European Journal of Sport Science
ISSN: 1746-1391 (Print) 1536-7290 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tejs20
Resiliency as a factor protecting youths from risky behaviour: Moderating effects of gender and sport Mariusz Lipowski, Małgorzata Lipowska, Magdalena Jochimek & Daniel Krokosz To cite this article: Mariusz Lipowski, Małgorzata Lipowska, Magdalena Jochimek & Daniel Krokosz (2015): Resiliency as a factor protecting youths from risky behaviour: Moderating effects of gender and sport, European Journal of Sport Science, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2015.1024755 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2015.1024755
Published online: 26 Mar 2015.
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Date: 14 September 2015, At: 15:25
European Journal of Sport Science, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2015.1024755
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Resiliency as a factor protecting youths from risky behaviour: Moderating effects of gender and sport
MARIUSZ LIPOWSKI1, MAŁGORZATA LIPOWSKA2, MAGDALENA JOCHIMEK1, & DANIEL KROKOSZ1 Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 15:25 14 September 2015
1
Department of Health Psychology, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, Gdansk, Poland, 2Institute of Psychology, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
Abstract We hypothesised that resiliency may protect adolescents against risky behaviours, and that both the practicing of sports, and gender are moderating variables in relationships between resiliency and risky behaviours. The study included 18-year-old pupils from a selection of secondary schools (n = 556). A total of 188 individuals practiced competitive sports and the remaining 368 participants were non-athletes. The participants were examined with the Resiliency Assessment Scale for Children and Adolescents (SPP-18) and with a survey containing questions and statements related to high-risk “experiments with adulthood”. Adolescent athletes showed higher levels of resiliency than their peers. The power of the “Determination and Persistence in Action” effect on “Alcohol” scale differed significantly between male athletes and male non-athletes. Only in the athletes groups were higher scores on this scale reflected by lower values on the “Drugs” scale. Moreover, it is possible to observe differences in undertaking risky behaviour between male and female athletes. The analysis of risky sexual behaviour suggests that sport is a risk factor for men, and a protective factor for women. These data suggest that consistent prophylactic and psycho-educative activities, with a special attention to differences between genders, should be provided to all the adolescents, irrespective of their sport performance levels. Keywords: Prevention, physical activity, adolescence, drugs, alcohol drinking, high-risk sex
Introduction Risk-taking in adolescence Adolescence is a period of dynamic changes in a physical, mental and social sphere of a young human being, corresponding to a transition from childhood to adulthood. Both early and late adolescence are times of the first independent choices, internalisation of social norms and defining the hierarchy of values. These achievements constitute the basis for execution of tasks associated with further developmental periods, influencing and inevitably modulating the course of adulthood (Piotrowski, Brzezińska, & Pietrzak, 2013). Adolescent experiments with new roles may be both a chance and a threat. Adolescence constitutes a period of particular activity aimed at satisfying the natural need for finding new experiences (Dahl, 2004); this is frequently associated with undertaking
health-risk activities. High prevalence of reckless behaviours among adolescents may be associated with ongoing developmental processes of their frontal cortex, and a consequential slowdown in mechanisms controlling emotions and rational thinking. As a result, a response to stimulation originates from a lower level of processing, namely from the limbic system (Blakemore, 2012). Consequently, adolescents are driven by uncontrolled emotions and engage in risky behaviours that may threaten their life and health, and have unfavourable effects on their future. Gender is a factor that differentiates the types of activities young people engage in, as well as their consequences. Boys engage in a greater number of risky behaviours with increased frequency, especially behaviours such as fighting, alcohol and cannabis use and risky sexual behaviours (Schuster, Mermelstein, & Wakschlag, 2013; Veselska et al., 2009).
