RESEARCH AND THE FUTURE OF HEALTH EDUCATION Donald Gross, M.A. Thomas W. O’Rourke, Ph.D., M.P.H.
Donald Gross, M.A. is Research Assistant, Department of Health and Safety Educatlon, University of Illinois, Urbane-Champaign. Thomas W . ORourke, Ph.D., M.P.H. is Associate Professor, Director of the Health Education Research Laboratory, Department of Health and Safety Education, Unlversity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
The evolution of health education as a separate and distinct discipline has been a slow and yet continuous process. The early pioneers were faced with the difficulties of transforming rather ambiguous and nebulous concepts into working concepts and models. Over a quarter of a century ago, Norton indicated that “the term ‘health education’ is now glibly and commonly used with many contrasting and sometimes meaningless interpretations. There is considerable lack of clarity as to i t s meaning and purpose.” Steinhaus reiterating that same thought stated, “in the high school the responsibility for health education is often poorly defined. I n many places, teachers of physical activities, home economics, natural science, and social studies, and the school nurse work in disjointed fashion.” The early pioneers strove to have health education develop its own fundamental concepts, philosophies, and models so as to gain acceptance in the academic world. However, disciplines which have merely attempted to justify their existence in the academic world have rarely become dynamic forces. Witness the slow growth of sociology and clinical psychology prior to their extensive involvement in the research dimension. While the health education field has not obtained complete unanimity in terms of future direction, professional health educators must look beyond the promotional aspects of our field. The time is ripe for health educators to move in the direction of basic and applied research and the development of research methodology particularly appropriate to the health educator profession. 30
BENEFITS OF RESEARCH Pierce stated that there are four general ways of knowing or, as he put it, of fixing belief. The first is the method of tenacity. Here the truth is known simply because someone knows i t to be true. The second is the method of authority. Persons believe what has been stated simply because of who has made the statement. This is the method of established belief. The third is the a priori method. The method is founded on the fundamental belief that something is true because i t is self-evident to man; “it just stands to reason.” The fourth method is the method of science. Pierce mentions: To satisfy our doubts .therefore, i t is necessary that a method should be found by which our beliefs may be determined by nothing human, but by some external permanency-by something upon which our thinking has no effect The method must be such that the ultimate conclusion of every man shall be the same. We then, propose the ideal that i f health education is to move ahead i t must begin to indulge i n scientific research to a greater extent than heretofore known. I n order to justify a greater committment to research, the profession needs to be aware of the rewards that i t makes possible. The fruits of research endeavors benefit: (1) those persons involved in the research; both faculty and professional students alike, (2) the institution where the research is being carried on; and most importantly, (3) the health education profession itself. The faculty members and students who are involved in scientific research enhance their own professional growth and development. First, they become a part of the profession that w i l l enable health education to move ahead in the years to come. Second, they are involved i n the development and a p p l i c a t i o n of research methodologies that w i l l provide information to the rest of the profession. Finally, they will JANUARY 1975 VOLUME X L V NO. 1
experience self-growth by sharing ideas, thoughts, and contact with others in and outside of the profession. The institution itself gains from scientific research. I t gains i n terms of prestige and status, financial resources, faculty and students, and other tangible and intangible goods and services. Finally, the health education profession itself gains from scientific research. In a profession such as ours, information, concepts, ideologies and so forth are in a constant state of change. Our profession is a dynamic one; to keep pace with it, there is a growing need for scientific research to take place, in both a basic and applied direction. If we fail to capitalize on this opportunity, the profession w i l l surely fail to develop from its embryonic stage. With the basic thrust presented we would like to direct comment to several guiding principles regarding the conducting of research. These principles reflect several important observations made over the past several years. Most are self evident; others are certainly subject to debate. (We hope they w i l l be debated.) 