation with self and with death are common experiences of aging. Geographical and emotional isolation C. Margaret Hall, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Chair, D e p a r t m e n t of Sociology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 70
r 1985 Institutes of Religionand HeaIth
C. Margaret Hall
71
in later life, frequently beyond the complete control of the older person, m a y lead to emotional disorder.5 Any contact with the outside world, even if it appears to be antagonistic, is wholesome. Personal and social integration are closely related, and maximum freedom of choice in selecting beliefs, as well as in decision making and action, appears to be essential for well-being. One of the weaknesses of current gerontological research is that it tends to limit its scope to biological variables, thereby underestimating the significance of social aspects of aging. Health among the elderly may be more a product of the environment than of heredity, however.6 The degree of connectedness of older people with their families has been identified as the most important of life's satisfactions for the elderly which enhances the quality of their lives. 7 As most elderly people live sufficiently close to kin that contact with relatives is a real possibility, s the meaningfulness of these relationships with family becomes critical. 9 Where there is emotional estrangement between family members, the resulting alienation of the aged may do more to damage their dignity than biological or medical causes. Religion can be thought of as a source of spiritual support and freedom at times of difficult adjustment in the life of the elderly, such as approaching death. 10Religion can also give direction and provide a social network of critical importance to older people. 11 Spiritual development and moral virtue enhance the quality of life and make life more satisfying. 12 Social services for the elderly are generally fragmented, uncoordinated, and unknown. Although practically every community has some service that can help the elderly to live outside institutions, virtually none have the array of services needed. Having an aggregate of the elderly in one place m a y be efficient as far as the provision of services is concerned, but this context all too frequently gives rise to pathological preoccupations, where community elders are encouraged t o " think sick." ,3 The older American is an untapped resource. Some evidence that this potential has yet to be realized is the growth in political militancy of the elderly. We need not only to make services and support systems available to the elderly but also to provide older people with opportunities to give services themselves (for example, the foster grandparent program}. Enlightened policy on aging is necessary to assure older people of their basic human rights. Such an enlightened policy would provide opportunities to make a full contribution to society, as well as the means to assure protection in society.
Life history data The primary source of data for the generalizations and propositions made in this paper is a series of about 500 family histories. These data were collected in research and clinical settings. The descriptive material reflects rich detail in patterns of family interaction and documents how relationships in primary groups can strongly influence the quality of aging experience. Exchanges in
72
Journal of Religion and Health
past and present dependencies tend to repeat in the future unless conscious efforts are made to interrupt and change ongoing processes. One of the special characteristics of this data base is that individual life history findings tend to contradict patterns identified in broad social trends and in the shared experiences of different social classes and different ethnic groups of elderly Americans. Research in the social sciences has documented that older people do not become more religious as they age. 14In general, the elderly participate less in religious groups than younger people, owing to increasing physical disabilities and their inability to travel to places of worship. The supportive function of religion in old people's lives has traditionally been a low priority in research on aging. Life history data can begin to document how individual older persons have been able to break through their social isolation and create a more meaningful life through reexamining their religious and general beliefs and by belonging to a religious community. 15 A significant finding in life history research is that religious beliefs may transform the quality of aging experience by transcending ever-present negative stereotypes of aging. This transcendence gives autonomy to the older person. Other supportive functions of religion are the provision of a positive direction in life and the increased possibility of having meaningful relationships. At a more general level, religion may be a means to counter the power of destructive cultural sentiments and negative general trends. For example, the media, cartoons, and birthday cards abound with negative views of the aging process. 16Religion can heighten awareness of options, and older persons may move to a more advantageous position by choosing the quality of their aging experience.