Correspondence: Mariusz Lipowski, Department of Health Psychology, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, Kazimierza Gorskiego 1, 80-336 Gdansk, Poland. E-mail: [email protected] © 2015 European College of Sport Science
Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 15:25 14 September 2015
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Potential negative consequences of risky behaviours include mental problems, addiction, unplanned pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases and violence (Turchik, Garske, Probst, & Irvin, 2010). Moreover, involvement in one risky behaviour increases the probability of undertaking other, frequently even more destructive, activities (Sullivan, Childs, & O’Connell, 2010). The above-mentioned risks will likely escalate, leading to an exacerbation of antisocial behaviours. Previous studies (Makarowski, Lipowski, Marszałł, & Czarnowski, 2009) showed that it is possible to switch from asocial to socially accepted regulatory mechanisms determining demand for stimulation. However, the modulatory activities need to be adjusted for individual predispositions of the youth, e.g. their temperamental and personality characteristics, as well as for environmental factors, e.g. parental attitudes and norms accepted by their peers (Ogińska-Bulik & Juczyński, 2011; Wang et al., 2014). Protective factors against risky behaviour – role of resiliency Undoubtedly, social support plays a vital role in difficult life situations (Ogińska-Bulik, 2013). Previous studies identified the support from important adults as a factor protecting the youth against involvement in risky behaviours. The influence of social- and family-related protective factors is reflected by an increased repertoire of personal resources possessed by adolescents, and helps them cope with difficult situations. The above-mentioned process of positive adaptation to stressful conditions is referred to as resilience (Luthar, 2006). It has been noted that girls are more likely than boys to undergo the process of resilience development. This is because, among other things, they are less susceptible to risk factors (Ogińska-Bulik & Kobylarczyk, 2015). Also, the role of individual factors, which act as a buffer in difficult situations, needs to be emphasised. These factors include personality traits and relatively stable personal resources of an individual, being referred to as resiliency. These resources are defined as central personality traits according to the proposed ego-control (i.e. a continuum between insufficient and too tight control) and ego-resiliency (i.e. a continuum between elastically adjusted degree of control and ego-brittle associated with the sense of anxiety and lack of energy) attitudes. Therefore, they constitute the basis for understanding one’s motivation, emotions and behaviour (Block, 2002). A resilient individual is well aware of experienced emotions, does not negate their presence and responds adequately to a given situation. Furthermore, such a person experiences positive emotions that help him/her in finding a meaning in unfavourable conditions, is fully engaged
in undertaken activities, and is open to experiences (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). Since high levels of resiliency enable optimal adjustment to a given situation and perceiving it as a challenge, some prophylactic programmes are aimed at the development and strengthening of this personality trait (Gillham, Brunwasser, & Freres, 2008).
Free time, resiliency and physical activity The analysis of spare time activities undertaken by adolescents seems vital for a synthesis of factors determining their involvement in risky behaviours. Being away from home (“hanging on the street”) for more than three hours daily proved to be associated with increased risk of substance abuse and crime commitment. Therefore, any extracurricular forms of cultural education may constitute a valuable alternative for the youth, as they stimulate development of personal resources and establishing positive relationship between the young people, art and community (Ersing, 2009). The resiliency can be also strengthened by active involvement in sports or physical activity (PA; Bell & Suggs, 1998). However, the results of previous studies analysing a relationship between PA and prevention of risky behaviours are inconclusive. On the one hand, the fact that regular involvement in sports does not completely eliminate the risk of asocial and risky behaviours, e.g. substance abuse, violence, cigarette smoking, tobacco use and unprotected sex (Vuori et al., 2012), should be a concern. On the other hand, the positive effect that practicing sports exerts on the self-esteem of the youth should be highlighted; the latter effect results from a more positive self-attitude to one’s physical sphere (image and sense of competency; Bowker, 2006). Moreover, high levels of PA were shown to be associated with lower levels of depressiveness among the youth. Therefore, the fact that these are the youth, rather than school children, who spend more time in a sedentary position, is alarming (Bergier, Kapka-Skrzypczak, Biliński, Paprzycki, & Wojtyła, 2012). Consequently, the role of physical education of children and adolescents should be emphasised, as the PA-related habits acquired at the younger age constitute a predictor of the latter in the adulthood (Green, 2012).
Objectives Two hypotheses follow from the theoretical background, which assume that: (1) Mental resilience is a protective factor for adolescents, acting against engaging in risky behaviour,
Resiliency and risky behaviours in youth (2) Gender and engaging in sport moderate the influence of mental resilience on risky behaviours.