1. Everyone can and should do research. Research does not need to be either complex in design nor heavily ladened with statistical analysis. Research needs to become a learning experience that not only challenges the individual but promotes further searching to the complex answers that permeate our discipline. The only necessary requirements for research to be completed is the willingness to try your hand at it; the desire to see a task accomplished; and some basic knowledge in the topic area being researched. 2. Research is not the task of a few but the responsibility of many. Too often disciplines grow only on the research of a few; health education over the years has relied heavily on "name" persons to provide the rest of the p r o f e s s i o n with their i n f i n i t e wisdom. Unquestionably, they have provided needed leadership and direction. However, when only a few provide research, the discipline becomes saturated with research that also is closely allied with their own personal interests. I n order to insure more representation in research, i t should be the responsibility of all of us to provide the field with research. When numbers become involved, controversy is almost certainly to ensue. This controversy, in turn, promotes a further searching for the truth, which in the long run helps promote health education to others. THE JOURNAL
OF SCHOOL HEALTH
Unlike the journals in many other areas ours are relatively u ncontroversial. 3. Not only should we promote research within our profession, but we need to solicit help from professionals i n other d i s c i p l i n e s . This interdisciplinary approach is the key to our future; we must grasp its significance now if health education is to survive and flourish in the future. 4. Research should be an integral and continuing part of health education. Research needs to be thought of in terms of its place within the broad definition of health education. A l l too often health education is thought of as a quasi-discipline. However, research cannot be divorced from health education. Research provides the basis of knowledge and skills that have long been associated as the components of health education. Research also provides a solid foundation for our teaching endeavors. 5. Research need not be sophisticated. Research always seems to be thought of in terms of complex designs and sophisticated machinery spewing out computer cards in hundreths of a second. Nothing need be further from the truth than the above mentioned myth. Whether research be basic or applied, the basic tools needed remain the same: a willingness to put some time and effort into conducting the research. We believe that most who use the "tight money" argument for not being able to engage in research are deceiving no on0 but themselves. 6. Research need not require large financial resources. In terms of dollars and cents, research useful to the promotion of health education need not be very costly. Recently, a large midwestern university completed an in depth research project in the area of sex education for a large metropolitan area. The total expenditure was less than three hundred dollars. The authors believe that most research projects can be accomplished at a total expenditure of less than two hundred dollars. Admittedly, others require larger sums. 7. Research is not conclusive - research is tentative. Today man is inundated with more written and verbal communication than in any other historical period since the beginning of time. Each new discovery or innovation also brings man's constant searching for newer discoveries and newer innovations. So i t is with research. Research is but the beginning; not the end. I t is the means; not the end. Each new fact that research brings out should cause all of us to 31
continue asking questions - to challenge ourselves and our profession - so that research becomes cyclic in nature. Facts that were validated centuries, even, just a few years ago, no longer are applicable in our ever-changing world. Research in health education is at best tentative because our work deals with man and all of the different variables that influence his behavior. To keep abreast of man as he interacts with the environment i t appears that research is an indispensible tool which must be refined and realized. CONCLUSION We believe that research is an essential element in the growth of any profession. Health education is no exception. For those involved in
r e s e a r c h w e t r u s t we h a v e a d d e d encouragement. For those interested in pursuing research we hope we have acted as a catalyst in a reinforcing role. For those not involved we invite your participation. Lastly, for the relatively small number who may be of an anti-research bias we welcome your understanding and invite your interest so we may all advance in our professional endeavors. REFERENCES 1. Norton HJ: School health education. J Sch Health 16(1):20-22. 2. Steinhaus AJ: Health education In the U.S. J Sch HeaIth 19(10):292-295. 3. Buchler J (ed): Phllosophical Writings of Pierce. New York, Dover, 1955.