Cultural c o n t e x t s
To a large extent, national cultural values reflect traditional values in predominant "denominational" religions. Traditional values are also manifested in the life-style of upper classes in a society. Social science research suggests that cultural context--including membership in particular social classes and ethnic groups--to a large extent determines the quality of experience of aging. Although this influence has been empirically demonstrated to be significant, life history data suggest that individual differences, particularly individual family differences, must be taken into account in understanding quality of experience in aging. Social expectations strongly influence the experience of the majority of older people within a given culture--for example, the contrasting influences of the Protestant ethic and Confucian ethiclT--but individual choice still remains as the most critical factor that defines the quality of life course of an older person. is Cultural influences may be neutralized by individual autonomy or by the ability of an individual older person to maintain a personal stand in relation to
C. Margaret Hall $
73
particular values. It is personal or social values that largely determine a person's feelings toward life in general, whatever the cultural context. 19 Life history data suggest that bonding 2~or social integration 21 are essential for individual well-being. The probability that an older person will be able to live a long life meaningfully is enhanced b y the related, although seemingly contradictory, experiences of autonomy and interdependence, together with an awareness of the existence of this paradox in orientations. Freedom from negative stereotypes in the social system is increased when both older and younger persons in the same family select their own beliefs and motivations for behavior, without undue conformity to others' expectations. Intergenerational contact alone creates more positive perceptions of aging between young and old, 22 and the many shared experiences of old and young can be emphasized. Although the elderly report more unhappiness and less fear of aging than the young, social science research has shown that there are not many differences in the fear of death as expressed by old and young. 23 Religion can play an important role in increasing older people's awareness of and participation in the interaction processes of autonomy and interdependence. An older person can begin to transcend the facts of a situation of loss, for example, by broadening horizons toward a more universalistic vision. 24
Religion: Personal and social beliefs Religion can be thought of as a context for the formulation of a meaningful self-concept. To the extent that personal beliefs are congruent with social beliefs, a person will have a life orientation that will be integrative with society at large rather than isolating. 25 From an alienating self-estrangement of "I don't need people" or "I don't need religion," integrated personal, social, and religious beliefs can increase social connectedness: " M y life has a purpose." Life history data suggest that an older person needs a strong self-concept and a positive world view in order to transcend and survive negative cultural stereotypes. Individual beliefs are strengthened by connecting with others who share their beliefs. For example, young family members can be effectively supportive to an older person by counteracting negative stereotypes of aging. Western culture generally devalues the older person, whereas Eastern culture frequently identifies aging with social honor. 26 The Protestant ethic, a major source of U.S. values and norms, encourages autonomy and independence in beliefs. Strong family connectedness is more characteristic of the Confucian ethic, 27 and this also contributes to the survival of the elderly. Both autonomy and interdependence are essential for survival and influence the quality of life of the elderly. Dependence on others must be acknowledged for wholesome living. Many problems in Western society flow from the strength of the value placed on independence. The elderly in Western societies resist becoming a "burden" to others. 28 Integration with others is essential, and this can be accomplished by linking self to the traditions of society through religion and other belief or ethical systems. 29Durkheim substantiated
74
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the importance of social solidarity for individual well-being in his study of suicide2 ~ Life history data suggest that older persons thrive most when family connectedness is a baseline for community participation. Beliefs motivate behavior; and when action can extend to others, the isolation, meaninglessness, normlessness, powerlessness, and self-estrangement of alienation are resolved. ~1 Although religious participation does not preclude the experience of stress, and stress can only be anticipated intellectually, religious activities and exchanges can reduce anxiety and alleviate stress. Life history data suggest that it is only when anxiety is sufficiently low and autonomy sufficiently marked that older people have the individual and social strength to resist the influence of negative stereotypes, passive roles, and negative attitudes in wider society.
Religion: Intervention and change The particular kind of influence religion has depends on the substance of its belief system and its organizational structure. 32 Through religious participation, older people can minister to one another. 33 To the extent that religion motivates action and interaction, thereby breaking down isolation, religion can be supportive and an essential element in a reorienting process. Religion is a source of more or less coherent belief systems and particular world views, which serve as meaningful contexts for individual action. Although aging is not generally considered to be a social movement, the degree of shared experiences and beliefs that derive from growing proportions of older people in industrialized and industrializing societies will ultimately demand social attention and policy responses. Owing to its unique functions in society, religion can be in the forefront of planned efforts to enhance the quality of experience of older people and to help the elderly to understand and deal with their spirituality. 34 Historically religions have not always been responsive to new social needs. Religion has tended to be a conservative force in society at large, following behind general social awareness and social action. In the United States many established religions have resisted sexual equality and gay rights, for example. It is perhaps religious sects that m a y be more easily able to respond to particular social needs than the relatively crystallized denominations and maj ority religions. To the extent that aging is a latent social movement without organization or leadership, needs will have to be identified by wider society. Religion may be effective in identifying and addressing the complexity of the physical, emotional, and spiritual needs of the elderly. Expensive one-on-one crisis intervention therapy cannot be resorted to by most aging Americans. Therapy may be very effective in addressing the particular needs of the elderly and can be thought of as a supportive secular religion. From a more pragmatic standpoint, however, religion can become a therapeutic support for the elderly in these rapidly changing secular times.
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Religion can be a source of strength in times of social and personal crisis. Participation in religion is a mainstream activity of the population at large, and identification with traditional and institutional values can neutralize some of the isolating characteristics of aging currently experienced by most older people in our society. As both sectarian and denominational religions are generally in the wake of societal levels of awareness of human well-being, private religion m a y necessarily become a sustaining strength and inspiration for older people. 35 Private religion can motivate individuals to move in the direction of social connectedness and can give some degree of coherence and consistency to individual and social beliefs. Private religion derives from traditional sources and is not idiosyncratic in its nature. An individual's construction of a socially unrelated world is characteristic of insanity, not private religion. As many older persons may not physically be able to be active participants in community worship, the most available and most realistic means of becoming more integrated in society m a y be through private religion. When motivation and purposeful action flow from private religion, the most acute isolation experienced by the elderly can be neutralized. Another aspect of the particular social conditions of older people in the United States and rapid change in a highly industrialized society is the influence of the "electronic church" on the beliefs and practices of the elderly. A large proportion of older people use televised religious services as a source of religious beliefs and practices. Estimates from data of viewing audiences are that about 60 percent of viewers of the "electronic church" are over fifty years old and are predominantly women. 36 This information suggests that devotional practices or private religion of older people in the United States are influenced b y the content of this kind of broadcasting.