Methods
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Participants The study included 556 pupils from the secondary schools in Three-City (Gdansk–Sopot–Gdynia, Poland), among them 278 females and 278 males. Subject sampling was purposive: all the participants were about 18 years old (M = 18.04, SD = 0.19 years), i.e. at the threshold of adulthood. Almost all (93%) of the students of every sport-orientated secondary schools took part in the study. Students of 10% of secondary schools, with no sport-oriented profiles, from the same region were used as a control group. These schools were randomly selected from among 39 public schools. A total of 188 individuals practiced competitive sports and the remaining 368 participants were non-athletes. Some of the nonathletes declared sporadic involvement in PA; the number of various PA forms practiced by these participants was determined, as a variable characterising their PA level. Procedure Participation in the current study was anonymous. Subjects were asked to complete a “pen-and-paper” task of filling-in the Resiliency Assessment Scale for Children and Adolescents (SPP-18), Experiments with Adulthood, during their advisory class. Instrumentation Resiliency Assessment Scale for Children and Adolescents (SPP-18) by Ogińska-Bulik and Juczyński (2011) allows to distinguish between four dimensions: (1) “Optimistic Life Attitude and Energy”, (2) “Determination and Persistence in Action”, (3) “Sense of Humor and Openness to New Experiences”, and (4) “Personal Competence and Tolerance of Negative Affect”. The reliability of the instrument, determined by its authors on the basis of Cronbach’s alpha, was .82 for the whole scale, and between .76 and .87 for its four subscales. Experiments with the Adulthood, a questionnaire developed by the author, determines the type and frequency of risky behaviours one may engage in. Competent referees (four psychologists, three pedagogists and three addiction therapists) selected the items that are traditionally ascribed to adulthood from a list of risky behaviours proposed by many authors (e.g. Schuster et al., 2013). Eventually, the survey included 22 questions and statements that
3
were grouped into the four risk scales: “Nicotine” (occasional cigarette smoking – 0.5 point, once a week – 1 point; every day – 2 points; e-cigarette once a week – 0.75 points; e-cigarette every day – 1.5 points; declared nicotine addiction – 3 points), “Alcohol” (alcohol use – 1 point; reporting being drunk once before – 1 point; reporting being drunk 2 or 3 times before – 1.5 points; reporting being drunk 4 or 5 times before – 3 points), “Drugs” (drug use – 2 points; use of: marijuana – 1 point; hashish – 2 points; amphetamine – 3 points; cocaine – 5 points; LSD – 3 points; designer drugs – 3 points; heroin – 6 points), and “Risky Sexual Behaviour” (sexual initiation – 2 points; risky sex – 2.5 points; having sex under the influence of psychoactive substances – 5 points). The point scale was prepared by assessors who took part in the development of the questionnaire. The global score (“Amount of Risky Behaviours”), being a sum of the scores of the four above-mentioned risk scales, amounted up to 45 points. The research project was granted a positive opinion issued by Ethic Board for Research Projects of the Institute of Psychology of University of Gdansk in Poland. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was conducted with Statistica 10 software [multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), difference between two proportions, post hoc analysis (Tukey’s Test Unequal N HSD), general linear models, r-Pearson correlation, multiple regression and indicator variables in regression].