CALL FOR RESEARCH PAPERS FOR 1975 ANNUAL MEETING The Research Council of the American School Health Association invites papers for consideration by a review committee for presentation at the 49th Annual Convention, October 9-12, 1975, in Denver. The research must be relevant to some aspect of the school health program and must be now completed or expected to be completed before the date of the annual meeting. A l l applications must be received no later than May 1, 1975. Each must state the name of the author(s), his institutional affiliation, address, and the title of the paper as i t is to be listed in the program. A minimum of two copies of a 500-word abstract of the paper should be included. The abstract should state the purpose of the investigation; establish its significance to health education; describe the procedures which were employed; and summarize the principal findings or conclusions. I f audiovisual equipment is essential to the presentation, the type of equipment should be stipulated at this time. The paper must be presented by the investigator or co-investigator and must not have been previously presented or published elsewhere. I t should be understood that i f the paper is selected, THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH w i l l have first option in considering its publication. A l l applicants w i l l be notified of their paper’s acceptance or nonacceptance. Send abstracts and other necessary information by May 1, 1975, to the Research Council Program Chairman, William Harris, Ed.D., Professor of Health Education, University of Texas, E l Paso, Texas 79968. 32
J A N U A R Y 1975 VOLUME XLV NO. 1
Donald Gross, M.A. is Research Assistant, Department of Health and Safety Educatlon, University of Illinois, Urbane-Champaign. Thomas W . ORourke, Ph.D., M.P.H. is Associate Professor, Director of the Health Education Research Laboratory, Department of Health and Safety Education, Unlversity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
The evolution of health education as a separate and distinct discipline has been a slow and yet continuous process. The early pioneers were faced with the difficulties of transforming rather ambiguous and nebulous concepts into working concepts and models. Over a quarter of a century ago, Norton indicated that “the term ‘health education’ is now glibly and commonly used with many contrasting and sometimes meaningless interpretations. There is considerable lack of clarity as to i t s meaning and purpose.” Steinhaus reiterating that same thought stated, “in the high school the responsibility for health education is often poorly defined. I n many places, teachers of physical activities, home economics, natural science, and social studies, and the school nurse work in disjointed fashion.” The early pioneers strove to have health education develop its own fundamental concepts, philosophies, and models so as to gain acceptance in the academic world. However, disciplines which have merely attempted to justify their existence in the academic world have rarely become dynamic forces. Witness the slow growth of sociology and clinical psychology prior to their extensive involvement in the research dimension. While the health education field has not obtained complete unanimity in terms of future direction, professional health educators must look beyond the promotional aspects of our field. The time is ripe for health educators to move in the direction of basic and applied research and the development of research methodology particularly appropriate to the health educator profession. 30
BENEFITS OF RESEARCH Pierce stated that there are four general ways of knowing or, as he put it, of fixing belief. The first is the method of tenacity. Here the truth is known simply because someone knows i t to be true. The second is the method of authority. Persons believe what has been stated simply because of who has made the statement. This is the method of established belief. The third is the a priori method. The method is founded on the fundamental belief that something is true because i t is self-evident to man; “it just stands to reason.” The fourth method is the method of science. Pierce mentions: To satisfy our doubts .therefore, i t is necessary that a method should be found by which our beliefs may be determined by nothing human, but by some external permanency-by something upon which our thinking has no effect The method must be such that the ultimate conclusion of every man shall be the same. We then, propose the ideal that i f health education is to move ahead i t must begin to indulge i n scientific research to a greater extent than heretofore known. I n order to justify a greater committment to research, the profession needs to be aware of the rewards that i t makes possible. The fruits of research endeavors benefit: (1) those persons involved in the research; both faculty and professional students alike, (2) the institution where the research is being carried on; and most importantly, (3) the health education profession itself. The faculty members and students who are involved in scientific research enhance their own professional growth and development. First, they become a part of the profession that w i l l enable health education to move ahead in the years to come. Second, they are involved i n the development and a p p l i c a t i o n of research methodologies that w i l l provide information to the rest of the profession. Finally, they will JANUARY 1975 VOLUME X L V NO. 1
experience self-growth by sharing ideas, thoughts, and contact with others in and outside of the profession. The institution itself gains from scientific research. I t gains i n terms of prestige and status, financial resources, faculty and students, and other tangible and intangible goods and services. Finally, the health education profession itself gains from scientific research. In a profession such as ours, information, concepts, ideologies and so forth are in a constant state of change. Our profession is a dynamic one; to keep pace with it, there is a growing need for scientific research to take place, in both a basic and applied direction. If we fail to capitalize on this opportunity, the profession w i l l surely fail to develop from its embryonic stage. With the basic thrust presented we would like to direct comment to several guiding principles regarding the conducting of research. These principles reflect several important observations made over the past several years. Most are self evident; others are certainly subject to debate. (We hope they w i l l be debated.) 