Religion: Quality of life In order for there to be improved life conditions for older people, conscious effort needs to be moved in the direction of problem solving. 37Data collection for effective planned intervention and change should optimally include selfreports of older people. 38 Life history data add critical dimensions to knowledge about the social construction of reality of older people. 39 Religion is an important mechanism for understanding more fully the complexity of the interrelationship of subjective and objective aspects of human experience. It is only when both subjective and objective conditions are integrated in some way that there can be improved quality of day-to-day living. Religion can serve as a productive mechanism in this adjustment process. 4~ Increased person-to-person contact with the elderly, especially in a religious context, can help to decrease effectively the anxiety and alienation of the elderly, thereby increasing quality of life. Moral responsibility includes planned intervention for the common good. Although there have been some experimental a t t e m p t s on the part of religious
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groups to meet the particular needs of the elderly, 41 these efforts are still not sufficiently widespread nor sufficiently effective to have a noticeable impact on society at large. If the public conscience is to be influential in improving the human condition, responsiveness to the physical, emotional, and spiritual needs of the elderly must be given a high priority. Religion may be one of the most effective and most practical mechanisms through which these moral concerns can be identified and implemented. Life history data suggest that self can be strengthened only through interaction with others. 42 Reminiscence is one way in which pastoral care, through the sharing of experience, has been able to help the elderly use their past to contribute to current growth processes. 43 Quality of life is a product of the degree of satisfying connectedness a person has with others, and religion and religious activity can enhance these bonds. When science and technology go hand in hand with freeing more time for individual person-to-person contacts rather than decreasing the possibility of these kinds of exchanges, we will have social progress. 44 Religious sects rather than religious denominations may respond more fully to personal needs of the elderly, but any spiritual resource can give support and direction to the alienated life experience that currently characterizes most older people in the United States. An interesting research finding is that spiritual life may be potentially stronger for the elderly than for others, owing to the limitations of their lives. 4~ Improving the lives of the elderly is ultimately in the interests of the young and of society itself: effective role models are critical for effective survival, and no one escapes the relentlessness of time in his or her own life. Religion can assist in the propagation of more positive attitudes about aging, and many of the religious resources needed could be mobilized. 46 Older people are more law-abiding and more active in politics. Old people are active volunteers and better workers, having fewer accidents and living more carefully than other segments of the population. 47 Acknowledgment of these special contributions of the elderly in religious communities could lead to broader social recognition and acceptance. Efforts are needed to meet the unique spiritual needs of the elderly. 4s Prayer can give older people increased feelings of self-worth and hope, giving them a place and a function in the community.49 A religious focus will give more importance to what life has made of oneself rather than to accomplishments, s0 At an international level there are efforts to recognize that old age represents the ultimate and most advanced phase of development in human experience. 51No society can be advanced if the old are not respected, and perhaps religions can establish and implement guidelines that move in the direction of enhancing the quality of life for all.