Results Engagement in risky behaviours, taking into consideration gender and participation in sports First, we used the analysis of variance to evaluate the frequency of engaging in risky behaviours with regard to gender and sport. MANOVA (2: gender × 2: sport) revealed the significant main effect of gender on all the analysed risky behaviour scores. Female athletes scored lower (post-hoc analysis) on the “Alcohol” scale than men, who both practiced (p = .002) and did not practice sports (p = .009). Also, non-athletic women scored lower than both groups of men (p = .032 and p = .010, accordingly). Analogous differences were observed on the “Drugs” scale: female athletes scored lower than men, who both practiced (p = .049) and did not practice sports (p = .028). Again, non-athletic women scored lower than both groups of men (p = .005 and p = .032, accordingly). Female athletes scored lower on the “Risky Sexual Behaviour” scale than male athletes (p < .001) and
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male non-athletes (p = .020). No differences were observed between female non-athletes and male non-athletes. However, female non-athletes scored lower than male athletes (p = .001) – therefore we can speak of an interaction effect: only women who did not train in sports engage in risky behaviours with a similar profile to men. It is an interesting observation, that only on the “Nicotine” scale did male non-athletes negatively differ from all of the other groups: male athletes (p = .011), female athletes (p = .005), and female non-athletes (p = .014). Also, the main effect for involvement in competitive sports was only observed on this scale. The above-mentioned relationships, stratified according to the study groups, are presented in Figure 1. Analysis of the frequency of engagement in risky behaviours of subjects from different groups revealed that male non-athletes had the highest percentage of nicotine addiction, which was significantly higher than in the male athlete group (24.34% vs. 9.52%, p = .001). Although nicotine addiction was declared by only 6.45% of female athletes, this fraction did not prove to be significantly lower than in female non-athletes (12.96%). The vast majority of the respondents (92.63%) declared that they had drunk alcohol at least once in their lives; the distribution of responses to this question did not differ significantly, either between males and females, or between athletes and non-athletes. The data on the frequency of becoming drunk are worth highlighting; male athletes declared becoming drunk more than 4 times in a lifetime significantly more often than female athletes (p = .002). Illicit drug use was declared by 14.52% of female athletes and by as many as 38.89% of male athletes (p < .001). Although illicit drug use was declared by every fourth female non-athlete, this value did
not differ significantly when compared to female athletes. While athletes and non-athletes did not differ with regard to the type of psychoactive substances used, statistically significant differences in this matter were documented between male and female respondents. The use of marijuana was declared by up to 35.61% of males; this fraction turned out to be significantly higher than the percentage of marijuana users among females (19.06%, p < .001). A similar situation was observed in the case of hashish: the use of this narcotic was declared by 11.15% of males but only 2.16% of females (p < .001). Also, the frequency of designer drug use followed a similar pattern, as males used these substances significantly more often than females (6.83% vs. 2.52%, p = .016). The analysis of sexual behaviours showed that the percentage of male athletes who had undergone sexual initiation was significantly higher than the respective fraction of female athletes (59.84% vs. 30.65%, p < .001). Interestingly, female athletes were the only group in which none of the participants declared using psychoactive substances prior to or during sexual intercourse. Moreover, female athletes declared having unprotected sex significantly less often than male athletes (8.06% vs. 24.40%, p = .007).
Resilience levels of youth The overall levels of mental resilience of the youth participating in this study were determined to be 7.06 ± 2.22 (sten score), which is similar to the average of the general population. They were slightly higher among athletes (7.66 ± 1.91) than nonathletes (6.76 ± 3.31, t = 4.63, p < .001). MANOVA (2: gender × 2: sport) revealed significant intergroup
Figure 1. Scores of risky behaviour scales, stratified according to the study group.
Resiliency and risky behaviours in youth
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Table I. Differences in undertaking risky behaviours and in resiliency dimensions with respect to gender and sport (MANOVA) Gender F (p) Risky behaviours
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Resiliency dimensions
Nicotine Alcohol Drugs Risky Sexual Behavior Optimistic Life Attitude… Determination… Sense of Humor… Personal Competence…
8.67 25.86 20.12 27.49 1.30 3.30 0.10 6.80
differences in all the four resiliency dimensions (Table I). The main effect of sport was documented in the case of “Optimistic Life Attitude and Energy”, “Determination and Persistence in Action” and “Sense of Humor and Openness to New Experiences” scales; the scores of athletes proved to be significantly higher than those of non-athletes (Figure 2). In turn, the “Personal Competence and Tolerance of Negative Affect” scores turned out to be significantly modulated by either the gender or the involvement in competitive sports; the scores of males were significantly higher than those of females and athletes scored significantly higher than nonathletes. Resiliency and risky behaviours In order to verify hypothesis 1, we analysed the power of relationships between the resiliency and risky behaviour scores (Table II). Table II suggests that “Optimistic Life Attitude and Energy” does not determine risky behaviours. “Determination and Persistence in Action” can be considered a protective factor in terms of substance use (nicotine, alcohol and recreational drugs). Conversely, higher levels of “Sense of Humor and Openness to New Experiences” and “Personal
Figure 2. Levels of resiliency, stratified according to the study groups.