1. Everyone can and should do research. Research does not need to be either complex in design nor heavily ladened with statistical analysis. Research needs to become a learning experience that not only challenges the individual but promotes further searching to the complex answers that permeate our discipline. The only necessary requirements for research to be completed is the willingness to try your hand at it; the desire to see a task accomplished; and some basic knowledge in the topic area being researched. 2. Research is not the task of a few but the responsibility of many. Too often disciplines grow only on the research of a few; health education over the years has relied heavily on "name" persons to provide the rest of the p r o f e s s i o n with their i n f i n i t e wisdom. Unquestionably, they have provided needed leadership and direction. However, when only a few provide research, the discipline becomes saturated with research that also is closely allied with their own personal interests. I n order to insure more representation in research, i t should be the responsibility of all of us to provide the field with research. When numbers become involved, controversy is almost certainly to ensue. This controversy, in turn, promotes a further searching for the truth, which in the long run helps promote health education to others. THE JOURNAL
OF SCHOOL HEALTH
Unlike the journals in many other areas ours are relatively u ncontroversial. 3. Not only should we promote research within our profession, but we need to solicit help from professionals i n other d i s c i p l i n e s . This interdisciplinary approach is the key to our future; we must grasp its significance now if health education is to survive and flourish in the future. 4. Research should be an integral and continuing part of health education. Research needs to be thought of in terms of its place within the broad definition of health education. A l l too often health education is thought of as a quasi-discipline. However, research cannot be divorced from health education. Research provides the basis of knowledge and skills that have long been associated as the components of health education. Research also provides a solid foundation for our teaching endeavors. 5. Research need not be sophisticated. Research always seems to be thought of in terms of complex designs and sophisticated machinery spewing out computer cards in hundreths of a second. Nothing need be further from the truth than the above mentioned myth. Whether research be basic or applied, the basic tools needed remain the same: a willingness to put some time and effort into conducting the research. We believe that most who use the "tight money" argument for not being able to engage in research are deceiving no on0 but themselves. 6. Research need not require large financial resources. In terms of dollars and cents, research useful to the promotion of health education need not be very costly. Recently, a large midwestern university completed an in depth research project in the area of sex education for a large metropolitan area. The total expenditure was less than three hundred dollars. The authors believe that most research projects can be accomplished at a total expenditure of less than two hundred dollars. Admittedly, others require larger sums. 7. Research is not conclusive - research is tentative. Today man is inundated with more written and verbal communication than in any other historical period since the beginning of time. Each new discovery or innovation also brings man's constant searching for newer discoveries and newer innovations. So i t is with research. Research is but the beginning; not the end. I t is the means; not the end. Each new fact that research brings out should cause all of us to 31
continue asking questions - to challenge ourselves and our profession - so that research becomes cyclic in nature. Facts that were validated centuries, even, just a few years ago, no longer are applicable in our ever-changing world. Research in health education is at best tentative because our work deals with man and all of the different variables that influence his behavior. To keep abreast of man as he interacts with the environment i t appears that research is an indispensible tool which must be refined and realized. CONCLUSION We believe that research is an essential element in the growth of any profession. Health education is no exception. For those involved in
r e s e a r c h w e t r u s t we h a v e a d d e d encouragement. For those interested in pursuing research we hope we have acted as a catalyst in a reinforcing role. For those not involved we invite your participation. Lastly, for the relatively small number who may be of an anti-research bias we welcome your understanding and invite your interest so we may all advance in our professional endeavors. REFERENCES 1. Norton HJ: School health education. J Sch Health 16(1):20-22. 2. Steinhaus AJ: Health education In the U.S. J Sch HeaIth 19(10):292-295. 3. Buchler J (ed): Phllosophical Writings of Pierce. New York, Dover, 1955.
CALL FOR RESEARCH PAPERS FOR 1975 ANNUAL MEETING The Research Council of the American School Health Association invites papers for consideration by a review committee for presentation at the 49th Annual Convention, October 9-12, 1975, in Denver. The research must be relevant to some aspect of the school health program and must be now completed or expected to be completed before the date of the annual meeting. A l l applications must be received no later than May 1, 1975. Each must state the name of the author(s), his institutional affiliation, address, and the title of the paper as i t is to be listed in the program. A minimum of two copies of a 500-word abstract of the paper should be included. The abstract should state the purpose of the investigation; establish its significance to health education; describe the procedures which were employed; and summarize the principal findings or conclusions. I f audiovisual equipment is essential to the presentation, the type of equipment should be stipulated at this time. The paper must be presented by the investigator or co-investigator and must not have been previously presented or published elsewhere. I t should be understood that i f the paper is selected, THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH w i l l have first option in considering its publication. A l l applicants w i l l be notified of their paper’s acceptance or nonacceptance. Send abstracts and other necessary information by May 1, 1975, to the Research Council Program Chairman, William Harris, Ed.D., Professor of Health Education, University of Texas, E l Paso, Texas 79968. 32
J A N U A R Y 1975 VOLUME XLV NO. 1