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References 1. Giuri, A., "Aging and the Spiritual Life," Spiritual Life, 1980, 26, 41-46. 2. Shapero, S.M., "The Vintage Years: General View and Jewish Challenge," J. Religion and Health, 1975, 14, 130-141. 3. Bowen, M., Family Therapy in ClinicalPractice. New York, Aronson, 1978. 4. Goodman, E., "Solving the Problem of Aging," Washington Post, October 11, 1983, A15. 5. Hall, C.M., The Bowen Family Theory and Its Uses. New York, Aronson, 1981. 6. Riley, M.W., and Foner, A., Aging and Society. New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. 7. Ibid. 8. See inter alia, Shanas, E., Old People in Three Industrial Societies. New York, Atherton Press, 1968; Sussman, M.B., Sourcebook in Marriage and the Family. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1974. 9. Bowen, op. cit. 10. Ktlbler-Ross, E., On Death and Dying. New York, Macmillan, 1969. 11. Lemke, D.W., and Redmann, I., "Worship! A Means to Involve and Counsel the Alienated Person." Paper presented at 34th annual conference of The National Council on the Aging, Inc., Washington, D.C., April 1984. 12. Hiltner, S., "A Theology of Aging." In LeFevre, S., and LeFevre, P., eds., Aging and The Human Spirit. Chicago, Exploration Press, 1981. 13. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The Aging: Trends and Policies. New York, United Nations, 1975. 14. Nelsen, H.M., "Life Without Afterlife: Toward a Congruency of Belief Across Generations," J. Scientific Study of Religion, 1981,20, 109-118. 15. Pierik, B., "A Parish Ministry to the Elderly," Sisters Today, 1982, 53, 611-617. 16. House of Representatives, "Media Portrayal of the Elderly." Hearing before the Select Committee of Aging, April 26, 1980. 17. Lewis, M., "Aging in the People's Republic of China," InternationalJ. of Aging and Human Development, 1982,15, 79-105. 18. Raguin, Y., "Spirituality of the Third Age," EastAsian PastoriaIReview, 1982, 19, 74-80. 19. Grundstrom, V.F., "Cross-cultural Comparison of Gerontological Life Satisfaction in the Far East and the United States." Paper presented at 34th annual conference of The National Council on the Aging, Inc., Washington, D.C., April 1984. 20. Turner, R.H., Family Interaction. New York, Wiley, 1970. 21. Durkheim, E., Suicide. Glencoe, Ill., The Free Press, 1951. 22. Downs, C., and Walz, P., "Escape From the Rocking Chair: Young Adults' Changing Perceptions of Elderly Persons as a Function of Intergenerational Contact," Psychological Reports, 1981, 49, 187-189. 23. Lester, D., et al., "Attitudes Toward Life and Aging: An Explanatory Comparison of Elderly and Young Adults," PsychologicalReports, 1979, 45, 562. 24. Payne, B., "Religion and the Elderly in Today's World." In Clements, W.M., ed., Ministry With TheAging. San Francisco, Harper & Row, 1981. 25. Durkheim, op. cir. 26. See inter alia, Palmore, E., The Honorable Elders: A Crosscultural Analysis of Aging in Japan. Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 1975; Osako, M.M., "Aging and Family Among Japanese Americans: The Role of Ethnic Tradition in the Adjustment to Old Age," The Gerontologist, 1979, 19, 448-485. 27. Lewis, op. cit. 28. McKenzie, S.C., Aging and OldAge. Glenview, Ill., Scott, Foresman and Company, 1980. 29. Cull, J.G., and Hardy, R.E., The Neglected OlderAmerican. Springfield, Ill., Thomas, 1973. 30. Durkheim, op. cir. 31. Seeman, M., "On the Meaning of Alienation," Amer. SociologicalReview, 1959, 24, 783-791. 32. Bainbridge, W.S., and Hatch, L.R., "Women's Access to Elite Careers: In Search of a Religious Effect,"J. Scientific Study of Religion, 1982, 21, 242-255. 33. Dunn, P.J., and Helminjak, D.A., "Spiritual Practices for the Elderly," Spirituality Today, 1981, 33, 122-136. 34. John Paul II, "The Elderly," The Pope Speaks, 1982, 27, 257-265. 35. Luckmann, T., The Invisible Religion. New York, Macmillan, 1967. 36. Manager of Broadcast Ratings, NBC {Correspondence}, February 9, 1984. 37. Skinner, B.F., Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management. New York, Norton, 1983. 38. Harris, L., "Who the Senior Citizens Really Are." In LeFevre, C., and LeFevre, P., eds., Aging and the Human Spirit. Chicago, Exploration Press, 1981.
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39. See inter alia. Berger, P.L., and Luckmann, T., The Social Construction of Reality. Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1966; Berger, P.L., The Sacred Canopy. Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1967. 40. Blazer, D., and Palmore, E., "Religion and Aging in a Longitudinal Panel." In LeFevre, C., and LeFevre, P , eds., A g i n g and the H u m a n Spirit, op. cir. 41. Maguire, G.H., "Training Church Workers to Interact With the Aged and the Ill." Paper presented at 34th annual conference of The National Council on the Aging, Washington, D.C., April 1984. 42. See inter alia, Turner, o19. cir., Bowen, ot). cir. 43. Clements, W.N., "Reminiscence as the Cure of Souls in Early Old Age," J. Religion and Health, 1981,20, 41-46. 44. K~bler-Ross, op. cit. 45. Giuri, op. cir. 46. Buxbaum, R.E., "The Use of Religious Resources in the Care of the Aged," J. Religion and Health, 1969,8, 143-162. 47. Palmore, E., "Advantages of Aging," The Gerontologist, 1979, 19, 220-223. 48. Gram, C.J., "The Church and the Third Age," America" 1982, 147, 46-49. 49. Green, P., "The Pastoral Care of the Aged," The Furrow, 1980, 30, 90-94. 50. Raguin, op. cit. 51. U.N. Committee, Holy See Delegation, "Questions of the Elderly," Issue, 1981, 46, 11.