(.003) (
ISSN: 1746-1391 (Print) 1536-7290 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tejs20
Resiliency as a factor protecting youths from risky behaviour: Moderating effects of gender and sport Mariusz Lipowski, Małgorzata Lipowska, Magdalena Jochimek & Daniel Krokosz To cite this article: Mariusz Lipowski, Małgorzata Lipowska, Magdalena Jochimek & Daniel Krokosz (2015): Resiliency as a factor protecting youths from risky behaviour: Moderating effects of gender and sport, European Journal of Sport Science, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2015.1024755 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2015.1024755
Published online: 26 Mar 2015.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 63
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tejs20 Download by: [University of Manitoba Libraries]
Date: 14 September 2015, At: 15:25
European Journal of Sport Science, 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2015.1024755
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Resiliency as a factor protecting youths from risky behaviour: Moderating effects of gender and sport
MARIUSZ LIPOWSKI1, MAŁGORZATA LIPOWSKA2, MAGDALENA JOCHIMEK1, & DANIEL KROKOSZ1 Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 15:25 14 September 2015
1
Department of Health Psychology, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, Gdansk, Poland, 2Institute of Psychology, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
Abstract We hypothesised that resiliency may protect adolescents against risky behaviours, and that both the practicing of sports, and gender are moderating variables in relationships between resiliency and risky behaviours. The study included 18-year-old pupils from a selection of secondary schools (n = 556). A total of 188 individuals practiced competitive sports and the remaining 368 participants were non-athletes. The participants were examined with the Resiliency Assessment Scale for Children and Adolescents (SPP-18) and with a survey containing questions and statements related to high-risk “experiments with adulthood”. Adolescent athletes showed higher levels of resiliency than their peers. The power of the “Determination and Persistence in Action” effect on “Alcohol” scale differed significantly between male athletes and male non-athletes. Only in the athletes groups were higher scores on this scale reflected by lower values on the “Drugs” scale. Moreover, it is possible to observe differences in undertaking risky behaviour between male and female athletes. The analysis of risky sexual behaviour suggests that sport is a risk factor for men, and a protective factor for women. These data suggest that consistent prophylactic and psycho-educative activities, with a special attention to differences between genders, should be provided to all the adolescents, irrespective of their sport performance levels. Keywords: Prevention, physical activity, adolescence, drugs, alcohol drinking, high-risk sex
Introduction Risk-taking in adolescence Adolescence is a period of dynamic changes in a physical, mental and social sphere of a young human being, corresponding to a transition from childhood to adulthood. Both early and late adolescence are times of the first independent choices, internalisation of social norms and defining the hierarchy of values. These achievements constitute the basis for execution of tasks associated with further developmental periods, influencing and inevitably modulating the course of adulthood (Piotrowski, Brzezińska, & Pietrzak, 2013). Adolescent experiments with new roles may be both a chance and a threat. Adolescence constitutes a period of particular activity aimed at satisfying the natural need for finding new experiences (Dahl, 2004); this is frequently associated with undertaking
health-risk activities. High prevalence of reckless behaviours among adolescents may be associated with ongoing developmental processes of their frontal cortex, and a consequential slowdown in mechanisms controlling emotions and rational thinking. As a result, a response to stimulation originates from a lower level of processing, namely from the limbic system (Blakemore, 2012). Consequently, adolescents are driven by uncontrolled emotions and engage in risky behaviours that may threaten their life and health, and have unfavourable effects on their future. Gender is a factor that differentiates the types of activities young people engage in, as well as their consequences. Boys engage in a greater number of risky behaviours with increased frequency, especially behaviours such as fighting, alcohol and cannabis use and risky sexual behaviours (Schuster, Mermelstein, & Wakschlag, 2013; Veselska et al., 2009).
Correspondence: Mariusz Lipowski, Department of Health Psychology, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, Kazimierza Gorskiego 1, 80-336 Gdansk, Poland. E-mail: [email protected] © 2015 European College of Sport Science
Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 15:25 14 September 2015
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M. Lipowski et al.
Potential negative consequences of risky behaviours include mental problems, addiction, unplanned pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases and violence (Turchik, Garske, Probst, & Irvin, 2010). Moreover, involvement in one risky behaviour increases the probability of undertaking other, frequently even more destructive, activities (Sullivan, Childs, & O’Connell, 2010). The above-mentioned risks will likely escalate, leading to an exacerbation of antisocial behaviours. Previous studies (Makarowski, Lipowski, Marszałł, & Czarnowski, 2009) showed that it is possible to switch from asocial to socially accepted regulatory mechanisms determining demand for stimulation. However, the modulatory activities need to be adjusted for individual predispositions of the youth, e.g. their temperamental and personality characteristics, as well as for environmental factors, e.g. parental attitudes and norms accepted by their peers (Ogińska-Bulik & Juczyński, 2011; Wang et al., 2014). Protective factors against risky behaviour – role of resiliency Undoubtedly, social support plays a vital role in difficult life situations (Ogińska-Bulik, 2013). Previous studies identified the support from important adults as a factor protecting the youth against involvement in risky behaviours. The influence of social- and family-related protective factors is reflected by an increased repertoire of personal resources possessed by adolescents, and helps them cope with difficult situations. The above-mentioned process of positive adaptation to stressful conditions is referred to as resilience (Luthar, 2006). It has been noted that girls are more likely than boys to undergo the process of resilience development. This is because, among other things, they are less susceptible to risk factors (Ogińska-Bulik & Kobylarczyk, 2015). Also, the role of individual factors, which act as a buffer in difficult situations, needs to be emphasised. These factors include personality traits and relatively stable personal resources of an individual, being referred to as resiliency. These resources are defined as central personality traits according to the proposed ego-control (i.e. a continuum between insufficient and too tight control) and ego-resiliency (i.e. a continuum between elastically adjusted degree of control and ego-brittle associated with the sense of anxiety and lack of energy) attitudes. Therefore, they constitute the basis for understanding one’s motivation, emotions and behaviour (Block, 2002). A resilient individual is well aware of experienced emotions, does not negate their presence and responds adequately to a given situation. Furthermore, such a person experiences positive emotions that help him/her in finding a meaning in unfavourable conditions, is fully engaged
in undertaken activities, and is open to experiences (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). Since high levels of resiliency enable optimal adjustment to a given situation and perceiving it as a challenge, some prophylactic programmes are aimed at the development and strengthening of this personality trait (Gillham, Brunwasser, & Freres, 2008).
Free time, resiliency and physical activity The analysis of spare time activities undertaken by adolescents seems vital for a synthesis of factors determining their involvement in risky behaviours. Being away from home (“hanging on the street”) for more than three hours daily proved to be associated with increased risk of substance abuse and crime commitment. Therefore, any extracurricular forms of cultural education may constitute a valuable alternative for the youth, as they stimulate development of personal resources and establishing positive relationship between the young people, art and community (Ersing, 2009). The resiliency can be also strengthened by active involvement in sports or physical activity (PA; Bell & Suggs, 1998). However, the results of previous studies analysing a relationship between PA and prevention of risky behaviours are inconclusive. On the one hand, the fact that regular involvement in sports does not completely eliminate the risk of asocial and risky behaviours, e.g. substance abuse, violence, cigarette smoking, tobacco use and unprotected sex (Vuori et al., 2012), should be a concern. On the other hand, the positive effect that practicing sports exerts on the self-esteem of the youth should be highlighted; the latter effect results from a more positive self-attitude to one’s physical sphere (image and sense of competency; Bowker, 2006). Moreover, high levels of PA were shown to be associated with lower levels of depressiveness among the youth. Therefore, the fact that these are the youth, rather than school children, who spend more time in a sedentary position, is alarming (Bergier, Kapka-Skrzypczak, Biliński, Paprzycki, & Wojtyła, 2012). Consequently, the role of physical education of children and adolescents should be emphasised, as the PA-related habits acquired at the younger age constitute a predictor of the latter in the adulthood (Green, 2012).
Objectives Two hypotheses follow from the theoretical background, which assume that: (1) Mental resilience is a protective factor for adolescents, acting against engaging in risky behaviour,
Resiliency and risky behaviours in youth (2) Gender and engaging in sport moderate the influence of mental resilience on risky behaviours.
Methods
Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 15:25 14 September 2015
Participants The study included 556 pupils from the secondary schools in Three-City (Gdansk–Sopot–Gdynia, Poland), among them 278 females and 278 males. Subject sampling was purposive: all the participants were about 18 years old (M = 18.04, SD = 0.19 years), i.e. at the threshold of adulthood. Almost all (93%) of the students of every sport-orientated secondary schools took part in the study. Students of 10% of secondary schools, with no sport-oriented profiles, from the same region were used as a control group. These schools were randomly selected from among 39 public schools. A total of 188 individuals practiced competitive sports and the remaining 368 participants were non-athletes. Some of the nonathletes declared sporadic involvement in PA; the number of various PA forms practiced by these participants was determined, as a variable characterising their PA level. Procedure Participation in the current study was anonymous. Subjects were asked to complete a “pen-and-paper” task of filling-in the Resiliency Assessment Scale for Children and Adolescents (SPP-18), Experiments with Adulthood, during their advisory class. Instrumentation Resiliency Assessment Scale for Children and Adolescents (SPP-18) by Ogińska-Bulik and Juczyński (2011) allows to distinguish between four dimensions: (1) “Optimistic Life Attitude and Energy”, (2) “Determination and Persistence in Action”, (3) “Sense of Humor and Openness to New Experiences”, and (4) “Personal Competence and Tolerance of Negative Affect”. The reliability of the instrument, determined by its authors on the basis of Cronbach’s alpha, was .82 for the whole scale, and between .76 and .87 for its four subscales. Experiments with the Adulthood, a questionnaire developed by the author, determines the type and frequency of risky behaviours one may engage in. Competent referees (four psychologists, three pedagogists and three addiction therapists) selected the items that are traditionally ascribed to adulthood from a list of risky behaviours proposed by many authors (e.g. Schuster et al., 2013). Eventually, the survey included 22 questions and statements that
3
were grouped into the four risk scales: “Nicotine” (occasional cigarette smoking – 0.5 point, once a week – 1 point; every day – 2 points; e-cigarette once a week – 0.75 points; e-cigarette every day – 1.5 points; declared nicotine addiction – 3 points), “Alcohol” (alcohol use – 1 point; reporting being drunk once before – 1 point; reporting being drunk 2 or 3 times before – 1.5 points; reporting being drunk 4 or 5 times before – 3 points), “Drugs” (drug use – 2 points; use of: marijuana – 1 point; hashish – 2 points; amphetamine – 3 points; cocaine – 5 points; LSD – 3 points; designer drugs – 3 points; heroin – 6 points), and “Risky Sexual Behaviour” (sexual initiation – 2 points; risky sex – 2.5 points; having sex under the influence of psychoactive substances – 5 points). The point scale was prepared by assessors who took part in the development of the questionnaire. The global score (“Amount of Risky Behaviours”), being a sum of the scores of the four above-mentioned risk scales, amounted up to 45 points. The research project was granted a positive opinion issued by Ethic Board for Research Projects of the Institute of Psychology of University of Gdansk in Poland. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was conducted with Statistica 10 software [multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), difference between two proportions, post hoc analysis (Tukey’s Test Unequal N HSD), general linear models, r-Pearson correlation, multiple regression and indicator variables in regression].
Results Engagement in risky behaviours, taking into consideration gender and participation in sports First, we used the analysis of variance to evaluate the frequency of engaging in risky behaviours with regard to gender and sport. MANOVA (2: gender × 2: sport) revealed the significant main effect of gender on all the analysed risky behaviour scores. Female athletes scored lower (post-hoc analysis) on the “Alcohol” scale than men, who both practiced (p = .002) and did not practice sports (p = .009). Also, non-athletic women scored lower than both groups of men (p = .032 and p = .010, accordingly). Analogous differences were observed on the “Drugs” scale: female athletes scored lower than men, who both practiced (p = .049) and did not practice sports (p = .028). Again, non-athletic women scored lower than both groups of men (p = .005 and p = .032, accordingly). Female athletes scored lower on the “Risky Sexual Behaviour” scale than male athletes (p < .001) and
Downloaded by [University of Manitoba Libraries] at 15:25 14 September 2015
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M. Lipowski et al.
male non-athletes (p = .020). No differences were observed between female non-athletes and male non-athletes. However, female non-athletes scored lower than male athletes (p = .001) – therefore we can speak of an interaction effect: only women who did not train in sports engage in risky behaviours with a similar profile to men. It is an interesting observation, that only on the “Nicotine” scale did male non-athletes negatively differ from all of the other groups: male athletes (p = .011), female athletes (p = .005), and female non-athletes (p = .014). Also, the main effect for involvement in competitive sports was only observed on this scale. The above-mentioned relationships, stratified according to the study groups, are presented in Figure 1. Analysis of the frequency of engagement in risky behaviours of subjects from different groups revealed that male non-athletes had the highest percentage of nicotine addiction, which was significantly higher than in the male athlete group (24.34% vs. 9.52%, p = .001). Although nicotine addiction was declared by only 6.45% of female athletes, this fraction did not prove to be significantly lower than in female non-athletes (12.96%). The vast majority of the respondents (92.63%) declared that they had drunk alcohol at least once in their lives; the distribution of responses to this question did not differ significantly, either between males and females, or between athletes and non-athletes. The data on the frequency of becoming drunk are worth highlighting; male athletes declared becoming drunk more than 4 times in a lifetime significantly more often than female athletes (p = .002). Illicit drug use was declared by 14.52% of female athletes and by as many as 38.89% of male athletes (p < .001). Although illicit drug use was declared by every fourth female non-athlete, this value did
not differ significantly when compared to female athletes. While athletes and non-athletes did not differ with regard to the type of psychoactive substances used, statistically significant differences in this matter were documented between male and female respondents. The use of marijuana was declared by up to 35.61% of males; this fraction turned out to be significantly higher than the percentage of marijuana users among females (19.06%, p < .001). A similar situation was observed in the case of hashish: the use of this narcotic was declared by 11.15% of males but only 2.16% of females (p < .001). Also, the frequency of designer drug use followed a similar pattern, as males used these substances significantly more often than females (6.83% vs. 2.52%, p = .016). The analysis of sexual behaviours showed that the percentage of male athletes who had undergone sexual initiation was significantly higher than the respective fraction of female athletes (59.84% vs. 30.65%, p < .001). Interestingly, female athletes were the only group in which none of the participants declared using psychoactive substances prior to or during sexual intercourse. Moreover, female athletes declared having unprotected sex significantly less often than male athletes (8.06% vs. 24.40%, p = .007).
Resilience levels of youth The overall levels of mental resilience of the youth participating in this study were determined to be 7.06 ± 2.22 (sten score), which is similar to the average of the general population. They were slightly higher among athletes (7.66 ± 1.91) than nonathletes (6.76 ± 3.31, t = 4.63, p < .001). MANOVA (2: gender × 2: sport) revealed significant intergroup
Figure 1. Scores of risky behaviour scales, stratified according to the study group.
Resiliency and risky behaviours in youth
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Table I. Differences in undertaking risky behaviours and in resiliency dimensions with respect to gender and sport (MANOVA) Gender F (p) Risky behaviours
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Resiliency dimensions
Nicotine Alcohol Drugs Risky Sexual Behavior Optimistic Life Attitude… Determination… Sense of Humor… Personal Competence…
8.67 25.86 20.12 27.49 1.30 3.30 0.10 6.80
differences in all the four resiliency dimensions (Table I). The main effect of sport was documented in the case of “Optimistic Life Attitude and Energy”, “Determination and Persistence in Action” and “Sense of Humor and Openness to New Experiences” scales; the scores of athletes proved to be significantly higher than those of non-athletes (Figure 2). In turn, the “Personal Competence and Tolerance of Negative Affect” scores turned out to be significantly modulated by either the gender or the involvement in competitive sports; the scores of males were significantly higher than those of females and athletes scored significantly higher than nonathletes. Resiliency and risky behaviours In order to verify hypothesis 1, we analysed the power of relationships between the resiliency and risky behaviour scores (Table II). Table II suggests that “Optimistic Life Attitude and Energy” does not determine risky behaviours. “Determination and Persistence in Action” can be considered a protective factor in terms of substance use (nicotine, alcohol and recreational drugs). Conversely, higher levels of “Sense of Humor and Openness to New Experiences” and “Personal
Figure 2. Levels of resiliency, stratified according to the study groups.
(.003) (
